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FILM CREW COMPOSITION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT

by

Deborah Allison Joseph Lampel

EBK Working Paper 2006/05

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Film Crew Composition and Project Management

Deborah Allison and Joseph Lampel City University

Cass Business School Bunnhill Row

London EC1Y 8TZ

United Kingdom Tel: +44-(0) 20 7040 8669 Fax: +44-(0) 20 7040 8328 E-mail: lampel@city.ac.uk

Paper to be published in Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film, 2006.

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Introduction

Not all films have the vast crews that are now associated with big Hollywood

productions. Some of the earliest films required only a cameraman to perform

all the necessary duties, from selecting the subject to shooting, developing,

printing, editing and exhibiting the movie. As films became more complex and

increasingly relied on staged rather than documentary subjects, labour came to

be divided between the camera operator and the director. Manufacturers soon

discovered economic incentives for the simultaneous production of a range of

longer films. Whilst they required more workers and resources than their

predecessors, careful management allowed an increased economy in

production. Influenced by Frederick W. Taylor’s concept of ‘scientific

management’, producers deemed it most efficient to dedicate workers to

particular roles, encouraging increased levels of specialisation. The

development of the studio system in the United States during the 1910s helped

to establish the organisation of labour that has continued to characterise most

feature productions up to the present day. The crew are organised into

departments, each of which have distinct responsibilities in the filmmaking

process. Each of these departments employs a range of individuals with

specialised expertise, who work as a team to create the finished product.

The exact size of a film crew varies according to the budget, just as its

composition depends on the requirements of the specific film. For example, an

action thriller may require a large number of stuntmen, whereas an intimate

drama might not need any at all. A substantial wardrobe department would

have been needed to handle the 32,000 costumes used in Quo Vadis (1951),

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and an abnormally large camera team for Ben-Hur (1925), which used 48

cameras to shoot its sea battle scene. The crews of low budget and short films

are likely to be more modestly sized than those of major Hollywood productions,

with people doubling up to perform more than one task. The director and

producer Roger Corman, famed for making profitable films on very low budgets,

always insisted that job titles were not important on his film shoots, with crew

members expected to help with whatever task needed to be performed. On

bigger budget productions using unionised film crews, unions often forbid this

practice. To protect the interests of their members, they may insist that the crew

work within the strict limits of their job descriptions and that an appropriately

qualified union member is hired to perform each duty. For instance, when British

director Ridley Scott went to L.A. to make Blade Runner (1982), he was not

allowed to act as his own camera operator and had to hire somebody else to do

that job.

Some short films and experimental films, as well as certain types of

documentary such as direct cinema, are made with incredibly tiny crews. There

are even films that have been made entirely by one person, which has normally

happened when the film is comprised of animation or found footage. One of the

most impressive single-handed achievements is surely José Antonio Sistiaga’s

feature length abstract animation, Ere erera baleibu icik subua aruaren (1970),

for which he painted each frame directly onto the film stock. Stan Brakhage

made Mothlight (1963) by sandwiching flowers, leaves and dead moths

between two strips of film. Because he did not use a camera, he did not need a

cameraman, lighting crew, actors, or anyone else to create this film. For

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Notebook (1963), Marie Menken took her camera out into the street to film

interesting images such as reflections in a puddle. This too was completed

without the need for a film crew.

Most films, though, require lots of people who supply a wide range of expertise.

Some, such as the producer and, often, the director, are normally involved

throughout the production. Others are employed for only part of the process.

For example, a scriptwriter’s involvement often ends before filming even starts.

Others, such as the visual effects team, may not become involved until the

shoot is over. Some crew members, such as stunt men, may work on the film

for just a single day, and can therefore accrue very long lists of credits. The

division of labour across the production timescale is not always the same for

every film. For instance, the title sequence designer(s) may work with the

director from a very early stage in the production, as they did for Fight Club

(1999), or else they may not be brought in until a late stage of post-production

when a less ambitious title sequence may be one of the last elements to be

added before the film is complete.

As technology has changed so has the composition of the film crew. Technical

innovations have altered filmmaking practice and led to the creation of new

roles as well as reducing the need for others. The introduction of synchronised

sound in the late 1920s required a whole string of crew members to set up and

operate recording equipment and to edit the sound during post-production.

Conversely, the development of high quality digital cameras means that a

professional looking film can now be made without some of the crew previously

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required to handle the less wieldy 35mm camera and the substantial lighting it

demands.

Screen credits are a guide to the main participants in creating a film, but are not

a reliable index of the different compositions of film crews. In particular, they are

a poor guide to the way in which crews have changed over time. A lengthening

credit list does not necessarily mean that films now employ larger crews than

before, but rather that a higher proportion of workers are named where many

previously remained anonymous. Unions have been a powerful force in

determining credit allocation, as they all wish to ensure their members receive

due recognition. In an era where most film workers are freelance, rather than

under studio contract, it is especially important for their career that they receive

credit since this may affect their payment as well as their future employment

prospects.

Because of the enormous size and range of crew employed in filmmaking, not

every role can be itemised here; The Matrix Revolutions (2003), for example,

credited over 700 participants. The list below includes the department heads,

employed on most contemporary feature films, and some of the most common

roles within each department, as well as examples of some of the more

specialised crew members that certain films require. Entries are arranged in an

order roughly chronological to a film shoot, beginning with the producers’ team,

and progressing through pre-production, production and post-production.

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Producers and the Production Office

Film producers come in several varieties. The Producer initiates and

supervises all the processes involved in making a film. Core responsibilities

include selecting or commissioning the script, securing finance, hiring the

director and other departmental heads, monitoring the expenditure and

progress of the production to try to ensure that the film is completed on time and

within budget, and negotiating the sale of the film to distribution companies.

Films often have more than one producer and they are sometimes given

specific job titles according to the division of duties between them. An

Executive Producer does not have a hands-on involvement in the production

process, focuses on business rather than creative issues, and often supervises

other producers. An Associate Producer performs tasks delegated by a

producer or executive producer. Co-Producers work as a team so that between

them they are involved in all the different producer functions, including both

creative and managerial roles. A Line Producer is a manager who is intimately

involved in the day to day production processes.

Various supervisory staff oversee the different stages of film making to ensure

that they are completed on time and budget. The Production Manager works

in a similar way to the line producer to ensure the smooth running of the

production process, supervising staff and expenditure. The Production

Accountant handles the finances for the film, dealing with invoices and

financial reporting requirements. The Post-Production Supervisor is

responsible for overseeing the tasks that need to be completed after the shoot

has ended. A dedicated Post-Production Accountant may also be employed.

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The publicity department is in charge of promoting the film. Although the most

intensive marketing activity occurs in the immediate run-up to the film’s release,

gaining exposure for the film is an ongoing process beginning before production

even starts. The Publicity Director designs and oversees the publicity

campaign, and is based at the studio or head office. If the production company

is also distributing the film, they will take responsibility for commissioning and

approving materials such as posters and trailers. The Unit Publicist is often

present on the set and is responsible for arranging media interviews, collecting

information for press notes and selecting photographs to be issued to the press.

The Stills Photographer is present on set to take publicity pictures. They may

also take still pictures for use in the film, or photographs that act as records to

assist continuity.

The Director and Their Team

The Director has the main creative responsibility for the film. He or she is

normally involved in the project from an early stage and participates in hiring the

heads of department, the casting process, and working with one or more writers

to perfect the script. During filming, they direct the actors, supervise the

activities of the crew, and decide which takes to print. Directors often remain

involved after shooting ends, working with the editor and other post-production

personnel to ensure that the film is completed in accordance with their design.

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Because the director’s area of responsibility is vast and diverse, he or she

normally has several assistants, each with designated roles. During pre-

production, the 1st Assistant Director breaks the script down into shots and

prepares the shooting schedule. During production, he or she conveys the

director’s instructions to the cast and crew, coordinating their performance in

order to keep pace with the schedule. The 2nd Assistant Director is

responsible to the 1st assistant director. Their many duties may involve the

preparation of call sheets and the distribution of scripts. The 2nd 2nd Assistant

Director, or 3rd Assistant Director, focuses on such floor duties as managing

the movement of extras. This can be an enormous task, as in Gandhi (1982),

which used an estimated 300,000 extras.

The Script Supervisor, or Continuity Girl, keeps track of the progress of

filming, and any deviations from the written script. He or she also helps the

director remember the details of shots that have already been made, ensuring

that details such as hair and make-up remain the same from one shot or scene

to the next. In order to do this, a detailed continuity report is maintained.

Specialised crew members may be employed to assist the director in eliciting

the desired performances from the actors. Roles include Choreographer, who

designs any dance sequences, Dialogue Coach, who trains the actors in the

creation of appropriate accents or dialects, Animal Trainer, who coaches the

animal actors, and Wrangler, who handles babies, animals, or other

participants, such as vehicles, that do not respond to verbal instruction. A Stunt

Co-ordinator is responsible for designing stunt work and ensuring that it is

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conducted safely. An Action Vehicles Co-ordinator and/or Fight Director

may also be employed. A Creative Consultant or Technical Advisor may

offer specialised advice about any one of a range of topics.

Many films use a second unit, headed by a Second Unit Director. This self-

contained subsidiary crew comes complete with all the personnel required for

filming. It is normally used for shooting such material as street scenes that do

not feature the main actors.

Pre-Production: The Script, Casting and Locations

The first draft of a script is produced by a Screenwriter, who may create

original material or adapt existing material, such as a novel or a play. A script

invariably goes through many drafts before a final version is agreed, and other

writers are often brought in to assist with this process. Additional writers are

sometimes known as Script Editors, or Script Doctors, and may specialise in

polishing a particular element of the script, such as the dialogue. A Storyboard

Artist may work with the director to translate all or part of the script into a series

of still pictures to be used as a template for shooting.

The Casting Director is responsible for auditioning and selecting the actors, as

agreed with the director and producer, and for negotiating their contracts.

Sometimes one casting director auditions major roles whilst one or more Local

Casting Directors hire supporting actors for location filming. Extras Casting

may be performed by a different person or agency from the speaking roles.

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If any parts of a film need to be shot outside the studio, sites are selected by a

Location Manager, whose research is often aided by a Location Scout. The

location manager obtains permission to film from authorities or private owners

and negotiates any fees that must be paid. Throughout the shoot they are

responsible for liaising with area film councils or other relevant authorities.

Visual Design

The Production Designer has one of the most important jobs in a film, as they

are responsible for planning its whole look, from individual sets to overall colour

schemes. Normally one of the first people involved in the production, they

delegate specific tasks to other members of the crew who are in turn

responsible for creating designs on a more detailed level or for supervising or

executing the work needed to transform the designs into reality.

Set building is the responsibility of the construction department. Plans are

produced by a Draftsperson for the guidance of the Construction Manager.

The construction department includes a range of workers including Carpenters,

Plasterers, Painters, Sculptors, Drapers and Signwriters, who work with

materials purchased by the Construction Buyer. Standby Painters and

Standby Carpenters stay around after the set has been built to handle

alterations required during filming.

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Once the basic sets are constructed, the art department takes over. Supervisory

responsibility is normally assumed by the Art Director, although sometimes the

roles of production designer and art director are combined. A Set Designer has

the duty of planning in detail the sets suggested by the head of department. A

Production Buyer is responsible for purchasing the required materials.

If flat pictures are used at the rear of the set to create the illusion of a space that

does not exist, this is the responsibility of the Scenic Artist. Sometimes the

background paintings are not physically incorporated into the set, but combined

through optical effects. These images are created by a Matte Artist and were

traditionally painted onto glass, although techniques are changing with the

growing sophistication of digital effects.

The Set Decorator is responsible for transforming a basic set into the illusion of

a complete environment, with all the details needed to make it look convincing.

They are normally assisted by a Lead Person, who is in charge of the Swing

Gang. This comprises miscellaneous personnel handling set dressing and

props, who often work overnight to ready the set for the next day’s filming. The

Set Dresser physically places the set dressing items, such as chairs and

tables. A Greensperson places and maintains any necessary foliage. The

Property Master provides mobile objects, such as books or kitchenware, which

may be handled by actors. These are maintained by a Property Assistant.

Some types of prop may be supplied and/or supervised by a specialist such as

an Armourer, who is responsible for weaponry.

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The wardrobe department is headed by the Costume Designer, who works

with the director and the production designer to ensure the film has the desired

‘look’. The role of the Wardrobe Supervisor is to ensure that the outfits

specified by the costume designer are created, hired or purchased within the

budget. If costumes need to be made specially, this is done by a Seamstress

and Cutter/Fitter. The Wardrobe Master/Mistress and Wardrobe Assistants

maintain the costumes during production, supervising washing and mending as

well as ensuring that the costumes are available when and where they are

required. A Dresser may be employed to help the performers get in and out of

their outfits.

The Hairstylist is responsible for designing and maintaining hair and wigs.

Make-up Artists design and create the facial and body make-up effects

required for the performers (sometimes animal as well as human). The Special

Make-Up Effects credit belongs to artists who create more major alterations in

appearance. These may include the simulation of serious injuries or

disfigurements, or the transformation of an actor into a monster. Prosthetic

Makeup is a specialised task that generates radical transformations by

attaching latex or other materials to an actor’s skin, using prosthetic appliances

created by a Foam Technician.

Camera, Lighting, Electrical and Production Sound Departments

The Camera Crew is headed by the Director of Photography, who works

closely with the director. Together they select the camera(s) and film stock and

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plan the camera angles and movements. The director of photography also takes

responsibility for selecting camera lenses and designing the lighting.

The director of photography may also operate the camera, but normally this

task is delegated to a Camera Operator. For multi-camera shooting, several

operators are needed, and these may be credited with such titles as B Camera

or Additional Camera. The camera operator may be supported by an

Assistant Cameraman, who is responsible for the care of the equipment, as

well as preparing the camera report, or dope sheet. The Clapper Loader has

various duties, including loading the camera with film and operating the

clapperboard at the start of each take. This board displays the film title, scene

number and take number. The clapper loader stands before the camera and

reads these details out before closing the hinged clapsticks. This device allows

the sound and image tracks to be accurately synchronised during post-

production as well as identifying the contents of a film strip or sound recording.

Although the traditional board is still in use, more sophisticated electronic

versions are now available. The Focus Puller ensures that the image remains

in focus, making adjustments when either the camera or the actors move. To

allow instant evaluation of takes, video footage may be recorded and played

back by the Video Assist Operator.

If a camera is required to move during the take, additional crew members are

needed. The Dolly Grip takes responsibility for the camera dolly, a wheeled

support which allows the camera to be moved along tracks. A 1973 invention

now allows a Steadicam Operator to move the camera in a special device

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attached to his/her body, which minimises the shakiness of the operator’s

movements. A Crane Operator may be employed where a camera (and

sometimes its operator) needs to be elevated for very high angled shots.

The electrical department is headed by the Gaffer, who is responsible for

delivering the lighting effects required by the director of photography. The

gaffer’s first assistant is the Best Boy Electric (a title used irrespective of

actual gender) and the department also employs Electricians, or Sparks. A

Generator Operator may be needed where extra power is required, especially

common when shooting on location.

Since the demands of lighting placement are often complex, the gaffer relies

heavily on the Grips, physical labourers who handle and maintain a range of

equipment used on the set, and who are particularly associated with the lighting

and camera departments. The Key Grip works closely with the director of

photography, the camera operator and the gaffer in order to plan ways to meet

the physical requirements of lighting and camera movement. The key grip’s first

assistant is known as the Best Boy Grip. Construction Grips, or Riggers,

erect any scaffolding required for the camera or lighting, as well as helping to

disassemble and reassemble sets.

Some sound is normally recorded during filming, although much of the

soundtrack is created during post-production. On set, the Production Sound

Mixer is responsible for selecting microphones and supervising their placement.

Several different types may be used. These include microphones concealed

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around the set – behind furniture, for instance – and radio microphones worn

under the performers’ clothing. A boom, or long rod, is often used to suspend a

microphone above the action and out of the camera’s range. This is handled by

the Boom Operator. The Cable Puller handles the masses of wiring that the

microphones require. The Sound Recordist operates the tape recording

equipment on the set.

Performers

The Stars and Supporting Actors are rarely the only performers in a film. Most

also use Extras, who perform small non-speaking roles, often as part of a

crowd. Many films also require Stunt Performers to execute potentially

dangerous physical actions, such as catching fire.

Some performers work as Doubles, imitating an actor who is unavailable, and

are often filmed in long shot or from a rear view. Stunt Doubles can be used to

create the illusion that an actor is performing his/her own stunts. Body Doubles

are used when an actor does not possess the required physical attributes or

where a star refuses to appear naked. Other performers are not seen physically

but feature on the soundtrack. These include Voice-over Artists, who are used

for spoken narration, and Voice Actors, who create the character voices in

cartoons. Sometimes the voice of a live actor is replaced, a practice especially

common when singing is required. The Hollywood star Rita Hayworth had her

Singing Voice recorded by several other artists, including Nan Wynn, Martha

Mears, Anita Ellis and Jo Ann Greer.

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Stand-ins do not appear in the final film, but have a very important function.

During the preparation of a shot, when lighting is set up and camera

movements are rehearsed, they replace the actors in order to allow them time

to prepare for the scene in other ways, such as having their hair and make-up

fixed.

Other Production Crew

Most films require some special effects. This term normally refers to illusions

created on the film set, rather than in post-production. The department is

headed by the Special Effects Supervisor and its members may include such

crew as a Pyrotechnician, who is an expert in creating fires and explosions, a

Model Maker, a Puppeteer, and a Projectionist, who operates the equipment

needed for back projection. The special effects crew normally work closely with

other departments, such as make-up or stunts, so that there may be no clear

division between them.

Some other crew members commonly employed include Runners or

Production Assistants, Security Guards, a Maintenance Engineer, a Health

and Safety Advisor and a Unit Nurse. Additional services are required for

location work. The Transportation Captain organises the movement of actors,

crew members and equipment between sets and locations. A Transport Co-

ordinator may also be employed to supervise the availability of Drivers and

vehicles. Catering is a crucial service during the shoot, and is provided by a

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company or group of individuals who supply the main meals to cast and crew.

The Craft Service maintains the availability of drinks and snacks throughout the

day.

Post-Production Sound

Music, sound effects and even some of the dialogue is recorded as well as

edited during post-production. The musical score is designed by a Composer,

who writes the main themes but may not provide detailed designs for each

moment of the film. A Music Arranger or Orchestrator may be also be

employed to adapt the composition for each part of the film for which music

needs to be recorded. If the score includes songs, then a Lyricist and one or

more Singers may be required. A Conductor may be employed during the

process of recording the Musicians. If the soundtrack uses non-original music,

then the duty of obtaining rights clearance falls to the Music Supervisor.

Sound effects are created by a Foley Artist, who recreates noises such as

slamming doors and jangling keys, using a variety of everyday items that are

often quite different from the objects they mimic. Dialogue rerecording is known

as ADR, or Automatic Dialogue Replacement. An ADR Editor is responsible for

recording the dialogue and matching it to the filmed lip movements.

Synthesising these different tracks normally involves an array of specialised

editors. These may include a Dialogue Editor, a Sound Effects Editor and a

Music Editor, who are all responsible to the Supervising Sound Editor. The

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Sound Re-Recording Mixer combines the dialogue, sound effects and music

to create the final soundtrack.

Editing, Visual Effects, Animation and Titling

Processing and printing of the film is performed by laboratories, rather than

members of the film crew. The Editor is responsible for selecting shots from the

raw footage and arranging them into the order specified in the shooting script.

Further reworking is often supervised by the director. The editing process may

be done by physically cutting sections of the printed film strip, or may now be

done on a computer, using systems such as Final Cut or Avid. Much of the

technical and administrative work is performed by an Assistant Film Editor.

The photographed images may still require additions or modifications. Whereas

special effects are created in front of the camera, visual effects are added in

post-production under the direction of the Visual Effects Supervisor.

Alterations to the image may include erasing a boom or a light that has

accidentally got into the frame, integrating digitally created characters with live

action, or changing the colour of the sky so that shots filmed at different times

match up when edited together. Most visual effects work is now done using

computer technology. Some common crew members include Modellers and

Animators, who create the components that need to be integrated with live

footage, and Digital Compositors, who combine various visual elements.

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An Animator creates a series of individual frames which produce the illusion of

movement when filmed sequentially. Animation may sometimes be incorporated

into live action films, but is often designed not to be perceptible as such. This

kind of work normally falls to the visual effects department. Some of the main

roles include the Key Animator, who creates strategic frames, such as the

poses a character takes at the start and end of a movement, and

Inbetweeners, who create the intermediate frames, guided by the dope sheet

on which the appointed timings are detailed. In cel animation, an Opaquer

colours in the outlines drawn onto each frame. Now that much animation is

done digitally, new roles have emerged such as Rendering, which involves

applying texture, colour and detail to the 3D ‘wire-frame’ contour of a character

or object, and Software Engineer, who designs and programmes the computer

systems.

The Title Designer is responsible for the placement of cast and crew credits,

and may also design the title sequence in its entirety. Much of the work is now

done digitally, as motion graphics have eroded the separation between pictures

and text. Sometimes a whole department is needed to create the title sequence,

if live action footage needs to be shot, animation needs to be created, or

complex visual effects are required. For this reason, the work is often

outsourced to dedicated title houses.

References

Baker, B. 2004. Let the Credits Roll : Interviews With Film Crew. Gardners Books. Cleve, B. 2005. Film Production Management. Focal Press; 3 edition.

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Fairservice, D. 2002. Film Editing: History, Theory and Practice : Looking at the Invisible. Manchester University Press. Goodell, G. 1998. Independent Feature Film Production : A Complete Guide from Concept Through Distribution. St. Martin's Griffin; Rev&Updtd edition. Honthaner, E. L. 2001. The Complete Film Production Handbook, Third Edition. Focal Press. Kompanek, S. 2004. From Score To Screen: Sequencers, Scores, And Second Thoughts : The New Film Scoring Process. Schirmer Books. Malkiewicz, K. 1986. Film Lighting. Fireside; Reissue edition. Ondaatje, M. 2002. The Conversations : Walter Murch and the Art of Editing Film. Knopf. Scorsese, M. 2005. On Film-making : An Introduction to the Craft of the Director. Shand, J. 1990. Don't Shoot the Best Boy!: The Film Crew at Work. Currency Press. Silver, A., and Ward, E. 1992. The Film Director's Team. Silman-James Press. Squire, J.E. The Movie Business Book, Third Edition. Fireside; 3rd edition. Staiger, J. (1985a). The Hollywood mode of production to 1930. In D. Bordwell, J. Staiger, & K. Thompson (Eds.), The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (pp. 85-153). London: Routledge. Staiger, J. (1985b). The Hollywood mode of production, 1930-1960. In D. Bordwell, J. Staiger, and K. Thompson (eds.), The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960: 85-153. London: Routledge. Taub, E. 1995. Gaffers, Grips and Best Boys : From Producer-Director to Gaffer and Computer Special Effects Creator, a Behind-the-Scenes Look at Who Does What in the Making of a Motion Picture. St. Martin's Griffin.