Fina Finall Report Jatropha

EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011

CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

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Introduction

1.1 WHAT IS JATROPHA?

Scientifically known as Jatropha curcas L. Locally known as “tuba-tuba”, “tubing”, “bakod”, “kasla”. A non-edible plant that grows mostly in tropical countries like the Philippines. Drought resistant. Easily be planted and propagated. One of the higher yielding oil crop.

FIG: 1 JATROPHA SEEDS

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Jatropha curcas or psychic nut has become a new source of biodiesel. It is native to central America but is now found in tropical regions of Asia and Africa. Various banks and government agencies offer several incentives for Jatropha cultivation.

Compared to other vegetable oils like palm oil and sunflower oil, which are expensive, non-edible oil from Jatropha curcas is cheaper. The plant can be grown on arid waste lands. It was earlier used for fencing as the seeds are poisonous (contain toxalbumin curcin) to human beings, most animals and birds. The plants can grow on any type of oil.

The Jatropha seeds are black in color ad two centimeters long. If you purchase Jatropha seeds, not all seeds will germinate. Jatropha plants can also grow from cuttings. The Jatropha curcas plant is a small tree or a large shrub which can grow to up to 6 m in height. The rate of growth and yield of seeds depends to a large extent on the rainfall and temperature variations. If the rainfall is plentiful, the plant will start yielding seeds within a year. On an average a plant has a life of about 50 years. The flowers are usually pollinated by moths at night which are attracted by the scent of the plant.

Jatropha curcas is mainly cultivated for extraction of biodiesel and is one of the best sources of biofuels. In studies of various biofuels, one hectare of Jatropha Curcas yields 6-8 MT of seeds . One ton of Jatropha Curcas seeds yields 300kg oil products and 700 kg oil cake . Before Jatropha oil is mixed with diesel, it has transesterified. This results in production of glycerin, and disposal of this glycerin is a problem. In India, Jatropha oil is used for powering farm equipment and diesel generator. Southern Railway also uses the biofuels Jatropha oil.

Jatropha oil is also used for making candles and soap. The seed fruit shell is used as a fuel for burning. The seed cake that remains after extraction of Jatropha can be used as organic fertilizer or for animal feed. The government plans to reduce the import of petro products by selling a mixture of diesel with 5% biodiesel. Jatropha seeds which cost Rs 6 a kg a few years ago cost Rs 26 per kg due to increased demand. (as of September 2006)

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CHAPTER: 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

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HISTORY OF JATROPHA

2.1 WHY JATROPHA?

Jatropha Curcas is resistant to drought and can be planted even in the desert climates, and it thrives on any type of soil, grows almost anywhere; in sandy, gravelly and saline soils.

Jatropha needs minimal input or management. Jatropha has no inspect pests it is not browsed by cattle or sheep. Jatropha Curcas can survive long periods of drought. Jatropha Propagation is easy. Jatropha Curcas growth is rapid; forms a thick live hedge after only a month's planting. Jatropha Curcas starts yielding from the second year onwards and continues for 40 years.

Jatropha Curcas quickly establishes itself and will produce seeds round the year if irrigated. Other than extracting Bio diesel from Jatropha Curcas plant, the leaf and the bark are used for various other industrial and pharmaceutical uses.

Localized production and availability of quality fuel restoration of degraded land over a period of time.

Approximately 31 to 37 % of oil extracted from the Jatropha Curcas seed. It can be used for any diesel engine without modification.

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2.2 JATROPHA CHARACTERISTICS

SPECIAL IDENTIFICATION FEATURES

Jatropha curcas is a large coarse annual shrub or small short lived tree which can grow 3.5 to 4.5 meters (8-15 feet) tall. It has thin, often greenish bark which exudes copious amounts of watery sap when cut.

HABITAT

The natural environment of animal and plan.

DESCRIPTION, CHEMICAL STRUCTURE, STABILITY CURCIN

Phytotoxins or toxalbumins are large, complex protein molecules of high toxicity. They resemble bacterial toxins in structure and physiological effects. Phytotoxins are heat labile, and can be positively identified by precipitin reactions with sera containing known antibodies (Kingsbury 1964). Curcin is said to be highly irritant and remains in the seed after the oil has been expressed.

OTHER PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Curcin is unable to penetrate cell walls; this has been indicated by the fact that these proteins do not affect protein synthesis by Ehrlich as cites cells. This is thought to be because they lack a carrier moiety or at least the galactose-binding groups by which racin binds to cell membranes. This was discovered when it was found that the activity of Curcin in cell-free systems is not increased by treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol, which greatly enhances the inhibitory effect of racin and abrin by splitting their molecules into an effecter and a carrier moiety.

TOXICITY

In some instances as few as three seeds have produced toxic symptoms. In others, consumption of as many as 50 seeds has resulted in relatively mild symptoms. There is one report where the ingestion of only one seed in an adult has produced toxic symptoms. It has been suggested that there may be two strains one with toxic seeds and one without (Kingsbury, 1964). Curcin, the Phytotoxins or toxalbumin found in Jatropha curcas is similar to ricin the Phytotoxins found in the castor bean (Ricinis). The minimum lethal dose of ricin, when administered by injection, may be as small as 0.00000001% of body weight, although oral toxicity is probably several hundred times less.

Poisoning from ingestion of the seeds of the Jatropha plant is well known in veterinary practice and autopsy findings include, severe gastro-enteritis, nephritis, myocardial degeneration, haemagglutination, and subepicardial and subendocardial hemorrhages as well as renal subcritical and sub pleural bleeding.

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One study found a high mortality rate in mice fed 50% and 40% J. curcas. The important symptoms of poisoning included diarrhea, inability to keep normal posture, depression and lateral recumbence. The degree of the pathological changes observed in the small intestines, liver, heart, kidneys, and lungs was related to the level of Jatropha in the diet. The most marked pathological changes were catarrhal enteritis, erosions of the intestinal mucosa, congestion and hemorrhages in small intestines, heart and lungs and fatty changes in the liver and kidneys.

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2.3 JATROPHA SEEDS CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES TYPICAL VALUES

Flash point 240/110 °C

Carbon residue 0.64

Cetane value 51.0

Distillation point (°C) 295 °C

Kinematics Viscosity 50.73 CS

Sulphur % 0.13 %

Calorific value 9 470 kcal/kg

Pour point 8 °C

Color 4.0

Viscosity (cp) (30 °C) 52.6 (5.51)2

Specific gravity (15 °C/4 °C)

0.917/ 0.923(0.881)

Solidifying Point (°C) 2.0

Saponification Value 188.198

Iodine Value3 90.8 -112.5

Refractive Index (30°C) 1.47

Acid value 1.0 - 38.2

TABLE: 1: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF JATROPHA SEED

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2.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HEXANE

Physical state and appearance: Liquid.

Odor: Gasoline-like or petroleum-like (Slight.)

Molecular Weight: 86.18g/mole

Color:

Clear Colorless.

Boiling Point: 68°C (154.4°F)

Melting Point: -95°C (-139°F)

Specific Gravity: 0.66 (Water = 1)

Vapor Pressure: 17.3 kPa (@ 20°C)

Vapor Density:

2.97 (Air = 1)

Odor Threshold: 130 ppm

Water/Oil Dist. Coefficient:

The product is more soluble in oil; Log (oil/water) = 3.9

Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water, diethyl ether, and

Acetone.

Solubility: Soluble in diethyl ether, acetone. Insoluble in cold water, hot water.

TABLE: 2: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HEXANE

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2.5 JATROPHA PARTS AND USES

BOTANICAL FEATURES AND POTENTIAL USES

This paper describes the botanical features and potential uses of Jatropha curcas for the future. Uses of Jatropha Curcus:

1. Non-edible vegetable oil of Jatropha curcas has the requisite potential of providing a promising and commercially viable alternative to diesel oil since it has desirable physicochemical and performance characteristics comparable to diesel. Cars could be run with Jatropha curcas without requiring much change in design.

2. The oil is used as an illuminant without being refined and it burns with clear smoke-free flame.

3. Oil has a very high saponification value and is being extensively used for making soap in some countries.

4. The latex of Jatropha contains an alkaloid known as "jatrophine" which is believed to have anti-cancerous properties.

5. It is also used as an external application for skin diseases and rheumatism and for sores on domestic livestock. In addition, the tender twigs of the plant are used for cleaning teeth, while the juice of the leaf is used as an external application for piles. Finally, the roots are reported to be used as an antidote for snake-bites.

6. The bark of Jatropha curcas yields a dark blue dye which is used for coloring cloth, fishing nets and lines.

7. Jatropha oil cake is rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium and can be used as organic manure.

8. Jatropha leaves are used as food for the tusser silkworm.

Jatropha curcus or “Ratanjyot” can prove itself a miracle plant by turning waste land into a moneymaking land. It can help to increase rural incomes, self-sustainability and alleviate poverty for women, elderly, children and men, tribal communities, small farmers.

PRODUCTS OF THE EXPLOITATION OF THE JATROPHA PLANT

The uses of Jatropha plant is provided in detail.

SOAP PRODUCTION The glycerin that is a by-product of biodiesel can be used to make soap, and soap can be

produced from Jatropha oil itself. It will produce a soft, durable soap, and the rather simple soap making process is well adapted to household or small-scale industrial activity.

OTHER USESJatropha oil is also used to soften leather and lubricate machinery.

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http://www.echotech.org/mambo/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=178

http://www.echotech.org/mambo/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=178

http://www.jatropha.de/products.htm

http://www.krishisewa.com/articles/jatropha.html

http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5402e/x5402e11.htm


2.6 OIL YIELD FROM JATROPHA

Jatropha is being heralded as a tree crop for biodiesel production and increasing incomes of small farmers on marginal lands; however, when you plant crops on marginal lands/soils, you can expect to get marginal yields. Plants mine nutrients from the soil, and to maintain yields, these nutrients need to be replaced. This often means applying chemical fertilizers that even if available, are not affordable to many small farmers. When doing realistic planning on the “real” economics of a Jatropha project, one must also calculate that fact that optimal seed yield of Jatropha won’t be obtainable for several years. Furthermore, marginal farmers most often have access to only a minimal amount to land for food crop production; therefore, what will they have to eat until a sound market for Jatropha oil is developed?

FIG: 2 JATROPHA OIL

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The jury is still out on the actual seed and oil yields one can count on from Jatropha plantings. IPGRI concludes that “The low yields revealed in several projects may have been caused by the fact that unadapted provenances had been used. If investigation of its genetic diversity and its yield potential had been covered by adequate scientific research, this problem could have been overcome.”

In the literature reviewed, it could not be determined if adequate research on germplasm improvement is taking place to optimize the per plant yield of nuts and oil content. Since j clones are readily propagated through cuttings, germplasm improvement to optimize yields should be easier than with many other plants/trees. One must be very careful in selecting a good source of Jatropha germplasm for projects since there is little truth in advertising, and presently the best profitability is in selling seed, cuttings or seedlings produced from plants that are probably not genetically improved and may vary widely in yield. .

Furthermore from the literature it is extremely difficult to determine what actual per hectare yield of nuts one can rely upon when growing Jatropha. Most figures cited were projections that often are inflated and over optimistic in order to procure funding for projects. Also, the estimated oil content of the nuts cited in the literature varies considerably, which adds to the difficulty of calculating the profitability of growing Jatropha. Furthermore, optimizing oil extraction from the seeds requires expensive machinery. One can find on page 36 of the IPGRI study a list of yields cited by a number of sources.

In the literature, the reports of yields vary greatly and are confusing. This can be attributed to one or a combination of the following factors including: yields are sometimes given in terms of fruits, seeds, nuts, or kernels; confusing terminology used in making yield estimates, e.g., some are made in tons (t) while others are in metric tons (MT); variance in germplasm; unstipulated spacing between plants; no specific data on soils (ranging from marginal to fertile, and if fertilizer was applied); no information on rainfall and other climatic conditions, and if irrigation is being used

Reports on yields include that from plantations (mostly projected yields), but it is not mentioned if they were established by vegetative propagation or by direct seeding, on fertile or marginal soils, and if the plantations were irrigated or not. When irrigated, Jatropha trees are said to produce seeds throughout the entire year. Often, there is no mention of the age of the trees/shrubs, nor is the variety/cultivar given. Jatropha trees are said to begin producing a measurable amount of nuts at 18 months, but are not expected to reach maturity and optimal yields until after 6 years.

The IPGRI report gives a conversion factor of 30 kg of fruits yielding approximately 18 kg of seed. One might assume that the fruit to seed ratio may be higher in areas of higher rainfall. In one reference, IPGRI estimates that a yield of at least 2-3t (not MT) of seeds/ha can be achieved in semi-arid areas; however, in another citation, IPGRI reports that in Hisar, Bangalore, India, a “quite high seed yield” (1,733 kg/ha or 1.733 MT) was observed in one cultivar. IPGRI confuses the issue by reporting the yield in tons and not MT (this could have been an editing mistake, ed.), while giving the area in hectares.

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2.7 METHODS FOR OIL EXTRACTION:

Oil Extraction may be done:

Mechanical Extraction (by pressing the kernels) Chemically Extraction Enzymatically Extraction

MECHANICAL PROCESS

Besides the time needed to collect the seeds needed for the production of the oil, the oil extraction process is a key element in the economic calculation of the production process of Jatropha oil.

TRADITIONAL WAYS

In the north of Madagascar, in the village of Ankiaka Be near Andapa in the SAVA region, needed 3 hours of time to produce a bit less than 0.25 liters of oil, i. e. about 12 hours of manual work for 1 liter of Jatropha oil.

To produce Jatropha oil the traditional way, the seeds have to be shelled. Than the pure white kernels are roasted and then ponded to get a paste. This paste is mixed with water and boiled for about 20 minutes. The oil is floating up and is scimmed with a spoon. This oil is boiled again to get rid of the surplus water. This oil is then filtered to get rid of the particles.

FIG.:3 SHELLING OF THE SEEDS FIG.:4 ROASTING OF KERNELS

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PONDING (a) BOILING (b)

SCRIMMING THE FLOATING OIL(C) PURIFICATION OF THE SCRIMMED OIL(D)

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FIG.:5 OIL SAMPLE (e)

Three hours time of hand work for less than a quarter of a liter of Jatropha oil.

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ADVANCE EXTRACTION PROCESS RECOMMENDED PRESSES

Manual presses for oil extraction are available in many countries. One of the most available presses is the Bielenberg Ram press, because in was and still is disseminated by Enterprise Works, former ATI (Appropriate Technology International), an American organization working in close relationship with USAID, the American organization for co-operation. Looking into economical aspects, it is important to note, that the oil extraction by hand is mostly more expensive than by a motor driven expeller, just because the yield of oil by working hour is very limited.

RAM PRESS

FIG.:6 RAM PRESS

The “Bielenberg Ram Press” was developed by Carl Bielenberg in Tanzania to facilitate the extraction of edible oil from seeds like sesame, sunflower and/or peanuts. The design is very simple, drawings are available, and the press can be produced in small workshops for a reasonable price (around 150 USD).

The press has a capacity of 1 to 2 liters of Jatropha oil per hour (depending on the skill of the extraction worker). Therefore it is useful only for small scale oil production for subsistence production of farmers or for demonstrations

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SCREW PRESSES

FIG.:7 SCREW PRESSES

In the screw press, a round plate is forced upon a oil containing biomass in a metal cylinder with holes by turning the screw by long levers. The oil runs out of the holes.

From its design and the experiences so far screw presses are working well for the extraction of oil from soft seeds, like from oil palms.

The screw presses are relatively easy to produce, but they are difficult to manipulate (see the photos below) and the spare parts, like the screw, are difficult to be produced in small workshops in developing countries. For the Bielenberg Ram Press this is different: It doesn’t have parts which are difficult to produce.

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HYDRAULIC PRESSES

In the hydraulic presses, the pressure on the cage is effectively produced by a hydraulic crick, which is usually used to change wheels of Lorries.

This system works perfectly, because it is very easy to produce the necessary pressure. But the crick is not designed for this work, and soon the technology shows problems: The seals of the hydraulic pump have to be placed soon, and the crick itself gets fine cracks, where the hydraulic oil sorts.

This can be explained by the fact, that for a lorry, the crick hasto work perhaps 3 or 4 times a year, whereas for oil extraction, the crick was used about 10 to 15 times a day. The material just could not stand the heavy work.

ENGINE DRIVEN EXPELLERS

TINYTECH EXPELLER

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FIG.:8 TINTECH EXPELLER

The interest of Tinytech was to improve their design of the press for their main market, which has a strong focus on expelling peanuts. Thus it is important to know that the Tinytech press is designed to suit particular this seed. Peanuts have a low fiber content thus it is required that the nuts are steamed prior to expelling and this is the reason the Tinytech expeller has a boiler and cooker. This preprocessing is not necessary for Jatropha provided the expeller has the appropriate screw.

The type of screw/cage design the Tinytech expeller is using is not the best for Jatropha in fact it requires the preprocessing to perform properly. Actually Tinytech had concentrated on mass production to keep the cost low and has this approach up to date. The disadvantage of this otherwise very positive approach is that the machine design needs to be kept constant as much as possible and modifications necessary to process other seeds than peanut are avoided.

THE SUNDHARA EXPELLER

FIG.: 9 THE SUNDHARA EXPELLER

The Sundhara expeller is a motor driven oil extraction device with a worm as a central part. This expeller was designed by German engineers by order of the German co-operation (GTZ) to be implemented in villages in Nepal and to be produced within the country.

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THE SAYARI EXPELLER

FIG.:10 THE SAYARI EXPELLER

The Sayari expeller is the same design as the Sundhara expeller, but it is produced in Tanzania to extract sunflower seed. 2 private workshops produced the press in Morogoro for a price of about 3 000 USD per unit. The engine (electric motor or Indian diesel engine) was included in this price. About 40 units of this expeller were produced. To introduce the production of this expeller in Tanzania, a project of “Bread for the World” sent 2 of the engineers to Tanzania to train the people in the workshops. An important part is the maintenance of the expeller, because the worm has to be reestablished regularly (after a defined amount of seeds extracted, usually two times per year.

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MODERN CONCEPTS:

Methods like ultrasonication have been discovered to be effective in increasing the percentage of Jatropha oil that can be extracted using chemical methods like aqueous enzymatic treatment. The optimum yield for such methods has been discovered to be around 74%. Jatropha oil extraction methods are still being researched. The goal of such researches is to discover methods to extract a greater percentage of Jatropha oil from the seeds than the current procedures allow.

TRANSESTERIFICATION

Is the process of chemically reacting a fat or oil with an alcohol in a presence of a catalyst Alcohol used is usually methanol or ethanol Catalyst is usually sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide The main product of transesterification is biodiesel and the co-product is glycerin

SEPARATION

After transesterification, the biodiesel phase is separated from the glycerin phase, both undergoes purification.

JATROPHA FOR BIODIESEL

Look at the financial costs of commercial Jatropha growing for Biodiesel Look at the financial costs of commercial Jatropha growing for Biodiesel.

Jatropha is seen by many to be the perfect biodiesel crop. It can be grown in very poor soils actually generating top soil as it goes, is drought and pest resilient, and it has seeds with up to 40% oil content. Here are some facts and figures about Jatropha relating to its growth as an oil product.

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2.8 JATROPHA COMPANIES

PRIVATE COMPANY GETS 5,000 ACRE FOR JATROPHA CULTIVATION:

1. Vitale Nandan Bio-pharma Sciences Pvt. Ltd, a joint venture company floated by Hyderabad-based Nandan Biometrix Ltd and Ahmedabad-based V Worldwide, has been allotted 5,000 acres of wasteland in Patan and Surendranagar districts for the cultivation of Jatropha to produce bio-diesel.

2. SRIPHL, a Rajasthan, India-based biodiesel company, is planning to cultivate approximately 100,000 hectares of Jatropha throughout India to increase their production of biodiesel. According to the news release, their goal is to cultivate the land and produce up to 1 million metric tons of oil. There are few details about when they plan to begin refining biodiesel.

3. SBI, Chennai signs MOU with D1 Mohan Bio for Jatropha cultivation: The State Bank of India has signed a memorandum of understanding with D1 Mohan Bio, to finance an estimated Rs 130 Crore for Jatropha cultivation in Tamil Nadu (excluding Nilgiris) by farmers through contract farming of nearly 1 lakh acres in the first year. The MOU was signed last Saturday in the city by the two organizations.

4. Madhya Pradesh proposes Jatropha cultivation: The rugged Chambal Valley in Madhya Pradesh is being seen as a future energy hub. If the Madhya Pradesh government’s plan to lease out wasteland to corporate India for cultivation of Jatropha gets a positive response, Chambal is all set to turn into an alternative energy hotspot.

5. Bionor to invest $200 million in Jatropha cultivation: Bionor Transformations plans to invest $200 million in a 247,000-acre Jatropha plantation in the Philippines. AME Bioenergy will conduct feasibility studies, pick sites, install infrastructure, and organize labor on behalf of Bionor.

6. PNOC Alternative Fuels Corporation chairman Renato S. Velasco said that he expected that at least 700,000 hectares of Jatropha would be planted in the country, noting that it had been identified as an ideal cultivation locale by the FAO. He said the bulk of cultivation would be in Mindanao. The Chairman stressed that Jatropha would be grown only in currently unused land and that no food production land would be switched to fuel.

7. Eight Philippine companies have pledged more than $350 million towards biofuels production investment. The companies include:

a) Bio-Energy NL, Inc.b) E-Cane/Pampanga Industrial Park Corp.c) Philippine Agricultural Land Development and Mill, Inc

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(PALM, Inc.) d) Zambo Norte Bioenergy.e) Philippine National Oil Company-Alternative Fuels Corp.f) Guidance Management Corp.g) Fuel, Inc. and Eastern Petroleum.

8. Jatoil urges Australia to allow Jatropha production: Australia-based Jatoil Ltd. is urging the Australian government to allow cultivation of the Jatropha plant, which is currently banned as a weed in the country’s northern regions. Jatoil is a green energy company that is focusing on using Jatropha oil in biodiesel production.

Some Companies Investing in Jatropha Plantations for Agro fuels: Here are the list of

Companies that are investing in Jatropha Plantations

1. Van Der Horst also agrees to join forces in the development of a 6,000 hectare Jatropha plantation in India, enabling the rapid ramp up of large scale Jatropha production.

2. England: In England, De-Ord Fuel opened a new 100,000 GPY biodiesel facility in Mansfield that will use Jatropha and waste vegetable oil as feedstock’s. The company will distribute fuel to bus and truck fleets. The $550,000 project is one of the first of a wave of micro-facilities that will utilize sustainable feed stocks in Europe.

3. Energy Agriculture Uganda Ltd: Energy Agriculture Uganda (EAU) was registered as a limited company in November 2007. EAU Ltd. has 3 shareholders. Test growing Jatropha Curcas started in Mukono district on company land February 2007. The company is also engaged in Jatropha test production on two farms in Moyo district (West Nile province). The company is closely associated with its sister company in Kenya, Energy Africa Ltd (Located in Shimba Hills, south of Mombasa ) and draws from its sister company's experience. The two companies share vision, strategy, logo and most of the share holders. The sister company Energy Africa Ltd has three years of Jatropha growing experience and 200 out growers, with over 200 000 Jatropha trees in Shimba Hills, Kenya.

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2.9 CURRENT RESEARCH WORK DONE ON JATROPHA OIL

A Review of Jatropha Curcas: An Oil Plant of Unfulfilled Promise

Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose plant with many attributes and considerable potential. It is a tropical plant that can be grown in low to high rainfall areas and can be used to reclaim land, as a hedge and/or as a commercial crop. Thus, growing it could provide employment, improve the environment and enhance the quality of rural life. The establishment, management and productivity of Jatropha under various climatic conditions are not fully documented. This is discussed and the gaps in the knowledge elucidated, especially its fertilizer requirements. The plant produces many useful products, especially the seed, from which oil can be extracted; this oil has similar properties to palm oil.

The costs and returns of growing the plant and producing the plant oil are discussed and tabulated. Because it can be used in place of kerosene and diesel and as a substitute for fuel wood, it has been promoted to make rural areas self sufficient in fuels for cooking, lighting and motive power. This strategy is examined and found not viable. Oil for soap making is the most profitable use. It is concluded that all markets for Jatropha products should be investigated. If the full potential of the plant is to be realized, much more research is required into the growing and management of Jatropha curcas and more information is needed on the actual and potential markets for all its products.

Performance of Jatropha Oil Blends In a Diesel Engine

Results are presented on tests on a single-cylinder direct-injection engine operating on diesel fuel, jatropha oil, and blends of diesel and Jatropha oil in proportions of 97.4%/2.6%; 80%/20%; and 50%/50% by volume. The results covered a range of operating loads on the engine. Values are given for the chemical and physical properties of the fuels, brake specific fuel consumption, brake power, brake thermal efficiency, engine torque, and the concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen in the exhaust gases. Carbon dioxide emissions were similar for all fuels, the 97.4% diesel/2.6% Jatropha fuel blend was observed to be the lower net contributor to the atmospheric level. The trend of carbon monoxide emissions was similar for the fuels but diesel fuel showed slightly lower emissions to the atmosphere.

The test showed that Jatropha oil could be conveniently used as a diesel substitute in a

diesel engine. The test further showed increases in brake thermal efficiency, brake power and reduction of specific fuel consumption for Jatropha oil and its blends with diesel generally, but the most significant conclusion from the study is that the 97.4% diesel/2.6% Jatropha fuel blend produced maximum values of the brake power and brake thermal efficiency as well as minimum values of the specific fuel consumption. The 97.4%/2.6% fuel blend Oil yielded the highest Cetane number and even better engine performance than the diesel fuel suggesting that Jatropha oil can be used as an ignition-accelerator additive for diesel fuel.

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Lipase Catalyzed Preparation of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil in a Solvent Free System

The monoethyl esters of the long chain fatty acids (biodiesel) were prepared by alcoholysis of Jatropha oil, a non-edible oil, by a lipase. The process optimization consisted of (a) screening of various commercial lipase preparations, (b) pH tuning, (c) immobilization, (d) varying water content in the reaction media, (e) varying amount of enzyme used, and (f) varying temperature of the reaction. The best yield 98% (w/w) was obtained by using Pseudomonas cepacia lipase immobilized on celite at 50 °C in the presence of 4–5% (w/w) water in 8 h. It was found that yields were not affected if analytical grade alcohol was replaced by commercial grade alcohol. This biocatalyst could be used four times without loss of any activity.

Studies on Anti-Di-Arrhoeal Activity of Jatropha Curcus Root Extract in Albino Mice

Use of Jatropha curcus L. roots in the treatment of diarrheal is a common ethno botanical practice in Konkan, a part of the Western coastal area of India. Roots of this species were undertaken for pharmacognostic studies and evaluation of antidiarrhoeal activity in albino mice. Successive solvent extraction was carried out using petroleum ether (60–80°C) and methanol. The methanol extract showed activity against castor oil induced diarrheal and intraluminal accumulation of fluid. It also reduced gastrointestinal motility after charcoal meal administration in albino mice. The results indicate that action of J. curcus root methanol extract could be through a combination of inhibition of elevated prostaglandin biosynthesis and reduced propulsive movement of the small intestine.

Evaluation and Bio-Production of Energy Components of Jatropha Curcas

Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose species with many attributes and considerable potential. The oil from the seeds is potentially the most valuable end product. Nearly 40% of the land area in India is wasteland. However, a large number of latex bearing and oil yielding plants can grow under such unfavorable agro climatic conditions. J. curcas, a Euphorbiaceous grows well under such adverse climatic conditions because of its low moisture demands, fertility requirements, and tolerance to high temperatures. The seed contains 19.0% oil, 4.7% polyphone, and 3.9% hydrocarbon. This semi-drying oil could be an efficient substitute for diesel fuel. The gross heat value for the seed (0% moisture content) was 4980.3 cal/g (20.85 MJ/kg), oil was 9036.1 cal/g (37.83 MJ/kg), and hydrocarbon was 9704.4 cal/g (40.63 MJ/kg). The oil fraction consists of saturated fatty acids, palmitic acid (14.1%), stearic acid (6.7%) and unsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid (47.0%), and linoleic acid (31.6%). Treatment of plants with growth regulators significantly influenced the production of hydrocarbons. Among the treatments, ethephon and morphactin induced the maximum production of hydrocarbon with 5.0% and 5.4%, respectively.

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2.10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF JATROPHA SEEDS

ADVANTAGES:

It starts producing seeds within 12 months Maximum productivity level is 4-5 years Plant remains useful for around 35-50 years Seeds can produce around 37% oil content Kernels can produce up to 60% oil content Its seeds yield an annual equivalent of 0.75 to 2 tons of biodiesel per hectare It is a NON-FOOD CROP

DISADVANTAGES:

The Jatropha Curcas nut and oil are inedible, but its price is not distorted by competing food uses.

Potential gender conflicts. Second income to make soap If there is too little water, the plant will not produce the nut. Jatropha needs at least 600mm (23in) of rain a year to thrive. However, it can survive

three consecutive years of drought by dropping its leaves. It is excellent at preventing soil erosion, and the leaves that it drops act as soil-enriching

mulch. The plant prefers alkaline soils. The cost of 1,000 Jatropha saplings (enough for one acre) in Pakistan is about £50, or 5p

each. The cost of 1kg of Jatropha seeds in India is the equivalent of about 7p.

Eachjatropha seedling should be given an area two meters square. 20% of seedlings planted will not survive. Jatropha seedlings yield seeds in the first year after plantation.

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CHAPTER: 3PROCESS SELECTION

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3.1 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS

EXPERIMENTAL SET–UP:

STAGE: 1 (STEAMING)

Figure-1 illustrates, steaming of crushed Jatropha seeds.

Take 100gm of Jatropha seeds and crushed it by using hand crusher. After crushed; we do steaming for removing moisture contain in seeds.

This process takes 25 mints for removing moisture.

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FIG (11):-STEAMING OF JETROPHA SEEDS

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FUNNEL

TUBE CRUSH SEEDS

ROUND FLASHK

HOT WATER

STEAM

STAND

BURNER

RUBER COCK

STAND

STEAM OUT


STAGE: 2 (EXTRACTION)

Figure (2) illustrates a schematic diagram of a bench scale extraction set–up which consists mainly of a double necked flask (500 ml) with a round bottom.

The large neck in the middle of the flask was connected to a reflux condenser; a thermometer was placed in one side necks.

Now, dry crushed seeds and 150ml Hexane are added in two necked flask. Properly immerge dry crushed seeds in hexane.

Before starting heating start flow of water in reflux condenser, now start the heating for 25 mints and maintain it at 59C.

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FIG (12):-EXTRACTION OF JETROPHA SEEDS WITH HEXANE

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COLD WATER IN

COLD WATER OUT

STAND

CONDENSER

THERMOMETER

THERMOCOUPEL

HEXANE & CRUSH SEEDS

STAND

BURNER

RUBER COCK


STAGE: 3 (FILTRATION)

Figure-3

As above, first prepared closed filtration system for filtration of mixture of seeds and hexane.

After the extraction, the mixtures pour in closed filtration system to filtration.

After the filtration at the top remaining cake and bottom is mixture of oil and hexane.

For the separating oil and hexane to carry out distillation step.

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FIG (13):- FILTRATION AFTER EXTRACTION OF JETROPHA SEEDS WITH HEXANE

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CRUSH SEEDS AFTER EXTRACTION

RUBER COCK

FUNNEL

CONICAL FLASK RECOVER HEXANE + OIL


STAGE: 4 (DISTILLATION)

Figure 4 illustrates distillation of mixture of oil and hexane.

Mixture takes in double necked flask (500 ml) with a round bottom. The large neck in the middle of the flask was connected to a reflux condenser; a thermometer was placed in one side necks.

Now, start to heat the mixture up to 65 C. Sometimes after completely distilled in hexane in other side of bottle and oil remaining in flask

Now, oil takes out and measured it.

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FIG.: (14) DISTILLATION OF HEXANE FROME OIL

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COLD WATER OUT

COLD WATER INRUBER COCK

THERMOCOUPEL

BURNER

STAND

HEXANE & OIL

RECOVER HEXANE

CONICAL FLASHK

CONDENSER


OVERALL LABORATORY SETUP

Fig.: (15) OVERALL LABORATORY SETUP

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3.2 PLANT PROCESS

RAW MATERIALS:-1. JATROPHA SEEDS2. HEXANE

PROCESS DESCRIPTION (1):

Solvent Extraction is basically a process of diffusion of a solvent into oil-bearing cells of the raw material, resulting in a solution of the oil in solvent. Various solvents can be used for extraction. However, after extensive research and consideration of various factors, such as commercial economics, edibility of the various products obtained from extraction, physical properties of the solvent especially its low boiling point etc. Hexane is considered to be the best and it is exclusively used for the purpose.

In a nutshell, the extraction process consists of treating the raw material with hexane and recovering the oil by distillation of the resulting solution of oil in hexane called miscella. Evaporation and condensation as also from the distillation of miscella recover the hexane absorbed in the material. The hexane thus recovered is reused for extraction. The low boiling point of hexane (67°C) and the high solubility of oils and fats in it are the properties exploited in the solvent extraction process. The entire extraction process can be divided into the following stages.

1. Preparation of raw material. 2. Process of extraction. 3. De-solventisation of extracted material. 4. Distillation of miscella. 5. Solvent recovery by absorption. 6. Meal finishing and bagging.

Because of the highly inflammable character of the normal hexane, those stages of process which involve high speed machineries, such as material preparation, finishing and bagging are carried out at least 50 feet away from the main extraction plant wherein the remaining processing stages involving handling of the solvent are carried out. The typical flow- chart illustrates the various processing steps.

PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIAL

For thorough and efficient extraction, it is necessary that each and every oil-bearing cell of the material be brought in contact with the solvent. Therefore, proper preparation of materials prior to extraction is very important to ensure this contact. The smaller the material size, the better is the penetration of the solvent into the oil-bearing cells; but too fine a size will prevent the solvent form percolating through the mass. Therefore an optimum size is to be maintained for best extraction. Hence material preparation methods vary from material to material depending on

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 37


its oil content, size and physical properties. For high oil content materials (oil content 15% or more), the following steps of preparation are recommended to make the material suitable for penetration of the solvent into the oil cells as well as for best percolation.

(a) Passage of the seed through corrugated roller mills with 3 mm flutes to reduce the Size to about 3mm.

(b) Heating the broken material to about 80°C with open steam in temperor & humidifying the material to raise the moisture content to about 11 to 12%.

(c) Flaking of the humidified material between a pair of plain rolls to 0.25 mm thickness or below.

(d) Conveying the flakes to the extraction system after crisping them firm.

Rice bran is a fine floury material and therefore is bound to obstruct the percolation. The best preparation of rice bran for extraction is found to be pelletizing the same after tempering with open steam. The pelletized bran is then crisped in a current of air while conveying to the extractor. Some oilseeds can be directly extracted e.g. cottonseed, soybean, etc. But they are to be decorticated by special equipment to separate the oil-bearing meats from the hulls. The decorticating equipment varies from seed to seed (see our pamphlets on cottonseed & soya bean processing). The decorticated meats are tempered, flaked and the flakes are sent to extractor after crisping.

PROCESS OF EXTRACTION

The prepared material enters the extractor through the rotary air seal. The extractor consists mainly of a very slow moving articulated band conveyor inside a totally enclosed chamber. The band is lined with perforated sheets and porous stainless steel cloth. The mass of the material moving on this band forms a slow moving bed. During the movement of the bed through the extractor it is washed continuously at various points with miscella of decreasing concentrations and finally with a fresh solvent in a counter current manner by means of sprayers kept in a line over the meal bed. The miscella percolates through the perforated bottom and collects in various hoppers kept below the bed. The miscella from the last hopper, which is concentrated, is taken off for distillation.

DE-SOLVENTISATION OF EXTRACTED MATERIAL

After the fresh solvent wash the material is discharged from the band conveyor into an airtight chain conveyor, which conveys it to the Desolventiser. In the Desolventiser the material is heated to about 100°C by jacketed steam, and thus the absorbed solvent is evaporated into vapors (B.Point. of hexane 67-70°C). Finally, the material, which is now completely desolventised, is continuously discharged through airtight seal into a pneumatic conveyor, which

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carries into the bagging section. The vapors evolved in the Desolventiser are led through a dust catcher wherein they are washed with hot water, to a condenser.

Some materials, such as cottonseed and soya bean extractions, are toasted after de-solventisation. In these cases both the steps of de-solventisation and toasting can be combined into one operation by the use of Desolventiser - Toaster (D. T.) Instead of the tubular jacketed Desolventiser.

The D.T. consists of a vertical cylindrical vessel with horizontal jacketed compartments and a central rotating vertical shaft on which are mounted sweeps in each compartment. The Material to be desolventised and toasted is fed in to the top compartment of D.T and heated with open steam. Open steam condenses a lot of moisture in the material at the same time evaporating the solvent. The moisture up to 14 to 15% is condensed. The material then flows to lower compartment. In lower compartments the material is gradually heated to 115 to 120° C thus evaporating all the solvent, cooking the material and driving away extra moisture. The cooking in presence of moisture destroys undesirable enzymes.

High temperature attained toasts the material. The solvent and water vapors from various compartments are led first to a dust catcher wherein they are scrubbed with hot water spray to remove fine dust and then led to a condenser to condense the vapors. The de-seventies and toasted meal from bottom-most compartment discharges into a redler conveyor.

DISTILLATION OF MISCELLA

The final miscella (solution of oil in hexane) obtained from the extractor is collected in a tank form where it is pumped to the distillation column kept under vacuum by means of a series of steam ejectors. The miscella is heated by jacket steam in the distillation column and thus the hexane is turned into vapor immediately. The vapors are led to another condenser through an entrainment separator.

The concentrated miscella from the evaporator is pumped into a similar secondary distillation unit to raise the temperature to about 100 - 110° C and then into the final stripper kept under high vacuum. Open steam is injected in the latter to strip the last traces of hexane from the oil. The vapor both from the secondary still and the stripper are condensed in a third condenser. The oil freed from solvent is pumped from the stripper to the storage.

SOLVENT RECOVERY BY CONDENSATION

All the condensers are of floating head type with tube-bundles to carry the cooling water. The cooled water at 30°C or below is circulated inside the tubes in all the condensers and the vapors are passed outside the tubes. Thus the vapors are cooled and condensed into liquid. The uncondensed vapors from each condenser are sucked by a series of ejectors and pushed through the last condenser to a contact cooler where they are washed with cold-water spray. All the condensate liquid hexane water from these condensers and contact cooler is led to a solvent water separator wherein the pure solvent is separated from water by settling the difference in

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 39


densities of water and the solvent and their immiscibility accomplishes complete separation. The fresh pure solvent from this tank is pumped to the extractor continuously for the final washing of the meal bed.

FINAL SOLVENT RECOVERY BY ABSORPTION

The vapor and gases from the contact cooler are led to absorber where they come into intimate contact with absorbing oil (vegetable oil or mineral oil). The solvent vapors if any, are absorbed in this oil and non-condensable gases are let out into the atmosphere. While theoretically these gases leaving the plant are expected to be free from hexane, in practice, a small amount of the solvent is lost with these gases.

The oil containing the absorbed solvent is led into an evaporator kept under vacuum and heated to 100°C. The solvent is vaporized and these vapors are led into one of condensers and recovered.

The hot oil from the evaporator is passed through a cooler to cool to room temperature, and having been freed from hexane it is sprayed back into the absorber.

MEAL FINISHING AND BAGGING: (OPTIONAL)

The redler conveyor carries the desolventised meal form the DT to bagging section. The meal is not only conveyed but also cooled to about 45-50°C by means of cold air draft induced in the conveyor by a blower. The meal drops to a humidifier from the redler. In the humidifier the meal is mixed with enough moisture to bring up the moisture content, thus replacing the amount of water lost during the extraction and de-solventisation steps. The humidified meal is then bagged at the discharge of the humidifier.

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CHAPTER: 4MATERIAL BALANCE

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4.1 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTAL DATA.

1st STAGE EXTRACTION

{1} CRUSHING STEP

Wt of seeds= 50gm Wt of crushed seed=49.72gm Time for crushing=3 minute

{2} STEAMING

Water quantity for steaming=250ml Steaming time= 30min. Wt of crushed seeds after steaming=53.9gm

Therefore, moisture in seeds=53.9 – 49.72 =4.18gm

{3} EXTRACTION STEP

Volume of fresh Hexane=150ml Heating time of (seeds + hexane)=20min at 58 to 59 ˚C

{4} FILTRATION

Wt of seeds after filtration=60.68gm Volume of (oil + hexane) =115ml

{5} (A) HEXANE RECOVERY FROM SEEDS

Wt of seeds after filtration=60.68gm Wt of seeds =92.78gm Steaming time for seeds=26min Volume of (Hexane + water) recovery from seed=7.5ml Volume of water in recovered Hexane=1ml

Therefore, volume of hexane=6.5ml

{5} (B) VOLUME OF HEXANE RECOVERED FROM (OIL + HEXANE) MIXTURE

Volume of Hexane recovered from (oil + Hexane) mixture=100ml Volume of oil recovered =18ml Temperature for distillation= 62 to 65˚C

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Therefore,

Total Hexane recovered=100 + 6.5 =106.5ml

{6} DRYING

Initial wt = 163.39gm Final wt = 157.43gm Therefore Hexane evaporated=5.87gm

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2nd STAGE EXTRACTION

When we kept seeds in air tight bottle then we saw that on the surface of the seeds, it is all covered by fungus or it is affected by the fungus. Its colour is light green. So, the colour of mixture of hexane with seeds is also change. It required quite more heat.

{2} STEAMING

Wt of seeds or feed for stage-2=37.56gm Water quantity for steaming=250ml Steaming time= 30min. Wt of seeds after steaming=38.85gm

Therefore moisture in seeds=38.85 – 37.56 =1.29gm

{3} EXTRACTION STEP

Total volume of Hexane=150ml Volume of fresh Hexane=100ml Volume of recovered Hexane = 50ml Heating time of (seeds + hexane)=30min at 58 to 59 ˚C Wt of (Hexane + Seeds)=138.85gm

{4} FILTRATION

Filtration time=17min Wt of M.L =263.60gm

{5}(A) HEXANE RECOVERY FROM SEEDS

Steaming time for seeds=36min Volume of (Hexane + water) recovery from seed=0.6ml Volume of water in recovered Hexane=0.1ml

Therefore, volume of hexane=0.5ml


Volume of Hexane recovered from (oil + Hexane) mixture=100ml Volume of oil recovered =6.4ml Temperature for distillation=58 to 59˚C for 28minute Therefore total Hexane recovered=100 + 6.5 =100.5ml

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{6} DRYING

Initial wt of seed =48.12gm Dry seeds after 15min =44.42gm After 26min =42.38gm After 35min =41.42gm After 45min =40.13gm After 55min =39.48gm After 70min = 39.13gm After 80min =39.05gm

Therefore

Moisture in a seeds = 48.18 – 44.42 =3.76gm

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3rd STAGE EXTRACTION

{2} STEAMING

Wt of seeds or feed for stage-3=39.05gm Water quantity for steaming=250ml Steaming time= 35min. Wt of seeds after steaming=38.77gm

{3} EXTRACTION STEP

Wt of seeds =38.77gm Total volume of Hexane=150ml Volume of fresh Hexane=100ml Volume of recovered Hexane = 50ml Heating time of (seeds + hexane)=25min at 58 to 59 ˚C

{4} FILTRATION

Filtration time=10min Wt of seeds=37.08gm Wt of M.L =264.94gm Volume of M.L=116ml

{5} (A) HEXANE RECOVERY FROM SEEDS

Further steaming is not required because hexane recovered is low compare to given energy. so, energy cost increase.


Volume of Hexane recovered from (oil + Hexane) mixture=108ml Volume of oil recovered =2.8ml Temperature for distillation=62 to 65˚C for 15minute

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STAGE STAGE-1 STAGE-2 STAGE-3

TEMP. (°C)

EXTRACTION 58 TO 59°C 58 TO 59°C 58 TO 59°C

DISTILLATION 62 TO 65 °C 59°C 62 TO 65°C

TIME (minute) ST

EA

MIN

G

FOR STEP (2) 30 30 35

5(A) 28 36 Not Required

EXTRACTION 20 30 25

DISTILLATION 15 17 10

FEED 25 28 20

VOL. OF HEXANE TAKEN (ml)

150(F) 150(100R + 50 F) 150(100R + 50F)

VOL. OF HEXANE RECOVERED(ml)

5(A) 6.5 0.6 Not Available

5(B) 100 100 108

OIL RECOVERED

18 6.4 2.8

TABLE: 2 OVERALL DETAILS FOR EXPERIMENTAL READINGS

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Graph 1: Partial pressure graph between water and hexane

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Graph 2: N-x,y for Jatropha oil and hexane

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Where,

“5(A)” for Hexane recovery from seeds

“5(B)” for Volume of Hexane recovered from (oil + Hexane) mixture

“F” for fresh Hexane

“R” for Recycle Hexane

“E” for Extraction

“D” for Distillation

Therefore,

Total time for stage-1 completion = 1 hr and 58min Time for stage-2 completion = 2 hr and 21min Time for stage-1 completion = 1 hr and 30min Total Hexane used =150+ 150+ 150 = 450ml Hexane required in process=315ml Hexane loss in process = 135ml Total oil recovered = 27.2ml from 50gm of Jatropha seeds.

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4.2 NOTATIONS:

A=Mass of solvent;

B= Mass of Insoluble’s (seeds + moisture)

C= Mass of oil

F= Mass (A+C) in the solids to be leached

R0 =Mass (A+C) in the leaching solvent

E1= Mass (A+C) in the leached solids

R1= Mass (A+C) in the strong leach solution

yF= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of solid to be leached

x0= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of solid to be leaching solvent

y1= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of the leached solids

x1= Mass of C / Mass (A+C) of strong leach solution

NF= Mass of B / Mass (A+C) of solid to be leached

N1= Mass of B / Mass (A+C) of leached solids

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BASIS: 1000 KG/ DAY OF SEEDS

Seeds contain 36% oil.

Therefore, Actual wt. of oil in seeds (C) = 0.36×1000 C = 360 Kg/day

We assume 96% oil will be recovered from entire processTherefore, Recovery of oil (C) = 0.96×360 C = 345.60 Kg/ day

Now, 50 gm of seeds required → 150 ml hexane 1000Kg of seeds required → (?) ml hexane = (1000 × 150)/ (50) = 3000 ml hexane required

Therefore, Mass of solvent in Kg (A) = 3000× Density = 3000 × 0.672 A = 2016 Kg/day

F= feed (A+C) in the soiled to be leached.

In fresh feed there is solvent will be zero

Therefore; A(solvent) = 0 Kg/day

Therefore; F=C=360 Kg/day (on the basis of oil)

Feed also contain moisture (insoluble). 50 gm seeds contain → 3.9 gm moisture 1000 kg seeds contain → (?) Kg moisture = (1000 ×3.9)/ 50 = 78 Kg/day moisture

Total insoluble’s, oil free basis, (B) = (oil+ hexane) free seeds + moisture = 1000 – oil = 1000 – 360 B = 640 Kg/ day

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B= moisture+ (oil+ hexane) free seeds

(oil+ hexane) free seeds = 640 – 78 = 562 Kg/day

Now RNP+1 = Mass of (A+C) in the strong leach solution

RNP+1 = (2016 + 0) = 2016 Kg/day

Now mixture M = F + RNP+1 Kg/ day ……….. (I)

Therefore, M = 1000+ 2016 M = 3016 Kg/day

But we assume we recover 96% oil therefore remaining 4% goes with solvent

Therefore, XNP+1 =0.04 Kg/ day

yF = xF = Mass of C/(A+C) of soiled to be leached = 360/ (0+360)

yF = xF = 1

We have, M = F + RNP+1 Kg/ day

As per oil fraction, (F× Xf) + (RNP+1 × XNP+1) = (XM × M)……. (II)

Where, Xf = Mole fraction of oil in feed XNP+1 = Mole fraction of oil at NP+1 stage XM = Mole fraction of oil in mixture

Put value of equation (i) in equation in (ii) we get,XM = YM = [(XF × F) + (XNP+1 × RNP+1)] / (F + RNP+1) ……… (III) = [(1× 1000) + (0.04× 2016)] / (3016)

XM = YM = 0.358

Now , NM = B / A+C) = (640)/ (2016 +360) = 0.269 ≈ 0.27

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NF = B / A+C) = (640)/ (2016 +360) = 0.269 ≈ 0.27

NF = NM = 0.27

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4.3 N-XY DIAGRAM DATA FOR EXTRACTION

N

Wt. of insoluble/ ( Wt of oil + Wt. of hexane)

X

Wt. of oil / (Wt of oil + Wt. of hexane)

Y

Wt. of insoluble / ( Wt of oil + Wt. of hexane)

4.5 0 0

2.35 0.02 0.02

1.97 0.025 0.07

1.6 0.055 0.09

1.325 0.095 0.125

1.05 0.135 0.173

0.95 0.19 0.235

0.75 0.2075 0.275

0.60 0.375 0.415

Table: 3: N-XY DATA

Where, N-X data refer for raffinate layer in which N = 0. N-Y data refer for extract layer. X-Y data refer as a tie line data.4.4 OVERALL BALANCE DATA

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X Y

0.40 0.34

0.35 0.32

0.295 0.28

0.25 0.235

0.21 0.17

TABLE: 4 (X, Y DATA FROM GRAPH NUMBER-2)

Overall balance:

F=1000kg E4 =99.77kg

R1=2916.23kg R5=2016kg

INPUT = OUTPUT

Therefore, F + R5 = E4 + R1 1000+2016 = E4 +R1 E4 +R1 = 3016 …………. {1}

As per oil balance, (F × yF) + (R5 × x5) = (E4 ×y4) + (R1 × x1)

By using above table value of x and y, put it on in this equation, we get,

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Overall balance


(1000 ×1) + (2016 × 0) = (E4 × 0.25) + (R1 × 0.34) (0.25 × E4) + (0.34 × R1) = 1000 ………. {2}

Solve equation {1} and {2} we get,

E4 = 99.77 Kg/ day R1 = 2916.23 Kg/ day

4.5 STAGE WISE MATERIAL BALANCE

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STAGE – 1

F=1000kg E1=7770.92kg

R1=2916.23kg R2=9687.15kg

INPUT = OUTPUT

F + R2 = E1 + R1

1000 + R2 = E1 + 2916.23 E1 - R2 = 1916.23….. {3}

As per oil balance,

(F × yF) + (R2 × x2) = (E1 × y1) + (R1 × x1)1000 + (0.32 ×R2) = (0.40 × E1) + (0.34 × R1) (0.40 × E1) – (0.32 × R2) = 8.48 ……….. {4}

Solved equation number {3} and {4} we get,

E1 = 7770.92 Kg/ dayR2 = 9687.15 Kg/ day

STAGE -2:

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STAGE - 1


E1=7770.92kg E2 = 7543.57kg

R2=9687.15kg R3 = 9459.8kg

INPUT = OUTPUT

E1 + R3 = E2 + R2

1000 + R3 = E2 + 9687.15 R3- E2 = 1916.23 …….. {5}

As per oil balance,

(E1 × y1) + (R3 × x3) = (E2 ×y2) + (R2 × x2)(7770.92 × 0.40) + (0.28 ×R3) = (0.35 ×E1) + (0.32 × 9687.15) (0.28 × E1) – (0.35 × R2) = 8.49 ……….. {6}

Solved equation number (5) and (6) we get

E2 = 7543.57 Kg/day

R3 = 9459.8 Kg/ day

STAGE – 3:

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STAGE - 2


E2 = 7543.57kg E3 = 7363.43kg

R3 = 9459.8kg R4 = 9279.66kg

INPUT = OUTPUT

E2 + R4 = E3 + R3

7543.57 +R4 = 9459.80 + E3

1916.23 = R4 – E3………. {7}

As per oil balance

(E2 × y2) + (R4 × x4) = (E= × y3) + (R3 × x=)(7543.57 ×0.35) + (R4 × 0.235) = (E3 × 0.295) + (9459.2 ×0.28) 8.50 = (0.235× R4) – (0.295 × E3)…….. {8}

Solved equation {7} and {8} we get,

E3 = 7363.43 Kg/ day

R4 = 9279.66 Kg/ day

STAGE – 4:

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STAGE - 3


E3 = 7363.43kg E4= 99.77kg

R4 = 9279.66kg R5 = 2016kg

E3 + R5 = R4 + E4

R5 = R4 + E4 – E3

= 9279.66 + 99.77 – 7363.43

R5 = 2016 Kg/ day

Therefore,

E3 + R5 = R4 + E4

7363.43 + 2016 = 9779.66 + 99.779379.43 = 9379.43

INPUT = OUTPUT

4.6 PLANT SCALE MATERIAL BALANCE

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STAGE - 4


Initial wt. of seeds = 5000 Kg /day Wt. of seeds coming out of the cleaner = 4102.56 Kg/day Initial wt. of cleaned seeds into the polisher = 4102.56 Kg/day (2%) Wt. of seeds coming out the polisher = 4020.50 Kg/day Initial wt. of polished seeds into the screening chamber = 4020.50 Kg/day(3%) Wt. of polished seeds out the screening chamber = 3900 Kg/day Initial wt. of seeds for wetting and heating = 3900 Kg/day Wt. of seeds coming out after wetting and heating = 3900 + 390 (moisture)

= 4290 Kg/day Initial wt of seeds fed into the extractor = 4290 Kg/day Initial wt of hexane fed into the extractor = 10080 Kg/day Theoretically seeds contain 36% oil

4290 Kg/day seeds contains = 4290 × 0.36 = 1544.40 Kg/day

We assume, recovery of oil is 96% Recovered oil = 1544.40 × 0.96 = 1482.62 Kg/day

Also we assume we recover hexane from extractor is 92% Recovered hexane from extractor is = 10080 × 0.92 = 9273.60 Kg/day So, total (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from the extractor = 9273.60 + 1482062 = 10756.22 Kg/day

The insoluble’s (seeds + oil + hexane) miscella are then fed to the desolventizer unit from where pure hexane is recovered along with the solid cake from reuse.

Therefore, Oil loss (left in seed) = 1544040 – 1482062 = 61.78 Kg/day Hexane loss =10080 – 9273.66 = 806.4 Kg/dayNow, 40% hexane is recovered from Desolventiser (DT) unitHexane recovered from DT unit = 0.40 × 804.40 = 332.56 Kg/dayThis hexane obtained at 65°C from DT unit is then fed to the economizer (shell side) to increase the temperature of (oil + hexane) miscella at tube side from 55°C to 65°C.

4.7 EQUIPMENT WISE MATERIAL BALANCE

1) ECONOMIZER :-

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 62


Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to economizer = 9273.60 + 1482.62 = 10756.22 Kg/day

The hexane from DT to economizer used for heating then goes to jet condenser as pure hexane which is then recycled back to the extractor.

Amount of hexane going to jet condenser from economizer = 332.56 Kg/day

2) FLASHER -1 :-

Flasher is used for the recovery of hexane from the (oil + hexane) miscella.

Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to flasher-1 = 10756.22 Kg/dayTherefore, amount of oil coming out from flasher -1 = 1482.62 Kg/day

Amount of hexane recovered from (oil + hexane) miscella = 85% of 9273.60 Kg/day = 0.85 × 9273.60 Kg/day = 7882.56 Kg/day

So, amount of (oil + hexane) miscella left = 10756.22 - 7882.56 = 2873.66 Kg/day

3) HEATER-1 :-

Heater is used to increase the temperature of hexane because hexane recovery increases with increasing temperature. Steam is used as a heating media at 100°C. The temperature of (Oil + hexane) increase to 75°C.

Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to heater-1 = 2873.66 Kg/day

Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from heater-1 = 2873.66 Kg/day(At increase temperature)

4) FLASHER- 2:-

Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed to Flasher-2 = 2873.66 Kg/day

Oil in miscella = 1482.56 Kg/day

Amount of hexane left in miscella = 2873.60 – 1482.56 = 1391.04 Kg/day

Amount of hexane to be recovered from this flasher-2 = 75% of 1391.04 Kg/day = 0.75 × 1391.04

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 63


= 1043.28 Kg/day

All the hexane recovered from Flasher-1 and Flasher-2 is then sand to a common condenser. The hexane from jet condenser is also sand to this common condenser which is the total amount of hexane recovered. This recovered hexane is reused as solvent in the extractor.

5) HEATER- 2:-

Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed into Heater-2 = 1482.56+ (1391.04 – 1043.28) = 1830.32 Kg/day

The temperature of (oil + hexane) miscella is increased to 85°C using steam heating media at 100°C.

Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from Heater-2 = 1830.32 Kg/day

6) STRIPPER:-

Stripper is used to recover hexane completely and obtained pure oil.Amount of miscella into Stripper = 1830.32 Kg/day

Amount of pure oil recovered =1482.56 Kg/day

Amount of hexane is = 1830.32 – 1482.56 = 347.76 Kg/day

Amount of hexane recovered from Stripper = 100% of 347.76 Kg/day = 1 × 347.76 = 347.76 Kg/day

Total amount of hexane recovered (DT + Flasher-1 + Flasher-2 + Stripper) Kg/day = 332.56 + 788.56 + 1043.28 + 347.76 = 9606.16 Kg/dayHexane losses = 10080 – 9606.16 = 473.84 Kg/day

Oil obtained = 1482.56 Kg/day

Hexane recovered = 9606.16 Kg/day

4.8 CALCULATE THE HEXANE EVAPORATING DURING THE EXTRACTION PROCESS

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 64


Weight of dehuling Jatropha seeds = 20gm

Weight of Jatropha seeds after crushing = 19.31gm

Weight of Jatropha seeds after steaming =23.1gm

Sr. No

wt of seeds for extraction(gm)

hexane for extraction(ml)

Time for extraction

Time for extraction

wt of (seeds+hexane) after extraction

recovered (hexane+oil) after filtration

wt of cake after filtration

wt of cake after filtration

wt of cake after 10 mints

Wt of cake after 2 days

1 4.3 8 1 1 8.76 3 3.74 3.74 3.05 2.89

2 4.36 7 3 3 7.38 1.6 2.45 2.45 1.96 1.79

3 4.44 6 5 5 7.63 2.1 3.62 3.62 3.22 2.90

4 4.98 7 10 10 8.56 2.4 3.17 3.17 2.69 2.36

5 4.44 8 15 15 8.79 2.3 4.57 4.57 3.93 3.59

TABLE: 5 (HEXANE EVAPORATING READINGS)

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 65


CHAPTER: 5PROCESS EQUIPMENT

DESIGN

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 66


5.1 MAIN EQUIPMENT LIST:1. Crusher2. Pelletizes3. Solid Liquid Extractor ( 11 Stages)4. Desolventiser 5. Ecominizer 6. Tipple Effect Evaporator

I. Two Flashers II. Two HeaterIII. Stripper

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 67


5.2 EQUIPMENT DESIGNING OF TRIPPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR DESIGN

HOT STEAM °C °K

ts1 11

5388

ts2 65 338

ts3 50 323

Temp. of hexane evaporated in 3rd effect 35 308

Table: 6(Design temperature detail)

VACUUM PRESSURE

mmHg ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

Pr1 620 140

Pr2 385 375

Pr3 230 530

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 68


Table: 7(Design pressure detail)

Amount of oil =61.77333 Kg/hr

Amount hexane =406.1433 Kg/hr

(Oil +Hexane) in feed = (61.77333 +406.1433)

=467.9167 Kg/hr

Feed rate (Wf) = 467 .9167

3600

=0.129977 Kg/sec

Initial concentration of oil =61 . 77333467 . 9167

=0.132018%

Initial concentration of hexane=406 .1433467 .9167

=0.867982%

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 69


FIRST EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Steam At 115°C At 1.5 Kg PressureLatent Heat =605 KJ∆t1 = ts1-ts2

=115-65

=50 oC

We assume, Hexane will be evaporated at 1st effect evaporator=85% =085

Hexane evaporated in 1st effect=0.85*406.1433

=345.2218Kg/hr

At Bottom evaporated=(467.9167−345.2218 )

=122.6948Kg/hr

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 70


SECOND EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Due to the equilibrium the vapor of hexane is fed in to the tube side of the evaporator at same temp (650C)

Feed for 2nd Effect=122.6948 Kg/hr

Oil in feed=61.77333Kg/hr

Hexane in feed=122.6948-61.77333

=60.9215Kg/hr

Oil in feed in 2nd evaporator=( 61 .77333∗100122 .6948 )

=50.34713%

Hexane in feed in second evaporator =( 60.9215122.6948 )

=49.65287%

Now, we assume 75% of Hexane evaporated from second effect evaporator at 50 0C and 385mmHg.

Hexane evaporated in 2nd effect =(0.75∗60.9215 )

=45.69113 Kg/hr

Outlet of 2nd effect evaporator = (122.6948−45.69113 )

=77.00371Kg/hr

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 71


THIRD EFFECT EVAPORATOR:

Due to the equilibrium the vapors of hexane is fed in to the tube side of the evaporator at 35 0C temperature.

Feed for third effect evaporator=77.00371Kg/hr

Oil in feed =61.77333Kg/hr

Hexane in feed =(77.00371−61.77333 )

=15.23038Kg/hr

Wt of oil in feed =( 61.77333∗10077.00371 )

=80.22124%

Wt of Hexane in feed=( 15.23038∗10077.00371 )

=19.77876%

Now, we assume 100% of Hexane evaporated from third effect evaporator at 35 0C and 230mmHg.

Hexane evaporated in 3rd effect =(1∗15.23038 )

=15.23038Kg/hr

Outlet of 2nd effect evaporator = (77.00371−15.23038 )

¿61.77333 Kg /hr

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 72


TOTAL HEXANE RECOVERED BY EVAPORATION (1st + 2nd +3rd)

= (345.2218+45.69113+15.23038 )

= 406.1433Kg/hr

Temperature difference in 1st effect (∆ t 1 )=(115−65 )

=50°C


=15°C


=15°C

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 73


5.3 ENERGY BALANCE:

OVEARLL HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT (ASSUME) FOR SHELL SIDE LIGHT ORAGANICS AND TUBE SIDE STEAM ARE U1, U2 AND U3.

U1=1100 W/m²*°C

U2=900 W/m²*°C

U3=800 W/m²*°C

Now we have assumed heat transfer rate’s to be equal, Q1=Q=2=Q3

So, (U 1∗A 1∗∆ t 1 )=(U 2∗A 2∗∆ t 2 )=(U 3∗A 3∗∆ t 3 )

We design the triple effect evaporator such that the heating area in all three is the same,

A1=A2=A3

So, (U 1∗∆ t 1 )=(U 2∗∆ t 2 )=(U 3∗∆ t 3 )

( ∆ t 2∆ t 1 )=( U 1

U 2 )=( 1100900 )=1.22222

(∆t 1)=(∆ t 2∗U 1U 2 )=( 900

1100)=0.818182

( ∆ t 3∆ t 2 )=( U 2

U 3 )=( 900800 )=1.125

(∆t 3)=(∆ t 2∗U 2U 3 )=1.125

∆t1+∆t2+∆t3 =50 + 15 + 15 =80°C

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 74


(∆ t 2∗U 1U 2 )+∆ t 2+(∆ t 2∗U 2

U 3 )=80

∆ t 2∗((U 1U 2 )+1+( U 2

U 3 ))=80

∆ t 2*(0.818182+1+1.125 )=80

∆ t 2∗2.943184=80

∆ t 2=( 802.943184 )=27.18147°C

So, ∆ t 1=¿22.23938°C

∆t2= 27.18147°C

∆ t 3=¿30.57915°C

∆t1 22.23938°C

∆t2 27.18147°C

∆t3 30.57915°C

Table: 8( Temperature difference for designing)

ACTUAL BOILING POINTS IN EACH EFFECT:

1st EFFECT:-

T1¿ (Ts−∆ t 1 )

¿ (115−22.23938 )

¿92.76062°C

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 75


2nd EFFECT

T2¿ (T 1−(BPR ) 1−∆t 2 )

¿ (92.76062−0−27.18147 )

¿65.57915°C

3rd EFFECT

T3¿ (T 2−(BPR ) 2−∆ t 3 )

¿ (65.57915−0−30.57915 )

¿35°C

5.4 HEAT BALABNCE:

1ST EFFECT

Ws*Ls + Wf*Hf=W1*H1+ (Wf-W1)*h1

Latent heat of steam at 115 C (saturated steam) Ls = 2699.36 KJ/Kg

Mass fraction of oil¿61.77333467.9167

=0.132018

Mass fraction of hexane¿406.1433467.9167

=0.867982

Cp of oil ¿0.5

Cp of Hexane¿0.54

Cpf ¿ ( Mass fraction of oil∗Cpof oil )+( Mass fraction of hexane∗Cp of Hexane ) ¿ (0.132018∗0.5+0.867982∗0.54 ) ¿0.534719

Enthalpy of feed at inlet temperature (Tf=28 oC) Hf¿Cpf∗(Tf −0 ) ¿0.534719∗4.18∗(28−0 )

¿62.58355 KJKg

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 76


H2s=Enthalpy of steam at 100 C¿2699.36 KJKg

(Cp ) steam=2257 KJKg

H1-enthalpy of vapor leaving the first effect evaporator

¿ H 2 s+(Cp ) steam∗(BPR1 ) superheated

¿2699.36+2257∗0

¿2699.36 KJKg

(Cp 1 )=( 62.58355100 )=0.6258355 KJ

Kg

(t 1 )=92.76062C

h1- Enthalpy of outlet from 1st effect evaporator at 92.76062C

¿Cp 1∗4.18∗(t 1−0 )

¿242.6611

Ws∗Ls+Wf∗Hf =W 1∗H 1+(Wf −W 1)∗h1

Ws∗2699.36+0.129977∗62.58355=W 1∗2699.36+ (0.129977−W 1 )∗242.6611

Ws∗2699.36−23.40591=W 1∗2456.699

Ws=W 1∗2456.699+23.405912699.36

Ws=0.91010∗W 1+0.008671¿(1)

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 77


2nd EFFECT

W1*L1 + (Wf-W1)*h1=W2*H2+(Wf-W1-W2)*h2

h2s ¿490 KJKg

Latent heat of steam at 115 C (saturated steam) L1 = H1-h2s ¿2699.36−490

¿2209.36 KJKg

H3s=Enthalpy of steam at 65 C¿2638.36 KJKg



¿ H 3 s+ (Cp ) steam∗(BPR 2 ) superheated

¿2638.36+2257∗0

¿2638.36 KJKg

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 78


(Cp 2 )=0.5345 KJKg

(t 2 )=65.57915C

h2- Enthalpy of outlet from 2nd effect evaporator at 65.57915C

¿Cp 2∗4.18∗(t 2−0 )

¿146.5176 KJKg

W 1∗L 1+(Wf −W 1)∗h1=W 2∗H 2+(Wf −W 1−W 2)∗h2

W 1∗2209.36+ (0.129977−W 1 )∗242.6611=W 2∗2638.36+(0.129977−W 1−W 2 )∗146.5176

W 1∗(2209.36−242.6611+146.5176 )+ (0.129977∗242.6611−0.129977∗146.5176 )=W 2∗(2638.36−146.5176)

W 1∗2113.2165+12.49645=W 2∗2491.8424

SoW 2 ¿ W 1∗2113.2165+12.496452491.8424

W 2=W 1∗0.848054+0.005015 ¿(2)

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 79


3rd EFFECT

W2*L2 + (Wf-W1-W2)*h2=W3*H3+(Wf-W1-W2-W3)*h3

h2s ¿301.76 KJKg

Latent heat of steam at 65.57915C (saturated steam) L2 = H2-h3s ¿2638.36−130.76

¿2336.6 KJKg

Hs=Enthalpy of steam at 35 C¿2580 KJKg



¿ H 4 s+ (Cp ) steam∗(BPR3 ) superheated

¿2580+2257∗0

¿2580 KJKg

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 80


(Cp 3 )=0.5345 KJKg

(t 3 )=35C

h3- Enthalpy of outlet from 3rd effect evaporator at 35C

¿Cp 3∗4.18∗(t 3−0 )

¿78.1974 KJKg

W 2∗L 2+(Wf−W 1−W 2)∗h2=W 3∗H 3+(Wf −W 1−W 2−W 3)∗h3

W 2∗2336.6+ (0.129977−W 1−W 2 )∗146.5176=W 3∗2580+ (0.129977−W 1−W 2−W 3 )∗78.1954

W 2∗(2336.6−146.5176+78.1954 )+0.129977∗(146.5176−78.1954 )=W 3∗(2580−78.1954)+W 1(146.5176−78.1954)

W 1∗68.3222−W 2∗2268.2778+W 3∗2501.8046=8.8803¿(3)

W2 value putting in equation (3)...

W 1∗68.3222−(W 1∗0.848054+0.005015)∗2268.2778+W 3∗2501.8046=8.8803

W 1∗(68.3222−0.848054∗2268.2778 )+W 3∗2501.8046=8.8803+0.005015∗2268.2778

−W 1∗1855.2999+W 3∗2501.8046=20.2557

W 3∗2501.8046=20.2557+W 1∗1855.2999

W 3 ¿20.2557+W 1∗1855.2999

2501.8046

W 3=0.0080964+W 1∗0.7416¿(4)

W2, W3 values putting in equation (3)

W 1∗68.3222−(W 1∗0.848054+0.005015)∗2268.2778+(0.0080964+W 1∗0.7416)∗2501.8046=8.8803

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 81


W 1∗(68.3222−0.848054∗2268.2778+0.7416∗2501.8046 )=8.8803+ (0.005015∗2268.2778 )−(0.0080964∗2501.8046)

W 1∗0.03843=0.006034

W 1 ¿0.0060340.03843

Kgsec

W 1=0 . 157 Kgsec

Similarly:

Ws=0 . 152 Kgsec

W 2=0.138 Kgsec

W 3=0 .119 Kgsec

Now, Q1=Ws*Ls

Q 1=0.152∗2699.36

¿410.3027 KJsec

But, Q1=U1*A1*∆t1

A1¿Q 1

U 1∗∆ t 1

¿410.3027

1100∗22.2394

A 1=16 .77m ²

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 82


Q2=W1*L1

Q 2=0.157∗2209.36

¿346.87 KJsec

But, Q2=U1*A2*∆t2

A2¿Q 2

U 2∗∆ t 2

¿346.87

900∗27.18147

A 2=14 .18m ²

Q3=W2*L2

Q 3=0.138∗2336.6

¿322.4508 KJsec

But, Q3=U3*A3*∆t3

A3¿Q 3

U 3∗∆t 3

¿322.4508

800∗30.5715

A 3=13 . 18m ²

Average Area (A) =14.71m²

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 83


345.2218Kg/hr 45.69113 Kg/hr 15.23038Kg/hr

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 84

65°C 50°C 35°C

115 °C 50°C 65°C

FEED 467.9167 Kg/hr

115 °C STEAM

620 mmHg 330 mmHg 180 mmHg

Total Hexane evaporate

406.1433Kg/hr


To condenser To hexane cooler- 1 To hexane cooler-2

122.6948Kg/hr 77.00371Kg/hr 61.77333Kg/hr

FIG: (16) TRIPPEL EFFECT EVAPORATOR

CHAPTER: 6VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 85

Total Oil

Collected 61.77Kg/Hr


COST ESTIMATION

Acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under conditions, which will yield profit. Since net profit equals total value minus all expenses, it is essential that the chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of cost involved in the manufacturing processes. Capital must allocate for the direct, plant expenses, such as those for raw material, labor and equipment. Besides direct expenses many others indirect expenses are incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to be obtained. Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salary, product distribution cost and cost for interplant communication.

A capital investment is required for every industrial process and determination of necessary investment is an important part of a plant design process. The total investment for any process consist fixed capital investment for practical equipment and facilities in the plant plus working capital, which must be available to pay salaries, keep raw material and products on hand, and handle other special items requiring the direct cost outline.

When the cost for any type of commercial process is to be determined, sufficient accuracy has to be provided for reliable decision. There are many factors affecting investment and production cost. These are;

1. Source of equipment2. Price fluctuation3. Company policies

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 86


4. Operating and rate of production5. Governmental policies

Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, a large sum of money must be supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment. Land and service facilities must be obtained, and the plant must be erected completely with all piping, controls and services. The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the fixed-capital investment, while that necessary for the operation of plant is termed the working capital.

The sum of the fixed capital investment and the working is known as the total capital investment. Generally, the working capital amounts 10-20% of the total capital investment. Following is the breakdown of the fixed capital investment for a chemical process.

6.1 DIRECT COST:

1. Purchased equipments2. Purchased equipment installation3. Instrumentation and control4. Piping5. Electrical equipment and material6. Building (including services)7. Yard improvement8. Land

6. 2 INDIRECT COST:

1. Engineering supervision2. Construction expenses3. Contractor’s fee4. Contingency

6.3 TYPES OF CAPITAL COST ESTIMATE

Order of magnitude estimate (ratio estimate) based on similar cost data; probable accuracy of this estimate over ± 30%.

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 87


Study estimate based on knowledge of major items of equipment, probable accuracy of this estimate up to ± 30%.

Preliminary estimate (budget authorization estimate scope method): based on sufficient data to permit the estimate to the budget, probable accuracy of this estimate is within ± 20%.

Detailed estimate based on complete engineering drawing, specifications and site survey, probable accuracy of this estimate within ± 10%.

6.4 COST ESTIMATION

Basic: - 5,000 Kg/day

(a) Dehuling, Grinder ,palletizer cost Approximately =35000 Rs(b) Extraction unit 10 stage:

Cost of single stage:Total volume for single stage ¿2 (1.5∗0.15∗0.0254 )+2 (1∗0.212∗0.0254 ) ¿0.02219 m3

Weight¿Volume∗Density

¿0.02219∗800 0

¿177.52 KgPrice of one stage with fabrication ¿250 Kg ¿ (177.52∗250 ) ¿44,380 Rs Cost of 10 stage=44,380∗10 ¿4,43,800 Rs Cost of Belt=13,000 Rs

Cost of Roller, Bearing and Motor ¿20000 RsSo, Total Cost for Extraction Unit ¿4,76,800 Rs

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 88


(c) Condenser :- Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Inner Pipe Di ¿12

=3.80 c and L¿3.54 m

Outer Pipe Do¿5.4 cm and L¿3.54mCost Approximately ¿45,000 Rs

(d) Storage Tank:-Miscella¿10.33 m ³=12 KL(SS 304)Oil ¿1.334 m ³=2KL (SS 304)Hexane¿12KL (SS304)Water ¿3 KL(SS 304)Total Cost Approximately ¿29 Lac

(e) Piping, pump miscellaneous (approximately)¿12,00,000 RsTotal Fixed Capital Investment Cost¿41,56,800 Rs

(1) DIRECT COST (D.C)

1) Total Purchased Equipment Cost (25 % of FCI )=41,56,800∗2525

¿41,56,800 Rs

2) Installation Cost (25 % of FCI ) ¿41,56,800∗10

25 ¿16, 62,720 Rs

3) Instrument & Control Installed(8% of FCI )=41,56,800∗825

¿13,30,176 Rs

4) Piping Installation Cost (18 % of FCI )=41,56,800∗1825

¿29,92,896 Rs

5) Electrical Installation Cost (6 % of FCI )=41,56,800∗625

¿9,97,632 Rs

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 89


6) Building Process & Auxiliary (5 % of FCI )=41,56,800∗525

¿8,31,360 Rs

7) Service Facilities (1%of FCI )=41,56,800∗125

¿1,66,272 Rs

8) Yard Improvement(1.5 %of FCI )=41,56,800∗1.525

¿2,49,408 Rs

9) Land(1.5 %of FCI )=41,56,800∗1.525

¿2,49,408 Rs

TOTAL DIRECT COST (76 % of FCI )=41 ,56 ,800∗7625

¿1 ,26 ,36 , 672 Rs

(2) INDIRECT COST (I.C)

Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual installation or complete facility.

1) Engineering & Supervision Cost (7% of D . C )=1,26,36,672∗0.07 ¿8,84,357.04 Rs

2) Construction Expenses Cost (8% of D .C )=1,26,36,672∗0.08 ¿10,10,933.76 Rs

3) Contractor Fees (2 %of D .C )=1,26,36,672∗0.02 ¿2,52,733.44 Rs

4) Contingency:(7 % of D .C )=1,26,36,672∗0.07 ¿8,84,357.04 Rs

TOTAL DIRECT COST (24 % of D.C )=1 , 26 ,36 ,672∗0 .24

¿30 , 32,801 . 28Rs

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 90


3) FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT (F.C.I):

FCI=DC+ IC

¿1 ,26 ,36 , 672+30 ,32 ,801 .28

¿1 ,56 ,69 , 473 . 28 Rs

4) WORKING CAPITALA INVESTMENT (WCI):(15 % of FCI )=1,56,69,473.28∗.15

¿23,50,420.992 Rs

5) TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI): TCI=FCI+WCI ¿1,56,69,473.28+23,50,420.992 ¿1,80,19,894.27 Rs

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST (TPC):

FIXED CHARGES:

A) Depreciation :( 10 % of TCI for machinery )¿1,80,19,894.27∗0.10

¿18,01,989.427 Rs

B) Local taxes :( 3 % of TCI )¿1,80,19,894.27∗0.03

¿5,40,596.83 Rs

C) Insurance:( 1 % of TCI )¿1,80,19,894.27∗0.01

¿1,80,198.9 Rs

D) Rent:( 9 % of TCI)¿1,80,19,894.27∗0.09 ¿16,21,790.5 Rs

TOTAL FIXED CHARGES:(23 % of TCI )=1,80,19,894.27∗0.23

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 91


¿41,44,575.682 Rs

But, Fixed Charges ¿10 %of TFC

¿41,44,575.682∗0.1

¿4,14,457.5682 Rs

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST¿4,14,457 . 5682 Rs

DIRECT PRODUCTION:

a) Raw material:(30 % of TPC )=4,14,457.5682∗0.30¿12,43,337.27 Rs

b) Operating labour cost:(15 % of TPC )=4,14,457.5682∗0.15¿6,21,668.64 Rs

c) Direct Supervision and Electric labour:(15 % of TPC )=6,21,668.64∗0 .15¿93,250.3 Rs

d) Utilities:(15 % of TPC )=4,14,457.5682∗0.15¿6,21,668.64 Rs

e) Maintenance : (6 % of TPC )=4,14,457.5682∗0.06¿24,867.45 Rs

f) Operating supplies (OS): (15 % of maintenance )=24,867.45∗0.15¿3,730.19 Rs

g) Laboratory charges: (15 % of OL )=6,21,668.64∗0.15¿93,250.3 Rs

h) Patent and royalties:(4 %of TPC )=4,14,457.5682∗0.04¿16578.3 Rs

PLANT OVERHEAD COST:(5% of TPC )

¿414457.5682∗0.05

¿20 ,722 .88 Rs

MANUFACTURING COST (MC): ¿(TPC+Fixescharges+Plant Overhead Cost )

¿4,14,457.5682+41,44,575.682+20,722.88

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 92


¿45 , 79 , 756 .13 Rs

GENERAL EXPENSES:

a) Administration Cost: (40−60 % of OL )

Assume 55%

¿93,250.3∗0.55

¿51287.67 Rs

b) Distribution & selling Cost :(2−30 % of TPC )Assume ¿4,14,457.5682∗0.15 ¿62,168.64 Rs

c) Research & Development Cost :(3%of TPC ) ¿4,14,457.5682∗0.03 ¿12,433.73 Rs

GENERAL EXPENSES¿51,287.67+62,168.64+12,433.73

¿1 ,25 , 890 .04 Rs

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST:¿ MANUFACTURING COST ( MC )+GENERAL EXPENSES

¿45,79,756.13+1,25,890.04 ¿47 ,05 , 646 .17 Rs

GROSS EARNING & RATE OF RETURN:

The plant is working for say 300days a year.

Selling Price: ¿36 Rs/ Kg

Total Income ¿(5000 KgDays )∗(300 Days

Year )∗(36 RsKg

)

¿5,40,00,000 Rs

GROSS INCOME¿TOTAL INCOME+TOTALPRODUCTION COST

¿5,40,00,000+47,05,646.17 ¿4,92,94,353.83 Rs

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 93


TAX=50 %

NET PROFIT=4,92,94,353.83∗0.50

¿2 ,46 ,47 ,177 RsYear

RATE OF RETURN¿ NET PROFITTOTALCAPITALCOST

¿2,46,47,1771,80,19,894

¿1 .37 %

BREAK EVEN POINT CALCULATION (BEP):

The breakeven point occurs when the total annual production cost equals the total annual sales. The total annual product cost is the sum of fixed costs (including fixed charges, overhead, and general expenses) and the direct production of units and the selling price per unit.

Production cost per Kg¿Total Diret ProductionCost

Annual Rate

Annual Rate¿(5000 KgDays )∗(300 Days )

¿15 , 00 , 000 Kg

Product cost¿51,287.67

1500

¿35 RsKg

Total Fixed Charges:

¿(GENERAL EXPENSES+¿Charges+PLANT OVERHEADCOST )

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 94


¿1,25,890.04+41,44,575.682+20,722.88

¿42 ,91 ,188. 602 Rs

Now, cost of Jatropha oil per Kg= 36 Rs/Kg

So, Kg of oil at breakeven point 42,91,188.602+¿35n =36n

n=42 , 91 ,188 .602 KgYear

Thus, Break-even point is 42 ,91 ,188. 602 KgYear

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 95


CHAPTER: 7INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL

The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes are:

7.1 SAFE PLANT OPERATION:

To keep the process variable within safe operating limits.

To dictate dangerous situation as they develop and provide alarms automatic shut down system

To provide interlock and alarms to prevent dangerous operating system.

(a) Production Rate: To achieve the desired product output.

(b) Product Quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified quality

standards.

(c) Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost commensurate with the objective but

sometimes it may be better strategy to produce a better quality at a higher cost.VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 96


In a typical chemical plant, these objectives are achieved by combination of automatic control,

manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.

7.2 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM:

(A) Level Control

In many equipment, where an interface exists between two phases some means of

maintaining the interface the required level must be provided. This may be incorporated

in the design of the equipment as is usually done for the decanters or by automatic control

of the flow to the equipment.

(B) Pressure Control

Pressure control will be necessary for most system handling vapor or gas, the

method of control will depend on the nature of the process.

(C)Flow control

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 97


Flow control is usually associated with inventory control in a storage tank or other

equipment; there must be a reservoir to tank up the change in flow rate. To provide flow

control as a compressor pump running at a fixed speed and supplying near constant volume

output by a bypass control is used.

(D)Heat Exchanger

In heat exchanger the temp, being controlled by varying the flow of the cooling or

heating medium.

(E) Condenser Control

Temperature control is unlike to e effective for condenser unless the liquid steam

is sub- cooled.

7.3 ALARM AND SAFETY TRIPS AND INTERLOCK

Alarms are used to alert operations of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in

process conditions. Key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible and

visual alarm on the control panels lack of response by the operator is likely to land on the rapid

development of a hazardous situation, the instrument would be fitted with a trip system to take

action automatically to prevent the hazard, such as shutting down pumps, closing valves,

operating energy.

The basic components of an automatic trip system are:

A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a present value is

exceeded instrument.

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 98


A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually consisting of a system of pneumatic or electric

relays.

An actuator to carry out required action: Close or open value, switch off monitor.

7.4 PROCESS AND INSTUMENT DIAGRAM:

VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 99


VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 100


CHAPTER: 8UTILITY

The word utilities are not generally used for the ancillary service needed in the operation of the any production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central site facility, and will include:



(1) Electricity(2) Steam for process heating(3) Cooling water(4) Water for general use(5) Deminerlised water(6) Refrigeration(7) Effluent disposal facilities

8.1 ELECTRICITY

The power required for electro chemical processes , motor drives lighting and general use may be generated on sight, but will more usually by purchased from the local supply company. The voltage at which the supply is taken or generated will depend on the demand. For a large site the supply will be taken at a very high voltage. Transformer will be used to step down the supply voltage to the voltages used on site.

8.2 STEAM

The steam for heating is usually generated in water boiler using the most economical fuel level available. The process temperature required can usually be obtained with low temperature steam and steam distributed at relatively low pressure. High pressure or proprietary heat transfer fluids, such as down therm will be needed for high process temperature.

8.3 COOLING WATER

Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water required in a site; unless water can be drawn from a convenient river or lake in sufficient quantity.

8.4 WATER FOR GENERAL USE

The water required for general purposes on a site will usually be taken from the local mains supply, unless a cheaper source of suitable quantity water is available from a river, lake or well.

8.5 DEMINERLISED WATER

Deminerlised water from which all the minerals have been removed by ion exchange, is used where pure water is needed for process use, and as boiler feed water. Mixed and multiple



bed ion exchange units are used, one resin converting the cations to hydrogen and the other removing the acid radicals. Water with less than one ppm of dissolved solids can be produced.

8.6 REFRIGERATION

It will be needed for processes that require temperatures below those that can be economically obtained with cooling water. For temperatures down to around 100 C chilled water can be used. For lower temperatures, down to -30 0C, salt brines are used to distribute the “refrigeration” round the site from a central refrigeration machine.

8.7 EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

Facilities will be required at all sites for the disposal of waste materials without creating a public nuisance.



CHAPTER: 9PLANT LOCATION AND

LAYOUT



9.1 PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION:

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project and the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site. The factors to be considered are:

1. Location with respect to the marketing area2. Raw material supply.3. Transport facilities.4. Availability of labor.5. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power.6. Availability of suitable land.7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.8. Local community considerations.9. Climate.10. Political and strategic considerations.

Marketing Area:

For materials that are produced in bulk quantities such as cement, mineral acids and fertilizers where the cost of the product per ton is relatively low and the cost of transport a significant fraction of the sales price, the plant should be located close to the primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume production, high-priced products, such as pharmaceuticals.

Raw Materials:

The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the location. Plant producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material: where this is also close to the marketing area.

Transport:

The transport of materials & products to & from the plant will be an overriding consideration in site selection. If practicable, site should be selected that is close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river) or a sea port.

Road transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for long-distance transport of bulk chemicals. Air transport is convenient & efficient for the movement of personnel &essential equipment & supplies & the proximity of the site airport should be considered.



Availability of labor:

Labor will be needed for construction of the plant & its operation. Skilled construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate pool of unskilled labor available locally; & labor suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.

Local trade union customs & restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability & suitability of the local labor for recruitment & training.

Utilities (Services)

Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling & general process use & the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quantity. Process water may be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority. At some sites the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations cooling tower will be needed.

Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical processes that require large quantities of power; for example, aluminum smelters need to be located close to a cheap source of power. A competitive priced fuel must be available on site for steam & power generation.

Environment impact & disposal:

All industrial processes produce waste products & full consideration must be given to the difficulties & cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic & harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations & the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment should be made for each new project or major modification or addition to an existing process.

Local community considerations:

The proposed plant must fit in with & be acceptable to the local community. Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel: school, banks, housing & recreational & cultural facilities.



Land (site selection):

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant & for future expansion.The land should ideally be flat, well drained & have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need of piling or other special formations.

Climate:

Adverse climate conditions at a site will increase cost. Abnormally low temperatures will require the prohibition of additional insulation & special heating for equipment & pipe runs. Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds (cyclone hurricane areas) or earthquakes.

Political & Strategic Considerations:

Capital grants tax concessions & other inducements are often given by the government to direct renew investments to preferred locations, such as areas of high unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.



9.2 SITE LAYOUT:

The process units & ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical flow of materials & personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to the future expansion of the site. The ancillary buildings & services required on a site, in addition to the main processing units will include:

1. Storages for raw materials & products: tank farms & warehouses.2. Maintenance workshops.3. Stores for maintenance & operating supplies.4. Laboratories for process control5. Fire stations & other emergency services.6. Utilities: steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration, transformer Stations7. Effluent disposal plant.8. Offices for general administration.9. Canteens & other amenity buildings, such as medical centers.10. Car parks

When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited first & arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps, from raw material to final product storage.

Process units are normally spaced at least 30m apart; greater spacing may be needed for hazardous processes. The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between buildings. Administration offices & laboratories, in which a relatively large number of people will be working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes.

Control rooms will normally be located be located adjacent to the processing units, but with potentially hazardous processes may have to be sited at a safer distance. The sitting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys & drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction, & for operation & maintenance.

Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to & from the process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume of condensate spray drifts away from the plant area & adjacent properties.

The main storage area should be placed between the loading & unloading facilities & the process units they serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited at least 70m from the site boundary.



9.3 PLANT LAYOUT:

The economic construction & efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how well he plant & equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid out. The principal factors to be considered are:

1. Economic consideration: construction & operating cost2. The process requirements3. Convenience of operation4. Convenience of maintenance5. Safety6. Future expansion7. Modular construction

CostsThe cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest

run of connecting pipe between equipment & the least amount of structural steel work. However this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation & maintenance.

Process Requirements

An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump or the operating head for a thermosyphon reboiler.

Operator

Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and head room must be provided to allow easy access to equipments.

Maintenance

Heat exchangers need to be cited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be placed under cover.



Safety

Blast walls maybe needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in the process buildings.

Plant Expansion

Equipments should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and services pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.



9.4 MODULAR CONSTRUCTIONS

In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.

The advantage of modular construction is:

(1) Improved quality control

(2) Reduced construction cost

(3) Less need for skilled labor on site.

(4) Less need for a skilled personal on overseas sites.

Some of the disadvantages are:

(1) Higher design costs.

(2) More structural steel work.

(3) More flanged connections.

(4) Possible problems with assembly on site.



9.5 PLANT LAYOUT FLOWSHEET



CHAPTER: 10

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET



10.1 JATROPHA OIL

SECTION 1. IDENTIFICATION:

Product name: Jatropha seed oil

Taxonomy Current name: Jatropha curcas

Common local names:

Afrikaans Purgeerboontjie

Arabic Dand barri, habel meluk

Bengali Bagbherenda, erandagachh.

Chinese Yu-Lu-Tzu.

Dutch Purgeernoot

English Barbados Nut, Castor Oil, Chinese Castor Oil, Curcas, Fig Nut, Physic Nut, Pig Nut, Purging Nut, Wild Oil Nut

Filipino Tubang-Bakod

French Feuilles Médecin, Grand Médecinier, Médecinier, Médicinier

Hindi Bagbherenda, jangliarandi, safedarand

Italian: Fagiola d’India

Luganda Kiryowa

Indonesian Jarak Budge

Nepali Kadam

Portuguese Mundubi-Assu, Purgueira

Sanskrit Kananaeranda, Kananaerend, Parvataranda

Spanish Pinol, Pinon,

Tamil Kadalamanakku, Kattamanakku

Thai Sabudam

Table 9: Common local names of Jatropha seed oil



Family: Euphorbiaceous

Synonym(s): Curcas purgans Medic; Castiglionia lobata Ruiz and Pav.; Curcas adansonii Endl. ex Heynh.; Curcas curcas (L.) Britton and Millsp.; Curcas indica A. Rich.; Curcas purgans Medic.; Jatropha acerifolia Salisb.; Jatropha edulis Cerv.; Ricinus americanus Miller.; Ricinus jarak Thunb.

Trade name: Jatropha oil, Fig nut oil, Physic nut oil, Hell oil

SECTION 2. INGREDIENTS:

Product is supplied as a whole seed / kernel oil. It is a non-food grade material for industrial use only.

Free fatty acid composition:

Myristic acid (14:0) 0-0.1 %

Palmitic acid (16:0) 14.1-15.3 %

Stearic acid (18:0) 3.7-9.8 %

Arachidic acid (20:0) 0-0.3 %

Behenic acid (22:0) 0-0.2 %

Palmitoleic acid (16:1) 0-1.3 %

Oleic acid (18:1) 34.3-45.8 %

Linoleic acid (18:2) 29.0-44.2 %

Linoleic acid (18:3) 0-0.3 %

Chemical parameters:

Diglycerides (% m/m): 2.7

Triglycerides (% m/m): 97.3

Water (% m/m): 0.07

Phosphorus (mg kg-1): 290

Calcium (mg kg-1): 56

Magnesium (mg kg-1): 103

Iron (mg kg-1): 2.4



Toxic ingredients:

1. Phorbol esters:

Concentration (2-4 mg/g oil), co-carcinogenic to animals, mutagenic to mammalian somatic cells, bacteria and yeast. Produce cathartic and degenerative changes in gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, brain. Ingestion causes bloody diahorrea, collapse, fall of blood pressure, trachycardia, coma and death (in rats). Repeated application on skin leads to hyperplasia (in mice).

2. Jatropherol:

Is a phorbol type diterpenes (0.12-0.14 mg/g oil) found highly toxic to silk worm larvae after ingestion with LC50 values 0.58, 0.22, 0.157 mg/ml at 48, 72, 120 h respectively. The oral toxicity of jatropherol to mi e was found to be 82.198 mg/kg body weight.

SECTION 3. PHYSICAL DATA:

Density at 15°C (gcm-3): 0.92

Viscosity at 30°C (C St): 52

Flash point (°C): 240

State: Liquid at room temperature

Solubility: Organic solvents. Insoluble in water

Appearance: Similar to Castor oil

Odor: Similar to raw castor oil

Color: Golden yellow

Refractive index: 1.4735

Free fatty acids (% as C18:1) 4.54— 6.7

Acid value (mg KOH. g-1) 1.24— 4.24

Total saturated (%) 22.3

Total mono unsaturated (%) 42 – 43.1

Total PUFA (%) 34 – 36

Iodine value (mg.I2.g-1) 97.1—111.6

Saponification value (mg KOH.g-1) 169.9—197



Calorific value 37.8 MJ/kg

SECTION 4. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA

Extinguishing media:

Carbon dioxide, dry chemical/powder or foam spray.

Special fire fighting procedures:

If involved in fire, don NIOSH/MSHA approved self-contained breathing apparatus and

flame/chemical resistant.

SECTION 5. HEALTH HAZARD DATA

Signs and symptoms of exposure:

Ingestion

Human:

Data not available but available for seed, Expected to be similar for seeds causing vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and burning sensation in the throat.

Ruminants:

Data not available. The symptoms are expected to be similar for seeds causing diarrhea, dyspnea, dehydration, paresis of the hind limbs and recumbency before death. Lack of appetite, reduced water consumption, sunken eyes and reduction in glycogen content were important signs. Histopathology showed hemorrhage in rumen, reticulum, kidney, spleen and heart, emphysema and cyanosis, tracheal froths, as cites and hydro pericardium, congestion of lung.

Rats:

Haemolysis of blood, destruction of mucous layer, intense inflammation in the intestine in the rats.

Skin contact:

Generally no effect, may cause irritation in some individuals

Eye contact:

Data not available, contact may cause irritation and conjunctivitis.



Acute effects of exposure:

May cause skin, eye and upper respiratory irritation.

Chronic effects of overexposure:

Harmful to the skin and eyes, may cause tumor promotion. Emergency and First Aid Procedures:

Swallowing:

If swallowed, wash mouth out with water and immediately call a physician.

Skin:

If skin contact occurs, immediately wash skin with soap and water.

Inhalation:

If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation

(CPR) and call a physician.

Eyes:

If eye contact occurs, flush eyes with water for at least 15 minutes. Assure adequate

flushing by separating eyelids with fingers. Consult a physician if irritation persists.

SECTION 6. REACTIVITY DATA

Stability

Stable when kept away from light, exposure to atmosphere and other oxidizing agents. Like any other oil turns rancid on exposure to air

.

SECTION 7. SPILL OR LEAK PROCEDURES:

Waste disposal:

Discharge, treatment or disposal may be subject to local laws.

Steps to be taken if material is spilled or released:

Wear protective gloves, lab coat and safety glasses. Use vermiculite or another suitable absorbent to clean up the spill. After cleanup, wash down the spill site with water containing



detergent and wash with water, ventilate the area. Prevent from entering drains, surface and ground water. Place all contaminated materials in an appropriate waste container and dispose of in accordance with federal, state and local regulations. III. Handling and Storage

SECTION 8. HANDLING AND STORAGE

Handling:

Avoid contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Protective gloves, lab coat and safety glasses should be worn when handling this product.

Storage:

Store in a cool area. The oil should be stored in airtight, dark colored container to avoid direct contact with sunlight. Keep away from oxidizing agents, alkalies, acids and flammable materials.

Transport:

May be transported in a manner similar to other vegetable oils. The containers used after transporting Jatropha oil should be thoroughly cleaned and made free of toxins before transporting other oil, liquid or material

SECTION 9. EXPOSURE CONTROL/PERSONAL

Protection Information:

Wear protective gloves, safety glasses and lab coat when working with this product. An eyewash station and safety shower should be in proximity to the work area. The working area should be good ventilated, preferably with an air exhaust. Ensure that all ignition sources are removed from the area before working with this product. Dispose of all waste in accordance with federal, state and local regulations.

To the best of our knowledge the above information is true and accurate but does not purport to be all-inclusive and shall be used only as a guide.

This information relates only to the specific material designated (here Jatropha curcas oil), and may not be valid for such materials used in combination with any other materials or in any other process.



10.2 SAFETY SHEET HEXANE

SECTION 1: CHEMICAL PRODUCT AND COMPANY IDENTIFICATION:

Product Name: Hexanes Chemical Name: Hexane

Chemical Formula: C6-H14

SECTION 2: COMPOSITION AND INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Toxicological Data on Ingredients:

Hexane: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 25000 mg/kg [Rat].

SECTION 3: HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION

Potential Acute Health Effects:

Hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator) of ingestion, of inhalation.

Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant).

Potential Chronic Health Effects:

The substance may be toxic to peripheral nervous system, skin, central nervous system (CNS).Repeated or prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage.

SECTION 4: FIRST AID MEASURES

Eye Contact:

Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water forat least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Get medical attention if irritation occurs.

Skin Contact:

Wash with soap and water. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Get medicalattention if irritation develops.



Serious Skin Contact:

Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterialcream. Seek medical attention.

Inhalation:

If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing isdifficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.

Serious Inhalation:

Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.

Ingestion:

Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never giveanything by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.

SECTION 5: FIRE AND EXPLOSION DATA

Flammability of the Product: Flammable.

Auto-Ignition Temperature: 225°C (437°F)

Flash Points: CLOSED CUP: -22.5°C (-8.5°F). (TAG)

Flammable Limits: LOWER: 1.15% UPPER: 7.5%

Products of Combustion: These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2).

Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Highly flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat.

Non-flammable in presence of shocks.



Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:

Flammable liquid, insoluble in water.

SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder.

LARGE FIRE: Use water spray or fog.

Special Remarks on Fire Hazards:

Extremely flammable liquid and vapor. Vapor may cause flash fire.

SECTION 6: ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Small Spill:

Absorb with an inert material and put the spilled material in an appropriate waste disposal.

Large Spill:

Flammable liquid, insoluble in water. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Stop leak if without risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible material. Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal. Be careful that the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with local authorities.

SECTION 7: HANDLING AND STORAGE

Precautions:

Keep locked up.. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Avoid contact with skin. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the label. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents.



Storage:

Store in a segregated and approved area. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition (spark or flame).

SECTION 8: EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION

Engineering Controls:

Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep the airborne concentrations of vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location.

Personal Protection:

Safety glasses, Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or equivalent, Gloves.

Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill

Splash goggles, Full suit, Vapor respirator, Boots, Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.

SECTION 9: STABILITY AND REACTIVITY DATA

Stability: The product is stable.

Conditions of Instability: Heat, ignition sources, incompatibles.

Incompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing agents.

Special Remarks on Reactivity: Hexane can react vigorously with strong oxidizers (e.g. chlorine, bromine, fluorine)

Polymerization: Will not occur.



SECTION 10: TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Routes of Entry:

Absorbed through skin, dermal contact, Inhalation, Ingestion.

Toxicity to Animals:

WARNING: THE LC50 VALUES HEREUNDER ARE ESTIMATED ON THE BASIS OF A 4-HOUR EXPOSURE.

Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 25000 mg/kg [Rat].

Acute toxicity of the gas (LC50): 48000 ppm 4 hours [Rat].

Chronic Effects on Humans:

Mutagenic Effects: Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.

May cause damage to the following organs: peripheral nervous system, skin, central nervous system (CNS).

Other Toxic Effects on Humans:

Very hazardous in case of ingestion, of inhalation.

Hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator).

Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant).

Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans:

May cause adverse reproductive effects based on animal data.

May be tumorigenic based on animal data.

May affect genetic material.

Passes through the placental barrier in animal.



Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on HumansAcute Potential Health Effects:

Skin:May cause mild skin irritation. It can be absorbed through the skin in harmful amounts.

Eyes:May cause mild eye irritation.

Inhalation:

May be harmful if inhaled. Inhalation of vapors may cause respiratory tract irritation. Overexposure may affect, brain, spinal cord, behavior/central and peripheral nervous systems (lightheadness, dizziness, hallucinations, paralysis, blurred vision, memory loss, headache, euphoria, general anesthetic, muscle weakness, numbness of the extremities, asphyxia, unconsciousness and possible death), metabolism, respiration, blood, cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal system (nausea)

Ingestion:

May be harmful if swallowed. May cause gastrointestinal tract irritation with abdominal pain and nausea. May also affect the liver, blood, brain, peripheral and central nervous systems. Symptoms of overexposure by ingestion are similar to that of overexposure by inhalation.

SECTION 11: ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Products of Biodegradation:

Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely. However, long term degradation products may arise.

Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation:

The product itself and its products of degradation are not toxic.

SECTION 12: DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS

Waste Disposal:

Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental control regulations.



SECTION 13: TRANSPORT INFORMATION

DOT Classification: CLASS 3: Flammable liquid.

Identification: Hexane UNNA: 1208 PG: II



CHAPTER: 11REFRENCES



1. Perry, R.H. And Green D, “Perry Chemical Engineering Hand Book” By

Tata McGraw Hill, 6th Addition,1984

2. Robert E. Treybal For “Mass Transfer Operation”, 5th Addition

3. Dr.G.K.Roy, “Solved Example Of Chemical Engineering Mass Transfer

Operation”

4. Dr.G.K.Roy “Fundamental Of Heat And Mass Transfer For Chemical

Engineering.”

5. S.B.Thakore And B.I.Bhatt “Process Equipment Design-I” ,McGraw

Hill,2007

6. Richardson And Coulsion “Process Equipment Design”, 3rd Addition

7. Troika Group Of Industries, Mumbai

8. Bhatt.B.I And S.M.Vora, “Stoichiometri”c,4th Ed., Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing Co.Ltd.,New Delhi, 2004

9. Kern, D.Q., “Process Heat Transfer”, McGraw-Hill, USA,1950.

10.Smith, R.A.,Vaporiser: “Selection, Design and Operation”, Longmans,

UK,1986

11.“Process design of equipment “by Dr. Dawande S.D., 2nd Ed.,2000,p-425

12. M.S.PETERS,K.D.TIMMERHAUS,R.E.WEST; “Plant Design And

Economics For Chemical Engineering”, 5TH Ed.,McGraw-Hill, New

YorK,2003

13.Old Project report,2010.

14. http://www.troikaindia.com

15. WWW.journeytoforever.com

16. http://www.jetrophaoilextraction.com


http://www.jetrophaoilextraction.com/

http://WWW.journeytoforever.com/

http://www.troikaindia.com/


CHAPTER: 12APPENDIX



Appendix-1

VAPOR PRESSURE DATA

Vapor Pressure Data for Hexane (PA)

Vapor Pressure Data for Water (PB)

Temperature (°C)

Pressure (mmHg)

-10 2.1-5 3.20 4.6

+5 6.5+10 7.0+15 9.2+20 17.5+22 19.8+25 23.8+30 31.8+35 42.2+40 55.3+50 92.5+60 149.4+70 233.7+80 355.1+90 525.8+91 633.9+100 760


Temperature (°C)

Pressure( mmHg)

-53.9 1-34.5 5-25.0 10-14.1 20+2.3 40+5.4 60+15.8 100+31.6 200+49.6 400+68.7 760


APPENDIX-2

CONVERSION FACTOR


Fina Finall Report Jatropha

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