ForewordsAchim Steiner - Executive Director United Nations Environment ProgrammeCorrado Clini - General Director - Italian Ministry of Environment

Interlinked Challenges, Interlinked Solutions: Ozone Protection and Climate ChangeInterview with Rajendra Shende - Head, OzonAction Branch, UNEP DTIE

Working together with the major experts towards “the future of refrigeration”: XII European Conference Marco Buoni - Secretary Associazione dei Tecnici italiani del Freddo - ATF

Refrigeration: the Challenges associated with Sustainable DevelopmentDidier Coulomb - Director of the International Insitute of Refrigeration - IIR The role of the refrigerants - The energy consumption - The actions - Conclusion.

Using Refrigeration Equipment when facing Climate Change.French Experience Louis Lucas - President of Association Française du Froid - AFFWhat is at stake? - In France - Consequences on professional practices - Changes insocial and economic habits.

SolarChill Vaccine Cooler and Refrigerator: A Breakthrough Technology Per Henrik Pedersen - SolarChill Project Technical (Danish Technological Institute)Janos Maté - SolarChill Project Coordinator (Greenpeace International)The basic technology of the SolarChill Vaccine Cooler - Specific energy of ice storage -Compressor and controls - Cabinets - Conclusion.

The Environmental Impact of RefrigerantsSergio Bobbo - Laura Fedele - Construction Technologies Institute National ResearchCouncil; CNR - Padova - ItalyThe depletion of the ozone layer - The greenhouse warming effect of refrigerants - Actionsto reduce the ODSs and GHGs emissions - Conclusions.

Predictions of CFC, HCFC and HFC emissions from refrigerating and AC systemsfor the period 2002-2015 L.J.M. Kuijpers - Technical University EindhovenD. Clodic - Centre Energétique, Ecole des Mines de ParisRefrigerant markets - Refrigerant banks - Refrigerant emissions - Forecasting for theperiod 2002 - 2015 - Conclusions

Harmonisation of EU refrigeration training and certification becomes a reality Robert H. Berckmans - Secretary General AREAJean Jacquin - President AREARecommendations for the requirements and conditions for mutual recognition in the ECRegulation on certain fluorinated greenhouse gases - Requirements for the Certification ofPersonnel - Requirements for the Certification of Companies.

Using Refrigerants Responsibly David Lewis - Mark Menzer - Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute - ARI

Indian Leadership for Improved Mobile Air Conditioning (MAC)Karen Thundiyil, Stephen O. Andersen - US Environmental Protection AgencySridhar Chidambaram, Yash P. Abbi - The Energy and Resources Institute, India

Mobile Air Conditioning Carloandrea Malvicino - C. R. Fiat - Interiors & Thermal Systems Dept. - Vehicle Systems

Refrigerants Replacement and Environmental Protection in ChinaYang Yifan and Wang Congfei - Chinese Association of Refrigeration - CAREnvironmental Issues - Trade-off in Refrigerants Selection, environmental impact inparticular consideration - Refrigerants in the future - Refrigeration Replacement in China.

Refrigerants, Naturally! Clever cooling vs. global warming Refrigerants Naturally Partners

CO2 as Refrigerant, an Option to Reduce GHG Emissions from Refrigeration, AirConditioning and Heat Pump SystemsPetter Nekså - Sintef Energy Research, Trondheim, NorwayEnergy efficiency and ambient conditions - CO2 as an alternative in different applications.

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Supplemento 1 al N° 300 (N° 6-2006) -Periodico mensile - Autorizzazione delTr ibunale di Casale M. n. 123 del13.6.1977 - Spedizione in a. p. - 70% -Filiale di Alessandria - ITALY.

This magazine has been produced withpaper E.C.F. (Elementary clorine Free)

Publishing manager:Enrico Buonibuoni@centrogalileo.it

Editor:M.C. Guaschino

Editorial:Industria & Formazionevia Alessandria, 1215033 Casale MonferratoPhone +39 0142 452403Fax1 +39 0142 341009Fax2 +39 0142 452471

Advertisement:Phone +39 0142 453684

Publisher:A.Vi. Casale MonferratoPublished by:A.Valterza - Casale Monferrato

www.centrogalileo.itwebsite of the activity

www.associazioneATF.orgwebsite of the Italian Associationof Refrigeration Technicians

About the picture on the cover:This image of Achill Island, off themost North-Westerly point ofIreland, illustrates:- Ozone protection

the sky: the blue sky contains ourEarth’s ozone shield.

- Climate changethe sea: higher temperatures couldlead to sea level rise and extremeweather events.

- Energy efficiencythe waves: renewable energysources such as waves are waitingto be harnessed.

Contents

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Climate change and ozone layerdepletion are two of the most chal-lenging environmental problemsfacing the global community in the21st century. How are these issueslinked?Interestingly, the two issues are linkedscientifically, technologically and alsoin terms of their impacts. The increasein surface temperature of the earthdue to global warming will result into acolder stratosphere, which may delaythe ozone recovery over the polarregions. Furthermore, CFCs, HCFCsand halons controlled under theMontreal Protocol are also green-house gases (GHGs) whose globalwarming potentials (GWPs) are in facthigher than any of the gases con-trolled under the Kyoto Protocol.Elimination of CFCs, HCFCs andhalons will mitigate climate change.Ozone is also a GHG. So, ozone layerrecovery will enhance climate change.To complicate the matter further, oneof the major substitutes for the CFCsare HFCs which are also GHGs.Hence the elimination of CFCs byHFCs will add to climate change.The Kyoto Protocol that was signed in1997 required that emissions of sixGHGs be reduced. These six gases

included, among others, HFCs, whichare entering into the market in a bigway as substitutes for CFCs thatdeplete the ozone layer. HCFCs,which have small ODP and are con-trolled under the Montreal Protocol,are also transitional substitutes forCFCs, but they are potent GHGs.Theytoo are entering the market, mainly inthe developing countries, with acceler-ated pace. It appears that while we aresetting up the process to resolve theozone depletion problem, the sameprocess also aggravate climatechange.The description of important linkagesbetween the two issues cannot becompleted without indicating the impor-tance of the energy efficiency of appli-ances that use alternative refrigerantsi.e. other than CFCs. In many suchappliances, industry has done aremarkable job in improving the energyefficiency in a substantial way. In somecases, due to the use of alternativerefrigerants, the energy efficiency hasimproved by as much as 40%. Suchimprovements result into an equivalentreduction in the CO2 emissions arisingout of burning of fossil fuels to generateelectricity used for running of the appli-ances. Thus, appliances using alter-nate refrigerants - needed for the pro-tection of the Ozone Layer - and ener-gy efficient technologies contribute tothe mitigation of Climate Change. Thiscould be called a major collateraladvantage of the Montreal Protocol.Indeed, these two issues have a realpotential to cause global disaster.Though the world has taken appropri-

ate steps to protect the Ozone Layer,in case of Climate Change, deplorably,there have not been concerted andcoordinated actions. High level of skincancers, cataracts, decline in marinefood production, fall in plant growthand food production and reduction ofthe human capability to fight the dis-eases were predicted consequencesof ozone layer depletion. While wecannot say with certainty that all theseconsequences have been avoided, wecan say that we have succeeded inarresting the trend that could have ledthe world to the catastrophe. The con-sequence of climate change - an

increase in the Earth’s surface tem-perature - is predicted to have fright-ening scenarios that are life threaten-ing. Accelerated depletion of naturalresources, wide spread of diseasesresulting into deaths, inundation oflow-lying areas, streams of refugeesand unexpected natural calamities.

Interlinked Challenges,Interlinked Solutions:Ozone Protection and Climate Change

RAJENDRA SHENDE

Head, OzonAction Branch1, UNEP DTIE, Paris

1 UNEP’s OzonAction Branch is a capacitybuilding programme that assists developingcountries and countries with economies in tran-sition to comply with the Montreal Protocol. Ithas received two awards for innovation andleadership in assisting developing countries,one from USEPA and another from thePresident of Senegal on behalf of African coun-tries. The Branch also supports the voluntaryRefrigerants Naturally initiative, which alsoreceived an award from USEPA.

Special interview

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You have said in some of yourspeeches that the Montreal Protocolhas helped to implement the KyotoProtocol.What do you mean by that?It means that actions taken by coun-tries and companies to comply with theMontreal Protocol have also helped toachieve the objectives of the KyotoProtocol. Under the Montreal treatysubstantial actions are being taken onthe ground to stop production and con-sumption of major global warminggases. To put it in a simple way, manyof the substances controlled under the

Montreal Protocol damage the ozonelayer and are at the same time potentglobal warming gases. CFCs haveGWPs ranging from about 4000 to10000 and halons have GWPs of 1700to 7000.The world has eliminated nearly 1 mil-lion tonnes per annum of CFCs andabout 50,000 tonnes per annum ofHalons as needed under the MontrealProtocol. A rough calculation showsthat the action under the MontrealProtocol has eliminated the emissionsequivalent of nearly 8 Giga tonnes ofCO2 annually, which is about 30% ofpresent GHGs emissions. Even if onetakes into account the addition ofGHGs like HFCs and HCFCs which areintroduced in the market as alternativesto CFCs, the impact would not be muchdifferent.This is why we say that the MontrealProtocol is, in a sense, “the world’s firstclimate protection treaty”. If theMontreal Protocol was not already inplace, the Kyoto Protocol would proba-bly have controlled CFCs, HCFCs andHalons as global warming gases.I would like to draw attention to thepower of successful multilateral envi-ronmental agreements like theMontreal Protocol. The well-coordinat-ed actions by countries to fulfill the

objectives of that agreement go wellbeyond expectations. This is because Ifeel that we always underestimate thepotential of the technology change thattakes place under the policy initiatives.This is exactly what is happening underthe Montreal Protocol. I came to the UNfrom the private sector. I have alwaysseen that industry responds to anychange in the policy regime by innovat-ing technologies that can surpass theobjectives of the policy change. Such isthe supremacy of the technologyresponses by the private sector.More importantly, the private sectorindustries using ozone-depleting sub-stances have done amazing work.They have gone beyond the expecta-tions raised under the MontrealProtocol. In the process of eliminatingozone-depleting substances, enterpris-es have made a technological evolutionto improve the energy efficiency ofrefrigeration and air conditioning equip-ment. If we add the benefit of theimproved energy efficiency, the relatedelimination of the CO2 emissions will befar higher that 8 billion tonnes perannum.This incredible contribution of theMontreal Protocol to climate changemitigation has not been very well rec-ognized and it deserves more attention.

You wrote an article recently thathas the title “Rich banks and highstocks... but a bleak future for ourclimate”. What message do youwant to convey? I wrote that for an article in the IEA’sHeat Pump journal in 2005. I made thatstatement to draw attention to the veryimportant findings of the IPCC/TEAPSpecial report on ‘Safeguarding theOzone Layer and the Global ClimateSystem’. I had the opportunity to beone of the coordinating lead authors.That report indicates the size of the cur-rent and future banks of CFCs, HCFCs,and HFCs. Banks are substances thathave been produced but not yetreleased in the atmosphere as they arestored in equipment, stock-piles, cap-tured in foams etc. I was making a playon the words ‘Banks ‘ and ‘Stocks’. Indaily life, a bank is a place where wesave our money and stocks mean theoptions or shares traded in the stockmarket.When these banks are rich andstocks are high, investors are happy

because they get good returns. But inthe case of banks and stocks of CFCs,HCFCs, and HFCs, the situation isalarming and not at all happy for theglobal environment.The current banks of CFCs, HCFCsand HFCs are estimated to be equiva-lent to 21Gt of CO2. This is about thesame as the amount of CO2 the entireworld emitted in 2002! These stockswill ultimately escape into the atmos-phere. I posed a question: Are theremajor opportunities to redeem this situ-ation? The message in the article stat-ed that “There are!”, but we need con-certed efforts, similar to what the worldcommunity displayed in implementingthe Montreal Protocol. This includesimproved containment of substances,reduced charge of substances in theequipment, end-of-cycle recovery andrecycling or destruction of substances,increased use of alternative substanceswith a lower or zero global warmingpotential, and use of not-in kind tech-nologies. Of course, recovery, recycling

and destruction have associated costs.But environmental benefits could out-weigh these costs, and those cost-ben-efit analyses should be considered.

What can be done to protect theozone layer and also mitigate cli-mate change? Let me answer that question by givingpractical examples:UNEP’s OzonAction has compiledcase studies that protect the OzoneLayer and Mitigate climate change. It is

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titled as ‘Two Challenges: One solution’.But there are number of initiatives thatgo beyond these case studies:SolarChill is an innovative global part-nership that includes UNEP, UNICEF,WHO, Danish Technological Institute(DTI), Greenpeace, GTZ, Vestfrost,Danfoss and PATH and aims to devel-op a climate and ozone friendly vaccinecooler. The vaccine cooler is poweredby solar energy which will be used in

the compressor of the cooler withoutusing converter and batteries. Thisproduct illustrates the utility of the initia-tive that connects wide-reaching envi-ronmental and developmental issues.(see page 17).Today all the mobile air conditioningsystems - “MACs” - in new cars useHFC-134a refrigerants. Enhanced HFCsystems can save substantial fuel con-sumption and also reduce emissions ofHFCs. UNEP is working with USEPA,auto manufacturers and EU to benefitdeveloping countries from such tech-nology development. (see page 31).Another alliance that illustrates thepower of partnerships that can find thesolutions to the challenging problemsof climate change and ozone layer pro-tection is Refrigerants Naturally. Thepartnership includes the multinationalcompanies Coca Cola, McDonalds andUnilever and it is supported by UNEPand Greenpeace. The partnership isaimed at the food and drink industry -the so-called “point of sale” end of themarket which interacts with the cus-tomer - and its equipment suppliers todevelop the technologies that use non-ODS and non-GHG gases and at thesame time improve the energy efficien-cy of the equipment. Thousands ofsuch equipment are being deployed by

these companies in their worldwideoperations. (see page 38).There are other initiatives like best prac-tices in the containment of HFCs, theirrecovery and recycling, and policies tosupport such actions, which would con-tribute significantly to protect the ozonelayer and mitigate climate change.

Projections show that the ozonelayer should recover at around mid-century if implementation of theMontreal Protocol continues asplanned. This considerable successto date is often cited as an exampleof how the developed and develop-ing world can work together to tack-le a seemingly insurmountable chal-lenge. How can the climate protec-tion community learn from the part-nerships created under the MontrealProtocol? Climate change is happening now. Theworld is already late in taking action toprevent this change. Fortunately, wecan take inspiration from the MontrealProtocol’s successes to date to containthe impacts of climate change. TheMontreal Protocol demonstrates thebeneficial influence of the partnershipsbetween the developed and developingcountries, between developing coun-tries themselves - “South-South” coop-eration - between companies in differ-ent countries and between govern-ments, NGOs and the private sector.Such partnerships that have proven soimportant to the success of theMontreal Protocol can also foster thetechnology change needed to mitigateclimate change.What we are learning from theMontreal experience is that global par-ticipation and binding commitmentscan spur the technology innovations ofdiverse types. The refrigeration and air

conditioning industry is the living exam-ple where technological breakthroughshave been unparalleled in the lastdecade. Such technology innovationmakes the earlier cost estimates of theimplementation of the Protocol appearto have been grossly overestimated.The enterprises in the developed anddeveloping countries that have com-plied with the Montreal Protocol haveall made significant contributions to theenvironment, and at the same time uti-lized this as business opportunity toenhance their profitability, expand theiroperations and diversify their business.This is an important message for theworld community which is hesitating tomake a concerted commitment for cli-mate change.Before the Montreal Protocol, the tech-nology transfer regime from the devel-oped to developing countries was quiterestrictive. The time lag in the develop-ment and the transfer of technologyresulted in an unhealthy situation ofdeveloping countries receiving outdat-ed technologies. The implementationof the Montreal Protocol has shownthat developing countries can be at thecutting edge of the technology trans-formation. The Montreal Protocol alsoushered in a new era of environmentaldiplomacy, wherein the scientificassessment of the ozone depletion ledto the political negotiations to set glob-al actions, by using a precautionaryapproach. Every action by every stake-holder - including children - counted.Climate change also needs suchactions by all stakeholders. Global envi-ronmental issues generally need a longtime frame to be solved. Hence, sus-tained actions from generation to gen-eration are needed. This is anothermessage from the Montreal Protocol.

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For 30 years, in collaboration with the major Italian Universities, Centro Studi Galileo has beenstudying in hundreds of courses and conferences the energy efficiency through solar panels

imp SHENDE BISSS 4-08-2006 9:31 Pagina 6

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UNITED NATIONSENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME

ASSOCIAZIONE TECNICI DEL FREDDOCENTRO STUDI GALILEO

INDUSTRIA & FORMAZIONE

XII EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON

TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS INAIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION INDUSTRY

WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL OPTIMIZATION, NEW REFRIGERANTS,NEW EUROPEAN REGULATION, NEW PLANTS,THE COLD CHAIN

8th - 9th June 2007 - Politecnico di Milano

First Session: New refrigerants and Perspectives:New European Regulations on F-gasesSecond Session: New components and equipment inrelation to new energy and environmental issues and newrefrigerants.Results and updates in new systemsThird Session: Open discussion on energy andenvironmental issues:new fluids and refrigeration technician training with reference to new European regulation Fourth Session: Regulations and training inEurope and U.S.Fifth Session: new control technologies and the cold chain

GENERAL CHAIRMENR. Shende United Nations Environment Programme; Corrado Clini Direttore Generale Ministero Ambiente; Giovanni Lozza, Ennio

Macchi Politecnico of Milano; Didier Coulomb Director, Alberto Cavallini Honorary President, International Institute of Refrigeration(I.I.R.); Louis Lucas President, Association Française du Froid (A.F.F.) - Honorary Director I.I.R.; Lee Burgett ASHRAE; R. Boynton

President – NATE; Jean Jacquin President, Robert Berckmans General Secretary, Air conditioning and Refrigeration EuropeanAssociation AREA; Alfredo Sacchi President Associazione dei Tecnici del Freddo ATF; Denis Clodic - Ecole Des Mines; Michel BarthPresident, Compagnie des Experts du Froid et de la Climatisation, Honorary President A.F.F.; President de l’I.F.F.I.; Peter Egolf - I.I.R.;Friedrich Busch - E.P.E.E. (Germany); Peter W. Egolf, President Working Party On Magnetic Cooling - I.I.R.; Hermann Halozan - GrazUniversity (Austria); Hans Quack - Dresden University (Germany); Andrea De Lieto Vollaro, Franco Gugliermetti, Gino Moncada Lo

Giudice, University La Sapienza of Roma; P. Amirante University of Bari; F. Asdrubali University of Perugia; S. Bobbo, R.Camporese, G. Panozzo I.T.C. CNR Padova; F. De Rossi Sannio University; G. Panno University of Palermo; F. Polonara University of

Ancona; L.Tagliafico University of Genova

PRESIDENTS OF THE EUROPEAN ASSOCIATIONS: P. Vemork (KELF - Norway), A. Zoltan (HRACA - Hungary), K. Beermann (NKF - Germany), J.Reijmers, P. Tomlein (SZ CHKT - Slovakia), J. Hoogkamer (NVKL - Netherlands), R. PŸtz (VDKF - Germany), S. Wenzler (VDKF - Germany), P. Bachmann

(BIV - Germany), G. Hanssen (KELF - Norway), J. Jacquin (AREA - Bruxelles), L. Nordell (KYL - Sweden), J. Dobiasovsky (S CHKT - Czech Rep.), M. Stenzig(ANEFRYC - Spain), W. Stenzig (ANEFRYC - Spain), N. Mitchell (RACG - UK), R. Biffin (BRA/FETA - UK), S. Kerr (IRI - Ireland), Lowin (VDKF - Germany),Ph. Roy (SNEFCCA - France), E. Aalto (FREA - Finland), J. Remec (SDHK - Slovenia), G. Michalski (KFC/NRF - Poland), Ch. Scholz (VDKF - Germany), J.

Broz (S CHKT - Czech Rep.), G. Fox (RACG - UK), C. Sloan (BRA/FETA - UK)

THE PRESIDENTS AND THE DIRECTORS OF THE MAJOR WORLD INSTITUTES AND ASSOCIATIONSIN THE LATEST CENTRO STUDI GALILEO EUROPEAN CONFERENCE.

From the left: Enrico Buoni, the Director of CentroStudi Galileo and Industria & Formazione; AttilaZoltan, the President of HRACA Association(Budapest); Robert Berckmans and JeanJacquin, respectively Secretary and President ofthe Air conditioning and Refrigeration EuropeanAssociation (AREA); Alberto Cavallini, Universityof Padova, Honorary President (already presi-dent in the last two periods) of the InternationalInstitute of Refrigeration; Francois BilliardHonorary President of the International Instituteof Refrigeration; Ronald Vallort, President of theAmerican Society of Heating, Refrigeration andAir conditioning Engineers; Didier Coulomb,Director of the International Institute ofRefrigeration; Andrè Gac, Honorary President ofthe International Institute of Refrigeration;Rajendra Shende, Head OzoneAction Program-me, UNEP; Louis Lucas, Honorary President ofthe International Institute of Refrigeration andPresident of the French Association ofRefrigeration; Marco Buoni, Secretary ofAssociation of Italian Technicians of Refrigeration.

imp PROGRAMMA 4-08-2006 9:33 Pagina 1

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AGREEMENT UNITED NATIONS-UNEP WITH CENTRO STUDI GALILEO-ATF

Office of the United Nations in Paris: from the left Rajendra Shende, Head OzonActionProgramme UNEP, Marco Buoni, Secretary Italian Association of RefrigerationTechnicians, Enrico Buoni, Director of Centro Studi Galileo, Jim Curlin, InformationManager UNEP.

The XII European Conference about the latest technology in refrigeration and air-conditioning with particular reference to the energy issues will be organized by CSG-ATF and by the United Nations Environmental Programme-UNEP on the 8th-9th June2007 in the Politecnico of Milan.

Working together with the major expertstowards the future of refrigeration:agreement Centro Studi Galileo – UNEPfor training, conference and specialissue. On the left Marco Buoni, SecretaryItalian Association of RefrigerationTechnicians and Rajendra Shende, HeadOzonAction Programme – UNEP.

DIDIER COULOMBIIR Director:

The refrigeration challanges(page 12)

LOUIS LUCASAFF President:

Climate change and refrigerationequipment (page 15)

ALBERTO CAVALLINIIIR Honorary President:

XII European ConferenceGeneral Chairman

ROBERT BERCKMANSAREA Secretary:

Qualification of the refrigeration technicians(page 27)

REX BOYNTONNATE Secretary:

Importance of the Certification (page 30)

DENIS CLODICDeputy Director Ecole des Mines de Paris:

Refrigerant Emission (page 24)

WORKING TOGETHER WITH THE MAJOR EXPERTS TOWARDS “THE FUTURE OF REFRIGERATION”: XII EUROPEAN CONFERENCE

imp pagina foto 4-08-2006 9:36 Pagina 1

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The world evolves and technology with it, every person needs to adjust adequately to the changing world, and to do thatevery person needs to be informed of the changes.Today information is much more important than in the past.We get thatfrom many sources, from the internet, from the media etc.. but this is very generic, not specific information.The operatorswho want or have to contribute to solving environmental issues need to go into further depth.Thanks to the trainingcourses, seminars and European Conferences that Centro Studi Galileo have done since 1975 in the field of refrigeration,air conditioning and heating and new technology, it is possible in the main Italian Universities (Università La SapienzaRoma, Università Milano, Palermo, Sannio, Ancona, Genova, Bari, Perugia, CNR Padova, Politecnico Milano and Torino)and in the other training sites of the Centro Studi Galileo to follow and learn about the new trends in technology, newrefrigerants, new way of saving energy and preservation the environment. For 3 generations technicians have attended thecourses and more than 2 thousand HVACR (Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) operators every yearcome to our standard courses (listed in www.centrogalileo.it) or to the courses we do specifically for each company whichasks for a tailored training course. All the most important companies of the world have asked Centro Studi Galileo for trainingabout refrigeration or air conditioning. (To mention a few: Coca Cola, Nato, Royal Air Force, Banca d’Italia, and many more...see more www.centrogalileo.it).With respect to the target of spreading information of Environment and Energy preservation,United Nations and Centro Studi Galileo have concluded in recent months numerous agreements for training, Europeanconferences, and this special number with worldwide distribution of the “Special International Issue”.

In particular Centro Studi Galileo and the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) are cooperating to strengthen the knowledge and skills ofrefrigeration technicians in new technologies in refrigeration and airconditioning related to energy, the environment (new refrigerants) and climatechange.The cooperation is structured around 3 points:1) Training: organising courses between us specifically for developingcountries.2) Information: producing a special issue of the magazine Industria &Formazione to be delivered to 190 Countries and to the Italian and mainlyforeign operators in the field.3) XII European Conference: organizing the 8th-9th June 2007 Politecnico diMilano.Those agreements allow us to increase the international activity of Centro StudiGalileo and at the same time to increase the service, knowledge and the

information already given to its members, training attendants and all the thousands of companies connected with CSG.The United Nations chose Centro Studi Galileo from among the other European Institutes and organizations: this reflects itslinks with the Italian Association for the refrigeration technicians - ATF, their magazine with its long experience in this field ,its high quality of training and conferences. At the international and Italian level and to provide a good service to the ATFmembers, many agreements have been made with the most important refrigeration and air conditioning institutes andassociations.Thanks to that many interviews have been conducted with some of the most important directors andpresidents of various associations of the world, which have also provided papers for this international magazine.Among the international associations that collaborate with Centro Studi Galileo and the Associazione dei Tecnici Italianidel Freddo (Association of Italian Technicians of Refrigeration) are the:- International Institute of Refrigeration IIR (an intergovernmental organization that brings together 61 countries, whichrepresent 80% of the global population),- AREA (Air Conditioning and Refrigeration European Association),- AFF (French Association of Refrigeration),- AICVF (the French Association of Engineers of the Air conditioning, Ventilation and Refrigeration),- NATE USA (North American Technician Excellence),These associations/institutes are the most important in the refrigeration and air conditioning field and most of them havecontributed to this special international issue.All those associations and institutes will participate to the XII European Conference that will be held in Milan on the 8th-9th June 2007 organized by United Nations Environment Programme - UNEP, Centro Studi Galileo andAssociazione dei Tecnici del Freddo about the future of the Technological Innovations in Air Conditioning andRefrigeration, with particular reference to energy optimization, new refrigerants, new regulations.

Marco BuoniSecretary Associazione dei Tecnici italiani del Freddo - ATF

11

EditorialWorking together with the major experts towards “the future of refrigeration”: XII European Conference

editoriale BIS 4-08-2006 10:18 Pagina 1

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The International Institute ofRefrigeration (IIR) is anintergovernmental organization. Itbrings together 61 countries, whichrepresent 80% of the globalpopulation (developed countries,developing countries and countriesin transition).The IIR’ s mission is topromote and disseminateknowledge of refrigerationtechnology and all its applications.Refrigeration is not only useful forhumanity (air conditioning,industrial processes...), but is evenvital in several of its applications(food, health...). It is also used inmany advanced technologies(space industry, informationtechnology, superconductivity...).Moreover, its use is increasingregularly and will continue toincrease in the future.Thus, morethan 1 billion domestic refrigeratorsare currently in operationworldwide, which corresponds to adoubling of the production between1990 and 2002.However, refrigeration is partiallyresponsible for stratospheric ozonedepletion and global warming,because of the release of certainrefrigerants used and the energyconsumption of refrigeratingequipment.The seeking of suitableways to address the impact ofrefrigeration on the environmentwithout impeding growth in thesector is the IIR ‘s role.

THE ROLE OF THEREFRIGERANTS

Most existing refrigerating equipment isbased on the compression and expan-sion of a refrigerant. The efficiency ofthe system and its application at thedesired refrigerating temperature areclosely related to the thermo physicalproperties of the refrigerant in question.Many different refrigerants have beenand are still used worldwide, and meetthe needs dictated by various applica-tions, and the investment and operatingcosts differ.Because of their thermophysical prop-erties and ease of use, chlorofluorocar-bons (CFCs) were the most widelyused refrigerants up until the 1980s.However, it was demonstrated thatCFCs were contributing to the deple-tion of the stratospheric ozone layerand global warming (being greenhousegases), where containment and recov-ery following use are not addressedcorrectly. Refrigerant leakage of up to15% per year in commercial refrigera-tion plants is by no means rare, andleakage varies greatly from one systemto another.It clearly shows the necessity to con-sider differently the sectors of applica-tion:– commercial refrigeration and mobileair conditioning: an effort on the reduc-tion of leakages, (good practices anduse of secondary fluids) and thereplacement of refrigerants are clearlynecessary and possible (see here-after).– stationary air conditioning and other

uses : even if the same efforts can beconducted, we have to first consider theconsumption of energy (global energysystem of a building..) regarding its rolein global warming.CFCs have been gradually replaced byhydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)that have less impact on ozone deple-tion and global warming.CFCs and HCFCs will be phased outwithin the framework of the MontrealProtocol: CFCs have already beenbanned in non-Article 5 countries, i.e.developed countries and most transi-tion countries and will be banned indeveloping countries as of 2010.HCFCs will be banned in 2030 and2040 respectively, but Europe(European regulation 2037-2000) hasdecided a ban by 2015 at the latest,and perhaps as of 2012. The USA,Canada, Japan, Australia will alsoabandon HCFCs before the date of2030. With the entry into force of theKyoto Protocol, the phase-out sched-ules will undoubtedly become morestringent. However, most refrigeratingequipment in developing countries runson CFCs or HCFCs. Replacement withother refrigerants require more invest-ment. CFC’s are then going to bereplaced almost only by HCFC’s indeveloping countries.These other refrigerants include hydro-fluorocarbons (HFCs), which have onlya global-warming impact, and naturalrefrigerants (ammonia, CO2, hydrocar-bons), with negligible or no impact onglobal warming.Technologies other than refrigerant-compression technology can also be

Refrigeration: the Challengesassociated with SustainableDevelopment

DIDIER COULOMB

Director of the Intenational Institute of Refrigeration - IIR

INSTITUT INTERNATIONAL DU FROID177, Bd Malesherbes - 75017 ParisTel. 0033/1/42273235 - www.iifiir.org

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used but still need further develop-ments: magnetic refrigeration, absorp-tion/adsorption, solar refrigeration....Whatever option is adopted, it willinvolve investment in containment andsafety, improved maintenance andhigher qualification levels of practition-ers.These changes will only be of valueif they are linked to energy savings.

THE ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Eighty percent of the global-warmingimpact of refrigeration plants is due toenergy consumption, not to refrigerantleakage. Refrigeration consumes about15% of all electricity consumed world-wide, and the latter is mostly producedusing fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas).Reducing the energy consumption ofrefrigerating equipment must become akey environmental priority throughoutthe sector. Energy costs will continue torise in the future because of dwindlingoil reserves.The energy consumption is a globalproblem. It concerns all the applicationsof refrigeration and we therefore haveto focus or efforts on that. But it wouldnot be enough efficient if we do notconsider the whole systems where welive.The transport sector is one of the mainenergy users and consequently one ofthe main responsible of the productionof greenhouse gases, essentially CO2.Regulations on this sector will be imple-mented. The refrigerated transportclearly depends on the development ofthe different kinds of transport andmobile air conditioning on the concep-tion of the vehicles.The energy consumption of the build-ings is the other main sector with theindustry.The impact on global warmingfrom the domestic refrigeration and theair-conditioning depends on the kind ofenergy we use (electricity produced byfossil fuels or not) and on the concep-tion of the building (ventilation, heat-ing,...). The concept of sustainable orgreen buildings has appeared: energy-efficient-design, construction, mainte-nance. Global solutions like heatpumps are encouraged.Moreover, the education of the people,its awareness on energy consumptionis one of the key issues to permit ener-gy savings and then a less importantglobal warming impact.

THE ACTIONS

Much work has already been undertak-en to reduce the impact due to emis-sions, in particular following theMontreal Protocol on ozone depletion.The refrigeration community and theIIR proved their efficiency in this con-text. But much still remains to be done,particularly in the area of fluid contain-ment.The IIR is pleased with the position ofthe European Union concerning the F-gas Regulation which should enter intoforce in 2007: this position places theemphasis on controls for leakage andtraining and certification of those whohandle refrigerants. It also gives limitsto the global warming impact of refrig-erants which can be used (in the caseof mobile air conditioning) without arbi-

trarily choosing one of them, givingplace for better solutions thanks to newtechnological developments.With regards to reducing energy con-sumption, which has 4 times the impactof emissions, the challenge is stillahead of us. Hence, it is necessary toset ambitious goals. The IIR - as earlyas 2000 in The Hague (COP-6) - setthe objective: reducing the unitary ener-gy consumption of refrigerating plantsby 30-50% - according to applications -by 2020.It is necessary:– to further promote research anddevelopment in the field of naturalrefrigerants, in order to ensure that inthe near future these refrigerants willbecome the refrigerants of choice invarious refrigeration applications;– to promote, on a per-application

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basis, the most environmentally friend-ly option (HFC or natural refrigerant) onthe basis of an objective reference tak-ing into account the total climate impacti.e. not only emissions but also energyconsumption; this reference, encom-passing the energy efficiency of plants,should be codified and standardized;– to continue to phase out CFCs andHCFCs: these refrigerants exert bothozone-depleting and global-warmingeffects. In developing countries orcountries in transition, it would be betterto replace CFCs directly with HFCs ornatural refrigerants and not withHCFC’s.The IIR, faced with this challenge, isundertaking a number of actions:– the IIR takes part in internationalmeetings on the Montreal and KyotoProtocols, thanks to its intergovern-

mental status.The IIR established a listof research priorities, with a focus onenvironment and energy efficiency;– the IIR holds targeted scientific andtechnical conferences on possible tech-nological solutions: Gustav Lorentzenconferences on natural working fluids(the next one in the series will be heldin Denmark in September 2008(Scandinavian countries are particu-larly involved in natural refrigerants, asGustav Lorentzen himself did), confer-ences on ammonia (the next one inthe series will be held in Macedonia inApril 2007 (ammonia is still a widelyused refrigerant in Eastern Europe)...The next IIR International Congress ofRefrigeration will be held in Beijing,China, (one of the most producers andusers of refrigerating equipmentsnow) in August 2007 (Web site:

www.icr2007.org) and will include envi-ronmental sessions jointly organizedwith UNEP (United Nations Environ-ment Programme) and IEA (Interna-tional Energy Agency);– the IIR publishes books, courses,manuals and Informatory Notes on theenvironment. It is currently preparing anew edition of its Guide on EnergySavings in Refrigeration and Air condi-tioning in order to address all recentand current developments in this field,in the context of climate change andrising energy costs. It published in 2004an Informatory Note entitled “How toimprove energy efficiency in refrigera-tion equipment” and will soon publishan Informatory Note on LiquefiedNatural Gases.– the IIR publishes articles in its jour-nals, particularly in the InternationalJournal of Refrigeration, which is thebest scientific journal in engineeringand transfer processes for refrigeration.FRIDOC, the IIR’s worldwide database,is the largest one in the refrigeration-technology field. It contains over 76.000references.

CONCLUSION

Refrigeration is vital to human health,particularly because of its role in thefood field. Its use will continue toexpand but will have to comply withincreasingly stringent health and envi-ronmental constraints. These con-straints will take the form of morenumerous stringent regulations andobjectives in terms of efficiency andreliability, and are made all the morenecessary by scientific and technicalprogress, quality improvement andsharing of reliable, homogeneous infor-mation worldwide.The International Institute ofRefrigeration is in an excellent posi-tion, thanks to its intergovernmentalstatus, its expertise and its internation-al network composed of persons inthe public and private sectors, toaddress these challenges.Please feel free to find out more aboutthe IIR, and if you are not already amember I hope you will join us - checkout the IIR’s Web site: www.iifiir.org

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During the last two decades of the20th century, both theconsequences of human activity onthe future of our planet and theneed for international measures tolimit these changes werehighlighted.The depletion of stratosphericozone was the first example of suchmeasures: the handling of theMontreal Protocol (1987) hasshowed the possibility to plan andto adopt global measures and hasshowed some efficiency.The GlobalWarming is the following case.At the Johannesburg meeting in2000, the International Institute ofRefrigeration submitted, in itscapacity as an IntergovernmentalOrganisation, a report on the role ofthe Refrigeration Industry infighting the climate change.This article aims to show a fewaspects of the French experience inthe field of the various uses ofrefrigeration, a sector that hadalready had some experience withthe Montreal Protocol when theKyoto Protocol was prepared.

1) WHAT IS AT STAKE ?

The IPCC (International Panel onClimate Change) has established a sci-entific base for global decisions; con-cerning the role of human activity and,first of all, the consequences of burningfossil fuel and coal on the climate:In 1992: their influence is possible In 1995: their influence is likelyIn 2001: their influence is most likelyThe preparation of the next report (tobe published in 2007) confirms this ten-dency:although, it is not possible yet to knowwhether the frequency of storms or hur-ricanes is influenced or not by climatechange, it is indubitable that the aver-age global temperature has been risingsteadily during the last century as hasthe average sea level (figures differfrom one place to another; in France,the average temperature rose bybetween 1 °C and 1,2 °C between1901 and 2000).These rates are significantly higherthan any such rates reported in thepast.The last decade for example is thewarmest on record for the whole mil-lennium.For the future, depending on thehypotheses and models, the figures dif-fer, but, in any case, acting “as usual”would lead to huge changes in the cli-mate that would deeply disturb a lot ofinhabited areas:- a global average temperature rise of1,5 to 6 °C by the end of the XXIstcentury (when the difference betweenice periods and inter-iceperiods was

about 6 °C);- sea level rise of 0,30 to 0,40 cm by theend of the century .Measures such as those that havebeen taken until now are not even ableto prevent the dramatic consequencesthat are foreseen for the next decades.In particular, the measures proposedby the Kyoto Protocol are necessarybut are far from sufficient.

2) IN FRANCE

a) Fossil energy consumption is rel-atively low In France, 78% of electric power (i.e.33% of total energy consumption)comes from nuclear plants. This situa-tion places France as one of the devel-oped counties with the lowest con-sumption of fossil energy and the low-est contribution to global warming, withSweden, Norway and Switzerland.

b) But a strong political commitmentIn spite of that, our country has strong-ly committed itself to decrease our con-tribution to the climate change. Publicopinion was made aware of the situa-tion by the very hot summer of 2003.The heat wave caused the death ofseveral thousands of elderly people:such high temperatures for severalweeks are unusual. They were not like-ly to last so long.This event confirmed the country in itsdecision to act.- France has been in favor of interna-tional decisions on this matter. In par-ticular, it backed the European decision

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Using Refrigeration Equipmentwhen facing Climate Change.French Experience

LOUIS LUCAS

President of Association Française du Froid - AFF

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to comply with the targets of the KyotoProtocol whichever countries ratify theProtocol, i.e. whether it be enforceableor not, decision that led to the regula-tion of Sept. 27 2001 and several legaltexts of April 8, 2002.It was also among those countries thatencouraged Russia to ratify the KyotoProtocol, a decision which made itenforceable.- On the domestic front, France decid-ed to anticipate the targets of the EU inseveral areas, with the programme-lawof July 13 2005. For instance, the dead-line for bio fuel to represent 5,75% ofthe fuel in France is set for 2008, twoyears earlier than in the EU).In 2004 a “Climate Plan” was launchedwith special decisions concerninghousing and transport, two sectorswhere energy demand has been rising.The plans aim for a strong decrease inCO2 emissions by 2050: the plan isnamed after its target: “factor 4”, i.e. 4times less CO2 emissions in 2040 thanin 1990.

3) CONSEQUENCES ONPROFESSIONAL PRACTICES

After the signature of the MontrealProtocol related to stratospheric ozone,France was among the first countrieswhich adopted measures to encouragethe confinement and recovery of refrig-erants, with a decree of 1992, modifiedin 1998.Most of its articles were included in theEuropean regulation 2037/2000 adopt-ed in 2000.These dispositions have proved to bevery useful in limiting global warmingtoo. Consequently they have beenincluded in the regulation on globalwarming and fluorinated gases thatwas published in May 2006 (f-gases).Nevertheless, this regulation deals onlywith “direct global warming”, i.e. thatwhich results from gas release into theatmosphere, an event that regulationsprevent. It does not take into considera-tion CO2 emissions that result neces-sarily from the running of the equip-ment although these may representmost of the global warming emissionsrelated to the system. (In the case of adomestic refrigerator running withR134a, in the total global warmingeffect, the “indirect effect” (resulting

from energy consumption) is as high as95% of the total, reaching almost 100%when the refrigerator runs on hydrocar-bons, which has become the mostcommon case!)It would be counterproductive to save(possible) direct emissions in a waythat would lead to much higher “indirectCO2 emissions”.Whereas limiting direct emissionsrequires changes in professional prac-tices, limiting indirect emissions mayrequire significant changes in socialand economic habits.

4) CHANGES IN SOCIAL ANDECONOMIC HABITS

a) How to be cautious about savingenergyMethods such as TEWI or life cycleanalysis are based on statistical datafor how consumers use equipment.Theenergy consumption of a piece ofequipment depends on how it is used:everyone can observe this fact withtheir domestic refrigerator. It is obviousalso with air conditioners. Few finalusers are aware of their responsibility inthis.

b) How to set standards and settingpointsIf individuals can use equipment in dif-ferent ways, thus saving or wastingenergy, the same difference applies tolarge systems: air conditioning systemswill consume more energy in summerwith a setting point at 19 °C than at 20or 21 °C. Why do so many people setthe temperature control for heating at22 °C in winter so that you can live inshirt sleeves and at 19 °C or even 18 °Cin summer so that you may have towear a sweater? Humidity control isoften the cause of low control tempera-tures in summer but there are lessexpensive ways of tackling the prob-lem.

c) Measures able to decrease theneed for refrigerationArchitecture is responsible for a largepart of heating and cooling costs in anybuilding: glazed facades are very fash-ionable in spite of the high energy con-sumption. The Museum of the ArabicWorld in Paris was built with automaticsystems inspired by musharabieh that

shade more or less of the surface ofeach square metre of the façadedepending on incidental light. Suchsystems are quite anecdotic and veryexpensive. But shading systems and aright orientation of the facades andopenings can save a lot of energy aswell as making the inhabitants morecomfortable in the premises.The same kind of remark applies to cardesign.In France, a recent decree made itcompulsory to get an energy diagnosisof any building when is sold.

d) How to use refrigeration tech-nologies to decrease energy con-sumption in heating?Heats pumps have been known for along time as a way to use less energyfor heating. Countries like Austria,Switzerland and Sweden, have beenpioneers in this. France has not beenso active in promoting that technology.But since 2006, heating systems withheat-pumps are taken into account todecrease income taxes.In fact, using such systems has provedrather difficult: their design, handlingand maintenance is complicated fortechnicians who know little about ther-modynamics. In addition, their efficien-cy decreases when temperature differ-ences grow; consequently, the energysavings that they allow are much lowerwhen they are strongly needed, in coldwinters or hot summers! Nevertheless,with good technicians, they represent avaluable way to decrease CO2 emis-sions.

* * *

Human activity inevitably leads toincreasing global warming. This articlehas raised some points in relation withrefrigeration; many similar examplesexist in other areas, let’s only thinkabout transportation and city design!Standards and regulations can limit thismove.But individual behavior is a majorcomponent of the result. In France, agovernmental agency (ADEME) haslaunched a widespread campaign “Faisons vite, ça chauffe” (Let’s goquickly; it’s warming!). In order to facethis problem efficiently, technology isnot sufficient. Political decisions arenecessary; they suppose a real con-cern among public opinion.

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The SolarChill Vaccine Cooler andRefrigerator exemplifies theproverb,“necessity is the mother ofinvention.” Like many inventions,the origin of SolarChill washappenstance. Serendipity is theword! During the Meeting of theParties to the Montreal Protocol in2000 in Ouagadougou, somedelegates participated in a field visitthat took them through the BurkinaFaso countryside.While watchingrural villages pass by their buswindow, the Head of the UnitedNations Environment Programme(UNEP) OzonAction Programmeand the Greenpeace representativenoticed that the communitiesappeared to be financially poor butrich in two key elements: children,the wealth of the country, andsunlight, a limitless energy source ifit could be tapped. Matching thesetwo elements, and linking them tothe future of refrigeration relative tothe controls of the Montreal andKyoto Protocols, UNEP andGreenpeace grasped the need for avaccine cooler that could meetpublic health requirements indeveloping countries - notablyvaccine preservation for use inchildhood immunization campaigns- but which was designed to be bothenvironmentally-friendly and able touse “off-grid” alternative energysources such as solar.Independently, the DanishTechnological Institute (DTI) hadalso started to think along similarlines.

What started as an idea became aninvestigation of possibilities and finallytransformed into action through part-nership. Thus was born SolarChill.Africa is the origin of humanity. So alsothat of SolarChill!SolarChill aims to deliver environmen-tally-sustainable vaccine and foodrefrigeration to regions of the world thatlack electricity or have inadequate elec-trical supply. SolarChill thus bridgeshealth, development and environment.The Project has evolved into a uniquepartnership between seven internation-al organizations, which today compris-es DTI, German GovernmentDevelopment Agency GTZ ProKlima,Greenpeace International, Programsfor Appropriate Technologies in Health(PATH), UNEP, United NationsChildren’s Fund (UNICEF) and theWorld Health Organization (WHO).During the six-year R&D phase, theSolarChill Project also involved the par-ticipation of industry, primarily theDanfoss and Vestfrost companies.However, the SolarChill Partners do notendorse the products of any one com-pany and the design and the basictechnical principles of SolarChill will bemade freely available to manufacturersworldwide.At the present, most parts of the worldthat are without reliable electrical sup-ply use kerosene or gas-poweredabsorption refrigerated coolers for bothvaccine storage and household appli-cations. Such coolers need a regularsupply of fuel. Furthermore, they areoften difficult to adjust and are thusproblematic with regards to maintaining

the required temperatures.The SolarChill Project has developedtwo models of a breakthrough refriger-ation technology that is environmental-ly sound, can be powered by solar aswell as DC or AC current, uses no leadbatteries, has been tested to be tech-nologically reliable, and most impor-tantly, is possible to be manufactured atsubstantially lower cost then other solarrefrigerators on the market. The firstmodel of SolarChill (“Model A”) is formedicine and vaccine cooling.The sec-ond (“Model B”) is for food preservationas well as for some medical applica-tions.Keeping Vaccines Safe: SolarChill Ais a 50 litre, chest cabinet, vaccine cool-er. Designed for regions with inade-quate electrical supply it is also appli-cable for emergency situations arisingfrom natural or man-made disasters.Providing a secure “cold chain” for vac-cines and medicines remains problem-atic in many countries. The term “coldchain” refers to the cooling network thatis required to safely deliver vaccinesfrom the manufacturer to the recipient.The “cold chain” is only as reliable as itsweakest link, and all too often thatweak link is either the lack of reliableelectrical supply or reliable vaccinecoolers. Many millions of dollars worthof vaccines freeze or spoil each yearbecause of an inadequate cold chain.The SolarChill Vaccine Cooler hasbeen field tested and optimised over 18months in Senegal, Indonesia andCuba.The Project is now confident thatthe cooler is superior in performanceand reliability to other existing solar or

SolarChill Vaccine Coolerand Refrigerator:A Breakthrough Technology

PER HENRIK PEDERSEN JANOS MATÉ

SolarChill Project Technical SolarChill Project Coordinator (Danish Technological Institute) (Greenpeace International)

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kerosene vaccine coolers.SolarChill A holds vaccine tempera-tures between the required 2 ºC and 8ºC during typical day-night solar cycles.In low-sun situations SolarChill main-tains acceptable temperatures below15 ºC for 5 days.Compared to other vaccine coolers,SolarChill significantly supercedes thetime the cooler maintains the requiredtemperatures for keeping vaccinessafe, even while not plugged into a grid,or in the absence of sunlight. This featis achieved with super thick insulation.The SolarChill Vaccine Cooler ispresently awaiting approval and certifi-cation from WHO which is a prerequi-site for governmental procurement ofall vaccine coolers. It is expected thatupon receiving WHO certification theSolarChill vaccine cooler will be com-mercialised.Food Preservation: The secondSolarChill is a 100 liter upright freezercabinet modified to be a food refrigera-tor.This prototype is currently undergo-ing field tests in India and Cuba.SolarChill B will be useful for hot cli-mates where food preservation is espe-cially challenging. It can also be utilizedin emergency circumstances, refugeecamps, rural blood banks, small scalecommercial applications (e.g. grocerystores) in developing countries, and foroff-the-grid recreational cottages inindustrialized countries.SolarChill Design: Both SolarChillmodels operate on the same principlesand design. Energy, from three 60 W

solar panels, runs a direct currentcompressor, which enables the coolerto produce an ice bank that maintainsthe required temperature in the cabi-net. Instead of storing energy in diffi-cult-to-maintain and dispose-of leadbatteries, the power of the sun is thusstored in an “ice battery”.Adding versatility in power sources, aconverter can be installed so that theunit can run on both 12 V DC and110/220 V AC current. Thick insula-tion ensures that the required tem-peratures are maintained overnightand during periods of low sunlight.

Environmental benefits of SolarChillOzone depletion: SolarChill usesisobutane for the refrigerant andcyclopentane as the foaming agent.Both of these chemicals are harmlessto the Earth’s ozone layer. SolarChilltechnology helps developing countriesavoid prolonged dependence on CFCsfor servicing requirements and con-tributes to compliance with theMontreal Protocol.“SolarChill technology eliminates theuse of kerosene and with it, the associ-ated CO2 emissions. SolarChill vaccinecoolers are well poised to replace theglobal fleet of approximately 100,000kerosene vaccine coolers currently inuse. SolarChill also avoids the use ofHFCs, potent global warming sub-stances commonly used in insulationfoam and the refrigerant cycle.The isobutane and cyclopentane inSolarChill have negligible global warm-

ing potentials. HFCs are controlled in a“basket of gases” under the KyotoProtocol.”Toxic metals: SolarChill bypassesthe use of expensive and toxic leadbatteries that are currently a standardin other solar refrigerators and vaccinecoolers. Lead batteries tend to deterio-rate, especially in hot climates, andthey are often misused for other pur-poses. They often require replacementwith proper end-of-life managementand have been a major obstacle in theuptake of solar power in developingcountries.Costs: SolarChill is expected to costsignificantly less then existing solarrefrigerators, once commercialised.The projected price, including solarpanels, is US$1,500-$2,000. Thereduced cost is achieved through theuse of mass-produced freezer cabi-nets. In contrast, other solar vaccinecoolers are custom made and thereforesignificantly more expensive.SolarChill also compares favorably incost to kerosene refrigerators. Thoughthe purchase price is higher, becauseof the cost of the solar panels, theoperating costs are much less as theneed to regularly refuel kerosene iseliminated.Paradigm Shift: SolarChill demon-strates in a very practical and vividmanner the possibility of meetinghuman needs with environmentallysustainable technologies. It can per-haps lead to a paradigm shift in refrig-eration and inspire the world to adoptrefrigeration and cooling methods thatrely on renewable energy sourcesalong with non-polluting technologiesand materials.

The basic technology of theSolarChill Vaccine CoolerThe core challenge for the SolarChillProject was to develop a vaccine cool-er that meets the current WHOrequirements for solar vaccine coolerswith battery back-up. Currently thereare no standards in place for solarcoolers without batteries. According tocurrent guidelines the design temper-ature interval for vaccines is + 2 ºC to+ 8 ºC. The vaccine must also be keptcool for four days without power. Therequired hold over time determinesthe sizing criteria for the ice storage inthe cooler.

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SolarChill’s Contribution to the Millenium Development Goals

At the United Nations Millennium Summit, world leaders agreed to a set oftime-bound and measurable goals for combating poverty, hunger, disease,illiteracy, environmental degradation and discrimination against women.Placed at the heart of the global agenda, they are now called the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). The Partners have approached the SolarChillin the spirit of translating the MDG promises into action. The Project simul-taneously addresses multiple MDGs:• Goal 4: Reduce child mortality. By contributing to vaccine preservation indeveloping countries, SolarChill will help realise the goal of reducing by twothirds the mortality of children under five.• Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability. By avoiding ozone depletingsubstances and significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions, SolarChillunits contribute to the long-term improvement of our global environment.• Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development. SolarChill has beendeveloped by a unique public-private partnership that is making the benefitsof new technologies available in the public domain.

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Specific energy of ice storageCalculations made by DTI indicate thatthe cooling capacity, based on bothvolume and weight, in the ice storage isat similar levels to those in a lead bat-tery. In reality, the ice storage outper-forms the lead-acid battery, becausethe allowed daily cycling is less than thenominal energy storage, which corre-sponds to 100% depth of discharge.

Compressor and controlsA new compressor was developed dur-ing the Project’s R&D phase. The newcompressor uses R600a (isobutane)and is equipped with an integratedelectronic control, which ensures that

photovoltaic solar panels can be con-nected directly to the compressor with-out an external control.The compressor is able to smooth startat low speed and is equipped with anadaptive energy optimizer (AEO-con-trol). By using this control, the com-pressor will slowly speed up from mini-mum to maximum speed (from 2000 to3500 RPM). If the panels can not pro-vide sufficient power, the compressorwill stop and after a short while it will tryto start again. If the start fails, the com-pressor will try to start again afteranother one minute. Once the power

from the solar panels is sufficient, thecompressor will start at low speed andslowly speed up again. The controlleraccepts a voltage between 10 and 45V. The voltage from solar panels canvary, so this new feature is good forsolar powered refrigerators and freez-ers. On a 12 V module, the compressorneeds a current of about 4.5 A to start,and it can run continuously at 2 A.

CabinetsThe vaccine cooler cabinet used for theprototypes was built by Vestfrost. It is ahighly insulated, standard chest freezercabinet. The SolarChill Project rancomputer simulations that determined

that the most efficient mass-producedcabinets on the market for the purposeof vaccine cooling were the chest freez-er types with100 mm polyurethaneinsulation.The net volume of the vaccine com-partment is about 50 litres. The com-partment is separated from the ice stor-age. Approximately 18 kg of ice isstored in a number of standard plasticcontainers.The evaporator is integrated into the icestorage. During daytime, forced con-vection cools the vaccine. When thetemperature in the vaccine compart-

ment gets too cold during the daytime,a small electrical heating elementkeeps the vaccine above freezing tem-perature. A thermostat controls theheater. At night the vaccine is kept coolby natural convection from the icedepartment.

ConclusionThe SolarChill Partners expect that thetechnology will be available for releasein the public domain in 2007. ThePartners welcome inquiries from refrig-erator manufacturers worldwide whoare interested in using this innovativetechnology. The Partners also inviteorganizations that would consider pro-

curement of SolarChill vaccine coolers- e.g. health care companies, govern-ment health agencies, private founda-tions, NGOs - to learn more about theeffectiveness and benefits of this envi-ronmentally-friendly health care solu-tion. For further information, please visitwww.solarchill.orgThe President of India has agreed toinstall the SolarChill vaccine cooler inthe Presidential Estate of New Delhicalled “Rashtrapati Bhavan”. It will beplaced in the clinic for live trials fromNovember 2006 onwards.

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Photo1: Prototype of vaccine cooler. Thevaccine will be placed in three baskets,placed vertical in the left side of the cabi-net. The ice storage is placed under theblue lid in the right side of the photo. Thecompressor is placed in a room under theice storage.

Diagram of basic concept for the vaccine cooler

1. Cabinet wall with 100 mm of insulation (made by Vestfrost)2. Vaccine packages (in three baskets)3. Integrated condenser4. Lid (also 100 mm insulation)5. Internal wall, insulated6. Electric heating element, thermostat controlled by temperature in the bottom of the box7. Evaporator (wire on tube) and ice packs8. Self-acting damper9. Compressor (made by Danfoss Compressors)

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The world of refrigeration and airconditioning has undertaken a hugeprocess of transformation in the last15 years due to the necessity tosubstitute the traditional chlorinatedrefrigerants with alternativeenvironmentally benign substances.This process began with the ban ofCFCs, as stated by the MontrealProtocol and its amendments, toovercome the problem ofstratospheric ozone depletion. But itis still underway due to the arisingawareness of the dangerous effectsof global warming caused, amongstother fluids, by the HFCs, the mostimportant alternative refrigerants,which are among the substancescontrolled by the Kyoto Protocol.Moreover, ozone depletion andglobal warming are connected eachother: for example, not only ozone isa greenhouse gas, but changes inclimate could impact ozone in anumber of different ways.Thoughthe scientific issues are complex, itis then necessary to understandthese processes and theirconnections to properly address thetechnical and political choices toinsure a sustainable future to theEarth. In this paper, an analysis ofthe scientific basis and the stillunsolved issues will be presented.In particular, the mechanisms ofozone depletion and global warmingwill be described, and the necessityto contain the refrigerantsemissions and improve theenergetic efficiency will be pointedout.

THE DEPLETION OF THEOZONE LAYER

Ozone is a gas formed by three atomsof oxygen (O3) that is naturally presentin the Earth’s atmosphere. Roughlythe 90% of atmospheric ozone is inthe stratosphere, the layer of atmos-phere situated between around 10 to50 km altitude, where it forms the socalled “ozone layer”. The remaining10% is in the troposphere, the lowestregion of the atmosphere. The distri-bution of natural ozone is shown infigure 1.The stratospheric ozone layer has theessential function of absorbing theultraviolet radiation (UV-B) comingfrom the Sun, reducing the risks ofskin cancer, cataracts and depressionof the immune system for humanbeings due to exposure to UV-B.In the 1970s, the studies on thestratospheric ozone layer of dr. Molinaand dr. Rowland established that thesynthetic chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)constitute a considerable risk to theozone layer. At the beginning of the1980s, these studies were confirmedby the observation that the ozonelayer began to lessen, reducing till itsdisappearance in a stratospheric zoneover the Antarctica, forming the socalled “ozone hole” (figure.1).In fact, the emissions of ozone deplet-ing substances (ODSs) containingchlorine and bromine by human activ-ities or by natural processes, like vol-canic eruptions, are the main respon-sible of the ozone hole. These gasesare very stable and then can be trans-

ported up into the atmosphere duringtheir long life cycle. Here they can accu-mulate and can be carried by the airwinds to the stratosphere. The ultravio-let radiation of the Sun converts thehalogenated gases in highly reactivegases, i.e. hydrogen chloride (HCl),chlorine monoxide (ClO) and brominemonoxide (BrO). These gases reactwith the stratospheric ozone causing itsdepletion, mainly following three cyclesof reactions, shown in figure 2, wherechlorine and bromine act as catalysts.Cycle 1 is typical in stratosphericregions at tropical or middle latitudes,since ultraviolet radiations from theSun are more intense and can formatomic oxygen (O) reacting with O3 andO2. Cycles 2 and 3 occur in polarregions of the stratosphere, where ClOor BrO concentrations are higher. Inwinter and at very low temperatures,the polar stratospheric clouds greatlyenhance the formation of ClO that canenter in the cycles of the ozonedestruction in spring, when the Sunultraviolet radiations activate the reac-tions. Moreover, the air winds at thepoles isolate air in the polar stratos-pheric regions, trapping the chemicalsubstances and enhancing the reac-tions. The “ozone hole” is particularlypresent in the Antarctica, where theweather conditions facilitate thesereactions, as shown in figure 1.The depletion of the ozone layercaused by a chemical compound is afunction of its chemico-physical charac-teristics, interaction with the atmos-phere and lifetime. The most usedindex to evaluate the effect of a com-

The environmental impactof refrigerants

SERGIO BOBBO - LAURA FEDELE

Construction Technologies Institute National Research CouncilCNR - Padova - Italy

imp BOBBO bis 4-08-2006 10:37 Pagina 20

pound on the ozone layer is the ODP(Ozone Depletion Potential). It repre-sents the amount of ozone destroyedby a gas emission over its entireatmospheric lifetime, relatively to thatdue to the emission of the same massof trichlorofluoromethane (R11) [2].Table 1 summarizes the ODP for themost common refrigerants [3-4].The first step in the prevention of thenegative environmental effects of theozone-depleting gases was the“Montreal Protocol on substancesthat Deplete the Ozone Layer”,signed in 1987, followed by its subse-quent Amendments, i.e. the LondonAmendment (1990), the CopenhagenAmendment (1992), the MontrealAmendment (1997) and the BeijingAmendment (1999) [3], where thereduction or the phase-out of the pro-duction and consumption of the chlori-nated and brominated gases werescheduled. In particular, these proto-col and amendments issued thephase out of CFCs in the developedcountries by 1996 and, with respect tothe 1989 HCFCs consumption plusthe 2.8% of the CFCs 1989 consump-tion, a reduction of HCFCs by 35% by2004, 65% by 2010, 90% by 2015,and 99.5% by 2020, with their phaseout in 2030. For the developing coun-tries (art. 5), CFCs must be reduced,with respect to the average consump-

tion of 1995-1997 average, by 50% by2005, 85% by 2007, 100% by 2010;HCFCs consumtion must be freezedfrom 2016 and phased-out on 2040.More restrictive limits were adopted bysome countries and in particular theEuropean Community (regulation EC2037/2000).The most recent scientific assessmentof ozone depletion stated the MontrealProtocol is working and the ozone-layer depletion from the Protocol’scontrolled substances is expected tobegin to reduce within the next decadeto bring back within 2050 to the levelsof 1980. However, failure in the com-pliance of the Montreal Protocol woulddelay or could even avoid the ozonelayer recovery.

THE GREENHOUSE WARMINGEFFECT OF REFRIGERANTS

Scientific measurements has shownthat in the last century, the Earth’s aver-age near-surface atmospheric temper-ature rose 0.6 ± 0.2 °C, mostly attribut-able to human activities increasing theconcentration of CO2 and other green-house gases (GHGs) in the atmos-phere. Moreover, a global temperaturesincrease by between 1.4 and 5.8 °Cbetween 1990 and 2100 has been pre-dicted by the models proposed by theIntergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) [4].The greenhouse warming effect caus-es an increase in global temperaturesand other potentially catastrophiceffects, such as rising sea level,changes in the amount and pattern ofprecipitation, increasing the frequencyand intensity of extreme weatherevents, higher or lower agriculturalyields, glacier retreat etc.. These arethe reasons why the international com-munity has decided to control the emis-sions of GHGs through the KyotoProtocol [5] signed in 1997 and enteredinto force in 2005.But what is the way GHGs act on thethermal equilibrium of atmosphere?

Greenhouse warming effectThe Earth receives energy from theSun in the form of electromagneticradiation. Part of this energy get thesurface of the Earth and is absorbedby soils and oceans. The incomingenergy is returned to the atmosphereas sensible heat, latent heat and asthermal infrared radiation.Some of the gases forming the atmos-phere absorb the outgoing infraredradiation and then partially trap the

Figure 2.Reactions responsible of the ozone depletion.

Cycle 1ClO+O→Cl+O2

Cl+O3→ClO+O2

O+O3→2O2

Cycle 2ClO+ClO→(ClO)2

(ClO)2+sunlight→ClOO+ClClOO→Cl+O2

2(Cl+O3→ClO+O2)

2O3→3O2

Cycle 3ClO+BrO→Cl+Br+O2

orClO+BrO→BrCl+O2

BrCl+sunlight→Cl+Br

Cl+O3→ClO+O2

Br+O3→BrO+O2

2O3→3O2

Figure 1.Ozone distribution in the Antarctica and the Artic. Source [1]

21

imp BOBBO bis 4-08-2006 10:37 Pagina 21

energy that would pass back to thespace.This allows an average temper-ature of 14 °C at the Earth’s surface,that would be otherwise 30 °C colder.The gases absorbing the infrared radi-ation are either naturally present in theatmosphere or produced by humanactivities.These last emissions affect the naturalenergy balance of the atmosphereand then induce an effect on the tem-perature and the climate.

Direct global warmingof refrigerantsThe halocarbons, and among themthe main refrigerants, absorb theinfrared radiation in a spectral rangewhere energy is not removed by CO2or water vapor (figure 3), thus warm-ing the atmosphere (figure 4). Actually,they are strong GHGs since their mol-ecules can be thousand times moreefficient at absorbing infrared radiationthan a molecule of CO2. CFCs andHCFCs have also a significant indirectcooling effect, since they contribute tothe depletion of stratospheric ozonethat is a strong UV radiation absorber,but this effect is less certain andshould vanish with the reduction of theozone hole.The direct warming potential of a mol-ecule is proportional to its radiativeeffect and increases with its atmos-pheric lifetime. A proper index to eval-uate this effect is the GreenhouseWarming Potential (GWP). It is calcu-lated as the ratio between the global

warming of a kilogram of a gas relativeto that of a kilogram of CO2 in adefined horizon of time, most often setat 100-year. The GWPs of the mainrefrigerants are reported in table 1.The direct global warming effect of agiven mass of substance is the prod-uct of the GWP and the amount of theemissions: this explains why CO2 has

a much larger direct global warmingeffect than halocarbons. Direct emis-sions of GHGs may occur during themanufacture of the GHG, during theiruse in products and processes and atthe end of their life. Thus, the evalua-tion of their emissions over all their lifecycle is necessary.It is worth to note that at present alarge amount of halogenated refriger-ants is in banks, i.e. is contained inexisting equipment, chemical stock-piles, etc., and then is not yet releasedto the atmosphere.The banks emission could give a sig-nificant contribution to global warmingin the future, though banks of CFCsand HCFCs are not covered by neitherthe Montreal Protocol nor ClimateConvention and Kyoto Protocol.

Indirect GHG emissions byrefrigerant useThe total warming effect of a refriger-ant must include, aside the directeffect, an indirect effect due to theemissions of GHGs (mainly CO2)related to the energy consumption(fuels and electricity) during the entirelife cycle of the application. Then, to

22

Table 1.ODP and GWP of some refrigerants.

CFC

HCFC

HFC

Naturalrefrigerants

Fluids

R11 CCl3F 45 1 4600106001700700550340013004300120003

1.00.0550.11

00000000

10012.09.3529

13.8521.41

1201

CCl2F2

CHClF2

CCl2F-CH3

CH2F2

CHF2-CF3

CF3-CH2FCH3-CF3

CHF2-CH3

NH3

CO2

CH(CH3)3

R12R22

R141bR32R125R134aR143aR152a

AmmoniaCarbon Dioxide

Isobutane

ChemicalsLifetime /

yearODP [4]

GWP100 year [5]

Figure 3.Top: Infrared atmospheric absorption (0 represents no radiation absorption

and 100% represents complete absorption). Bottom: Absorption crosssections for halocarbons in the infrared atmospheric window. Source [6].

imp BOBBO bis 4-08-2006 10:37 Pagina 22

determine which technology optionhas the highest GHG emission reduc-tion potential, both direct and indirectemissions have to be assessed.The most suitable tools for such eval-uation are the TEWI (Total EquivalentWarming Impact), that is a measurefor GHG emissions during the usephase and disposal, and the LCCP(Life Cycle Climate Performance),which add to the TEWI the direct GHGemissions during manufacture, andthe indirect GHG emissions associat-ed to energy consumed during theproduction of the substances.

ACTIONS TO REDUCE THE ODSsAND GHGs EMISSIONS

In view of the necessity to contributeto the reduction of the ozone depletionand the greenhouse warming effect,HVAC&R sectors must adopt meas-ures to reduce the negative environ-mental effects connected to the use ofhalogenated refrigerants as workingfluids.The main options identified by [6], toreduce the direct emissions are:- improved containment: leak-tightsystems,- recovery, recycling, and destructionof refrigerants during servicing and atthe end of life of the equipment, - application of reduced charge sys-tems:• lower refrigerant charge per unit ofcooling capacity, • reduced refrigeration capacitydemand,- use of alternative refrigerants with alower or zero global warming potential(e.g. hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide,ammonia, etc.), and - not-in-kind technologies.The indirect GHG emissions causedby the production of energy used toaction the machines where refriger-ants operates may be up to an order ofmagnitude larger than direct GHGemissions.These emissions can significantly bereduced by improving the energy effi-ciency, particularly where the use-phase is long.The reduction potential of indirectemissions is highly dependent on theapplication and the working condi-tions. However, energy efficiency

improvements can be profitable andreduce the net costs of the emissionreduction options.

CONCLUSIONS

Stratospheric ozone depletion, globalwarming and climate change are themain environmental issues related tothe use of halogenated refrigerants.Ozone depletion has been faced bythe Montreal Protocol and itsAmendments, leading to the progres-sive ban of CFCs and HCFCs.Scientific assessments suggest thatthe effects of the Protocol are positive,though few decades are still necessaryto “close” the ozone hole. Moreover, astrict control in use and emissions ofCFCs and HCFCs is still required,especially in the developing countries.The problem of global warming is viceversa still open and, as stated by theKyoto Protocol, requires the control inthe emissions of HFCs, that is the flu-ids identified as substitutes for the tra-ditional chlorinated refrigerants.Further, the indirect energy-relatedemissions of GHGs impose theincrease in energy efficiency of theappliances.

Training of operators, technologicalinnovation, refrigerant emissions con-trol are the main actions the world ofrefrigeration has to promote to suc-cessfully contribute to the solution ofthese huge problems.

●

REFERENCES

1. D.W. Fahey, Twenty questions and answersabout the ozone layer, in ScientificAssessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002,WMO/UNEP, 2002.

2. J. A. Pyle, S. Solomon, D. Wuebbles, S.Zvenigorodsky, Ozone depletion and chlorineloading potentials, Scientific assessment ofozone depletion, World MeteorologicalOrganization Global Ozone Research andMonitoring Project, Report no. 25, WorldMeteorological Organization, Geneva (1991).

3. The Montreal Protocol on substances thatdeplete the ozone layer, UNEP OzoneSecretariat United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (2000).

4. IPCC Third Assessment Report: ClimateChange 2001.

5. Kyoto Protocol to the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate, 1997.

6. IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Safeguardingthe ozone layer and the global climate system:issues related to hydrofluorcarbons and perflu-orocarbons.

23

Figure 4.Earth’s temperature departures from the 1961-1990 average in the

northern emisphere from 1860 to 2000.

Northern hemisphere

imp BOBBO bis 4-08-2006 10:37 Pagina 23

24

1. REFRIGERANT MARKETS

One of the essential steps in the calcu-lation procedure applied here is thedetermination of the markets (i.e.,demand) of all different refrigerants byadding up the annual amount of refrig-erant charged in all types of new equip-ment and the complementary refriger-ant charges needed for all servicingoperations globally (see Table 1).When calculating these data, they arecross-checked with refrigerant marketdata as declared by refrigerant manu-facturers and distributors. In manycountries the refrigerant quantities soldare monitored, and the refrigerant dis-tributors publish their annual sales ofCFC, HCFC, and several HFC refriger-ants.

1.2 Refrigerant marketsIn 2002, HCFC-22 was the most wide-ly used refrigerant representing nearly

half of the global demand for refriger-ants. A large demand can be found indeveloping countries such as China. In2002, the global HFC demand wasclose to 200,000 tonnes and the CFCmarket was still at a level of more than100,000 ODP tonnes.

2. REFRIGERANT BANKS

The top-down calculation methoddeveloped is unique in so far that itbuilds up all equipment (with theircharges) from manufacturer, statistical,and economic data. It considers themanufacture, the charging, imports andexports of charged equipment etc., andis in so far a unique calculation method,or rather, a unique program that hasbeen developed over the years. It isalso considers the gradual phase-in ofdifferent non-ODS types of refrigerants,including hydrocarbons, carbon dioxideand ammonia.

In 2002, the global bank of refrigerantsis calculated as 2,600,000 metrictonnes. Where it concerns the differentrefrigerants, the global bank is com-posed as follows (see Table 2):- 1.5 million tonnes of HCFCs;- 490,000 tonnes of HFCs;- 530,000 tonnes of CFCs, and - 110,000 tonnes of non-fluorinated re-frigerants.

3. REFRIGERANT EMISSIONS

From the bottom up method which isused to determine the banks, emis-sions can be calculated by applyingcertain leakage percentages per year(dependent on the year of manufactureof the equipment), service practices,and treatment at end of life. The treat-ment at end of life is assumed to be dif-ferent in the different regions of theworld.The refrigerant emissions calculated for

Predictions of CFC, HCFC and HFCemissions from refrigerating and ACsystems for the period 2002 - 2015 1

L.J.M. KUIJPERS D. CLODIC

Technical University Eindhoven Centre Energétique, Ecole des Mines de Paris

Table 1.Refrigerant markets in 2002.

Refrigerant market in 2002 tonnes ODP tonnes

CFCR-11R-12R-115R-22R-123R-124R-125

R-134aR-143aR-152aR-32R-717R-44

R-600a

5.884131.65211.724

345.8157.6953.280

23.473133.32228.4991.2543.065

22.371-

703

5.884107.9544.689

13.83310898--------

HCFC

HFC

Other

149.260

356.790

189.614

23.075

118.528

14.039

-

-

Table 2. Refrigerant banks in 2002.Refrigerant bank in 2002 tonnes ODP tonnes

CFCR-11R-12

R-502R-22

R-408AR-401AR-123

R-134aR-404AR-407CR-410AR-507R-717R-744

R-600a 2.757

45.444486.53360.999

1.397.05732.72726.63043.746

380.24978.71212.0037.151

10.402106.560

-

45.444398.95713.66455.882

622826612

--------

HCFC

HFC

Other

592.976

1.500.161

488.515

109.317

458.065

57.942

-

-

imp TEAP BIS 4-08-2006 10:45 Pagina 24

2002 are close to 500,000 metrictonnes, if one includes all refrigerantspecies, i.e. CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs andothers. The emissions of HCFC refrig-erants (of which HCFC-22 forms themain part, other HCFC emissions aresmall) are almost the same as the totalof the 2002 CFC and HFC emissions.

4. FORECASTING FOR THEPERIOD 2002-2015

4.1 TWO SCENARIOS FOR THEPROJECTIONS FOR 2015Projections are made for banks andemissions up to the year 2015, usingtwo scenarios, a business-as-usual(BAU) and a mitigation (MITIG) one,which take into account regulatoryschedules, technological choices, andprofessional practices.Each of the following refrigeration sec-tors is studied independently (1)domestic refrigeration, (2) commercialrefrigeration, (3) refrigerated transport,(4) industrial refrigeration, (5) stationaryair conditioning, and (6) mobile air con-ditioning. Calculations have been madefor ten countries and/or country groups:(1) Africa, (2) America (South andCentral), (3) Asia (North and West), (4)Asia (South and East), (5) China, (6)Europe (Eastern and Russia), (7)European Union, (8) Japan, (9)Oceania, and (10) The United States ofAmerica. All regulatory frameworks istaken into account in the projectionstowards 2015. The market growth isestimated following the growth in thelast ten-years before 2002, taking intoaccount the economical situation ineach country group.

4.1.1 Business As Usual ScenarioIn this scenario, the usual practices andemission rates are kept unchanged forthe period until 2015. Recovery effi-ciency is assumed to not increase.Nevertheless, regulatory decisionsrelated to refrigerant phase-out areconsidered in the case of refrigerantreplacements.

4.1.2 Mitigation Scenario(maximisation of the use of lowGWP alternatives)In this scenario, substantial improve-ments are made in the different sec-tors, thereby reducing the refrigerantemissions in CO2 equivalents:- The system leak tightness is improvedby choosing more reliable components.- The recovery efficiency is muchimproved at servicing and at the end-of-life of equipment. Recovery isapplied in all sectors where it was notdone before.- Technologies for the reduction of therefrigerant charge are introduced andapplied (compactness, indirect sys-tems).- Low or lower GWP refrigerants arethe preferred ones whenever possible.Fugitive emissions are reduced via bet-

ter servicing and the use of controldevices on refrigeration equipment.Refrigerant recovery is generallyapplied in all sectors; operators areassumed to be well-qualified andequipped with the right tools. Techno-logical choices are based on selectingthe lowest possible refrigerant chargesand low GWP refrigerants wheneverpossible. All assumptions are detailedon a country by country and sector bysector basis in (GGEEC, 2003).

4.2 PROJECTIONS OFREFRIGERANT BANKS TO 2015

4.2.1 Refrigerant banksThe refrigerant bank will increase from2.3 million tonnes in 2000 to 4.2 milliontonnes in 2015 in the business as usual

(BAU) scenario. The HFC bank wouldincrease by a factor of about 4-5 in 13years (2002 versus 2015). All the poli-cies aimed at the reduction of refriger-ant emissions do not have a significanteffect on the size of the refrigerantbanks during the period 2002-1015(due to the long lead times, i.e., lifetimeof the equipment, before a changebecomes visible in the bank). In themitigation scenario (MITIG), the refrig-erant banks would more or less sta-bilise at a level of 4 million tonnes in2015 (if the refrigerant NH3 is included).

4.3 PROJECTIONS OFREFRIGERANT EMISSIONS TO 2015

4.3.1 Refrigerant emissions by typeIn 2002, the refrigerant annual emis-sions were calculated at almost470,000 tonnes if one would include100,000 tonnes of HFCs. In the sameyear, HCFCs represent half of the totalglobal refrigerant emissions. Accordingto the BAU scenario, refrigerant emis-sions in 2015 would reach the 850,000tonnes level where HFCs would have ahigh share (42% of the global emis-sions of all refrigerants). In the MITIGscenario, maximum efforts are done

within the normal technical framework.Fugitive emissions are reduced thanksto better servicing and the installation ofcontrol devices on refrigerating equip-ment. Refrigerant recovery is generallyapplied in all sectors; operators areassumed to be well-qualified andequipped with the right tools. For thisMITIG scenario, global emissionswould reach their maximum at 520,000tonnes in the period 2008-2010.Thereafter, with a decreasing trend,they are predicted to be just below the2002 level in the year 2015 (total emis-sions being 435,000 tonnes, see Figure2). The increase in HFC emissionswould be rather moderate. They wouldbe about 40% of the total emissions (intonnes) in the MITIG scenario (totalHFC emissions being 160,000 tonnes).

Table 3.Refrigerant emissions in 2002.

Refrigerantemissions in 2002 tonnes

CFCR-11R-12

R-115R-22

R-123R-124R-125

R-134aR-143aR-152aR-32

R-717R-744

R-600a

7.106126.64410.475

229.3034.1512.8649.872

74.34314.7651.095568

17.913-

35

HCFC

HFC

Other

144.225

236.318

100.644

17.948

Table 4. Refrigerant banks in 2015 (tonnes) for two scenariosBank (tonnes)

BAUMITIG

Bank (ODP tonnes)BAU

MITIG

CFCs103.769101.276CFCs82.12480.105

HCFCs1.791.3701.491.239

HCFCs71.13259.139

HCs13.02560.467HCs

--

HFCs2.297.8732.082.504

HFCs--

Total4.206.0373.735.486

Total153.256139.245

25

imp TEAP BIS 4-08-2006 10:45 Pagina 25

26

5. CONCLUSIONS

A bottom-up method to determine glob-al refrigerant banks and emissionsfrom refrigeration equipment providesqualitative insight in what the sizes ofrefrigerant banks and emissions couldmean for the environment. In 2002, thelargest bank is found in R-22 applica-tions, followed by CFCs (R-12) andHFCs (mainly R-134a). In stationaryAC and mobile AC, 60% of the banksexpressed in tonnes is stored.Emissions in 2002 are mainly fromcommercial, stationary and mobile AC(87%). However, where it concerns theglobal warming impact, the CFC emis-sions are predominant, followed byHCFC-22 and HFCs (the latter being5% of the total).For deriving emission scenarios for theperiod 2002-2015, one can apply aBAU and a mitigation (MITIG) scenario.In the BAU scenario total emissions inCO2 equivalent amount to almost 1.5Gtonnes, of which HFCs emissions areabout 35%, i.e. 0.5 Gtonnes. Byassuming the MITIG scenario, the totalCO2 equivalent emissions in the year

2015 can be reduced to about 0.8Gtonnes, where HFCs will representabout 0.3 Gtonnes. In case of theMITIG scenario, the emphasis will beclear if one has to address minimisingglobal warming impact from refrigerantemissions during the period 2002-2015. The largest amount of “globalwarming” originates from the CFCs(55%), followed by the HCFCs (30%)and the HFCs (15%). This emphasisesaddressing the avoidance of emissionsduring operation of the equipment andat end of life. Although percentageschange, this conclusion does notchange for the BAU scenario.In summary, following needs attention ifone wants to reduce global warmingimpact from refrigeration and AC appli-cations over the next decade:• Minimisation of emissions duringservicing and end-of-life via appropri-ate servicing and disposal (destruc-tion), which should be considered firstpriority;• Replacement of HCFCs in commer-cial refrigeration and stationary air con-ditioning, the two main contributing sec-tors, where it concerns global warming

emissions. Global warming impact maydecrease if the appropriate measuresfor emission reductions are taken;• Minimisation of leakage during charg-ing, repair and end-of-life of HFC basedmobile air conditioning, followed by theapplication of low GWP options (suchas HFC-152a or carbon dioxide). It willbe clear from the above that due to thesizes of the banks of CFCs, HCFCsand HFCs, first reductions in globalwarming can be found in good prac-tices, how to manage the banks, and toa lesser degree in applying low GWPoptions in the short term, where thelong lead time (lifetime of the equip-ment) cannot yield substantial reduc-tion results over the next decade.

●REFERENCES(AFEAS, 2003) AFEAS (Alternative Fluorocar-bons Environmental Acceptability Study),Production, Sales and Calculated Emissions ofFluorocarbons through 2001, AFEAS, Arlington,U.S.A., 2003, available at www.afeas.org.(Clodic, 2001) Paper/ presentation at DKVAnnual Meeting 2001. Proceedings Part AA.II ofDKV Meeting Ulm, 2001.(IPCC, 1995) Climate Change 1995:The Scienceof Climate Change. Contribution of WorkingGroup 1 to the Second Assessment Report(SAR) of the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange. Cambridge University Press. 1995/1996(IPCC, 1996) Revised 1996 Guidelines forNational Greenhouse Gas Inventories, IPCC.(OECD / IEA Paris).(Palandre, 2004) L. Palandre, D. Clodic, A.McCulloch, P. Ashford, L. Kuijpers. Determinationof comparative HCFC and HFC emission profilesfor the Foam and Refrigeration sectors until 2015.Report for ADEME and US EPA. 2004.(Palandre, 2003) L. Palandre, A. Zoughaib, D.Clodic, L. Kuijpers. Estimation of the world-widefleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equip-ment in order to determine forecasts of refrigerantemissions. The Earth Technology Forum,Washington DC, 2003.(Palandre, 2002) L. Palandre, A. Zoughaib, D.Clodic. Estimation of the world-wide fleets ofrefrigerating and air-conditioning equipment inorder to determine refrigerant forecasts. FinalReport for GGEEC and ADEME. December2002.(Palandre, 2000) L. Palandre et al. Développe-ment d’un logiciel permettant d’établir l’inventaireannuel et la prévision à 15 ans des émissions defrigorigènes du type HFC. Report for the FrenchAgency for Energy Management and Environ-ment. December 2000.(Palandre, 1999) L. Palandre et al. Inventaire etprévisions selon différents scénarios des émis-sions de HFC utilisés comme fluide frigorigènes.Report for the French Agency for EnergyManagement and Environment. Août 1999.(RTOC, 2002) 2002 Assessment Report of theUNEP Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and HeatPumps Technical options Committee, UNEP2002 (see website unep/org/ozone, TEAP,reports, RTOC reports).(UNEP, 2002) UNEP (United Nations Envi-ron-ment Programme), Production and Consumptionof Ozone Depleting Substances under theMontreal Protocol, 1986-2000, Ozone Secreta-riat, UNEP, Nairobi, 2002.1 This paper is a shortened version of a paperpresented at the annual DKV Meeting Bremen,2004.

Figure 1.Evolution of refrigerant banks (tonnes)

Figure 2.Trends in refrigerant emissions 2002-2015.

imp TEAP BIS 4-08-2006 10:45 Pagina 26

27

AREA is the European Federationof National Refrigeration and AirConditioning Associations.Established in 1988, AREArepresents the industry ofrefrigeration, air conditioning andheat pump installation, in particularat the level of the EuropeanInstitutions.The associations which aremembers of AREA, represent, intheir own country, the enterprisesresponsible for the design,installation, maintenance and repairof refrigeration and air conditioningequipment in the variousapplications.Today AREA comprises theassociations of the followingcountries : Austria, Belgium, CzechRepublic, Denmark, Finland, France,Germany (2), Greece, Hungary,Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands,Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Spain,Sweden,Turkey and UnitedKingdom (2).

Fluorinated gases are still the bestrefrigerants in many applications (e.g.commercial refrigeration and air condi-tioning) because HFC-based technolo-gies still provide superior energy effi-ciencies than available alternatives,besides their merits in safety and thezero effect on ozone depletion. Indeedonly life cycle metrics such as the LifeCycle Climate Performance LCCP orthe Total Equivalent Warming ImpactTEWI are found to properly quantify theoverall climate change impact (energyrelated emissions from the use ofrefrigerants in refrigeration and air con-ditioning equipment, including heatpump and reversible air-conditioningsystems, account for an average of 84% of the total).However HFC should only be appliedwhere their use is justified and whereemissions can be controlled by compe-tent personnel. Toxic refrigerants (e.g.ammonia), high pressure CO2 andflammable fluids are options to be usedor further developed for applicationsoffering energy efficient, safety andcommercially viable ways, reinforcingthe need for highly qualified personneland responsible installation and servicecompanies.Well designed installations remain attheir optimum energy efficiency levelonly if they are adequately controlledand maintained. Likewise there is noeffective containment without properqualification of the personnel handlingthe refrigerants.There is a need for harmonized qualityeducation, training and certification inthe refrigeration industry. Important dif-

ferences in the educational schemesdo exist between European countries.Advanced countries do not want toaccept craftsmen from other MemberStates with insufficient competence.Some countries, sometimes amongthose called the more developed ones,have no valid certification system. Thiscannot be a long lasting situation whilebuilding up an operational EuropeanUnion where the concept of mutualrecognition will now be applied by law.The educational programmes have tofollow fast technological changes andto monitor an increasing number ofchanging rules, environmental legisla-tions and European norms. The vastmajority of the refrigeration and air con-ditioning installation companies areSME.As the issues to be dealt with, areglobal issues, the questions of mini-mum levels of professional qualificationand of essential certification criteriahave to be addressed with theEuropean Authorities.The European Commission has hiredthe consultants ICF to assist in theevaluation of measures taken by theMember States regarding the minimumqualifications requirements and pro-grammes for RAC personnel pursuantto ODS Regulation EC N° 2037/2000which already addressed the abovementioned issues.Their report stated inJanuary 2005 that very few MemberStates complied with the recommenda-tions regarding minimum personnelqualifications / programmes. The rea-son for the limited response of theMember States seems to be that theODS Regulation was not precise nor

Harmonisation of EU refrigerationtraining and certificationbecomes a reality

ROBERT H. BERCKMANS JEAN JACQUIN

Secretary General AREA President AREA

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demanding enough.AREA has been an active participantin the European Climate ChangeProgramme ECCP and has obtaineda more complete wording of the article5 - Training and Certification - of the F-gas Regulation that has been pub-lished on June 14, 2006.This time, compulsory “minimumrequirements and conditions for mutualrecognition shall be established by theCommission in the scope of theRegulation on fluorinated greenhousegases, in respect of training pro-grammes and certification for both thecompanies and the relevant personnelinvolved in installation, maintenance orservicing of stationary refrigeration, airconditioning and heat pump equipmentand circuits, as well as for the person-nel involved in inspection and recovery

activities”.AREA has obtained that not only refrig-eration technicians but also theiremployers must be certified.The certifi-cation of the companies is absolutelyneeded to guarantee the technicalexpertise of the management, its con-cern for environmental protection, thenecessary related work proceduresand the availability of adequate tooling.

Recommendations for the require-ments and conditions for mutualrecognition to be established in theEC Regulation on certain fluorinatedgreenhouse gases (applicable toODS substances also)

The National Authority is the govern-mental institution, for instance a

Ministry or a National Agency, respon-sible for controlling the implementationof the overall scheme.The scheme includes a Certifying Bodyor Certifying Bodies carrying out thefunctions of assessment and certifica-tion / registration of companies’ work-ing procedures and structure: theNational Authority has to recognize thecompetence of such a Body in accor-dance with standard EN 45012.The scheme also includes a CertifyingBody or Certifying Bodies operatingsystems of certification of personnel:the National Authority has to recognizethe competence of such a Body inaccordance with standard EN 45013 /ISO 17024.The Certification Bodies must haveexperience within the refrigeration sec-tor and employ specialists in refrigera-

Results of a 2004 survey (347 refrigeration craftsmen interviewed in 7 representative European countries):“Do you have an environmental certificate as an air conditioning / refrigeration engineer?

and on questions about training programmes:

% Yes answers per country:

Per

cent

Per

cent

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tion and air conditioning.The Advisory Committee of Expertsassists the National Authority in its con-trolling mission and serves as a coun-selor to define and update - when nec-essary - the criteria for certification (e.g.demands and terms of examinations,structures and terms of inspections,...).The members of the AdvisoryCommittee are experienced represen-tatives of the government, refrigerationvocational education bodies / schoolsand relevant trade associations (indus-try and end users).

Requirements for the Certification ofPersonnel

Persons, who are responsible forinstallation, inspection, testing, opera-tion, maintenance, repair, disposal andassessment of refrigerating systemsand their parts shall have the neces-sary training and knowledge for theirtask to achieve competence.Competence in each task shall berequired for health, safety, environ-mental protection and energy conser-vation purposes.The normative references are the stan-dards EN 378-1/2/3/4 and EN 13313.These persons responsible for guaran-teeing the maximum containment ofthe systems, must be capable of:• making leak tight joints using brazing,silver soldering and flare joint meth-ods;• identifying potential leakage points ina system;• using direct acting leak detectionmethods;• recovering refrigerant;• evacuating systems or part of them;• pressure testing;• commissioning new systems / re-commissioning repaired systems.Proof of proficiency in the above mustbe tested by examination or assess-ment before certification.

Requirements for the Certificationof Companies

A company seeking certification hasto fulfill the following requirements :- it has to comply with the National leg-islation and administrative proce-dures;- it has to have at least one personwith a valid certificate assessing thecompetence corresponding to theactivities carried out;- it has the necessary equipment andtools to ensure in particular the safe

handling of refrigerants (refrigerantrecovery equipment, gauges, refer-ence gauges, vacuum equipment,leak detection equipment);- it has the necessary refrigerant admin-

istration and documentation system;- it has the necessary work proce-dures (leakage control, recovery, logbooks of equipment serviced,...).The certification provides formalrecognition to the competence of thecompanies; a company is certified aslong as it can demonstrate that itscompetence is maintained.After a certificate has been issued, theCertifying Body must control the com-pany regularly, so that the certificatecan be renewed year after year, after asuccessful visit and report of theCertifying Body’s inspector. The sur-veillance will concentrate on compe-tence of personnel, inspection ofequipment, equipment calibrating,review of management system andrelevant documentation, compliancewith the work procedures.When the Certifying Body refuses torenew the certification after the sur-veillance, the company concerned hasto file a new application.In summary: no effective containmentnor optimum energy efficient installa-tions without properly qualified per-sonnel and adequate certificationschemes.

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GENERAL STRUCTURE IN THE MEMBER STATES

1st row from the left: R. Berckmans (AREA - Bruxelles), A. Sacchi (ATF - Italy), M. Buoni (ATF - Italy), P.Vemork(KELF - Norway), A. Zoltan (HRACA - Hungary), K. Beermann (NKF - Germany), J. Reijmers, P. Tomlein (SZCHKT - Slovakia) - 2nd row from the left: J. Hoogkamer (NVKL - Netherlands), R. Pütz (VDKF - Germany), S.Wenzler (VDKF - Germany), P. Bachmann (BIV - Germany), G. Hanssen (KELF - Norway), J. Jacquin (AREA- Bruxelles), L. Nordell (KYL - Sweden), J. Dobiasovsky (S CHKT - Czech Rep.), M. Stenzig (ANEFRYC -Spain), W. Stenzig (ANEFRYC - Spain), N. Mitchell (RACG - UK), R. Biffin (BRA/FETA - UK), S. Kerr (IRI -Ireland) - 3rd row from the left: Y. Lowin (VDKF - Germany), Ph. Roy (SNEFCCA - France), E. Aalto (FREA -Finland), J. Remec (SDHK - Slovenia), G. Michalski (KFC/NRF - Poland), Ch. Scholz (VDKF - Germany), J.Broz (S CHKT - Czech Rep.), G. Fox (RACG - UK), C. Sloan (BRA/FETA - UK), E. Pujol (ANEFRYC - Spain).

PRESIDENTS OF THE AREA EUROPEAN ASSOCIATIONS

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United States manufacturers ofheating, ventilation, airconditioning, and refrigeration(HVACR) equipment have played aleadership role in making surerefrigerants are used and handledresponsibly. In 1994, the Air-Conditioning and RefrigerationInstitute (ARI), the trade associationof North American HVACRmanufacturers, published theIndustry Recycling Guide, a guideto recovering, recycling, andreclaiming refrigerants. This guideestablished the authoritative rulesfor those activities and wasreferenced in the regulations of theU.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency. Recently, ARI and theindustry have embarked on anambitious program to increase theirefforts to keep refrigerantscontained and to properly disposeof refrigerants at the end of theiruseful life. ARI’s RefrigerantResponsible Use Initiative (RUI forshort) involves all sectors of therefrigeration and air-conditioningindustry. This article outlines themain initiatives of the program.

The use of refrigerants in the U.S.extends from CFCs, still used in thou-sands of older chillers; to HCFCs, nowused mainly in packaged equipmentand chillers; to HFCs, which are beingused at a growing rate in all types ofrefrigeration and air-conditioning equip-ment as a replacement for CFCs andHCFCs. HFCs are the recognized per-manent replacements for CFCs andHCFCs and have an environmentaladvantage - they do not contribute tostratospheric ozone depletion. Butthey, like the CFCs and HCFCs theyreplace, are global warming gassesand need to be handled carefully.In spite of the hard work and diligenceof the HVACR industry, atmosphericanalysis shows that a significantamount of refrigerants are escaping tothe atmosphere. For HFCs to remain aviable long term refrigerant, theHVACR industry will have to demon-strate that they can be contained andhandled properly.The U.S. is a signatory of the MontrealProtocol and the U.S. government reg-ulates the use of ozone depleting CFCsand HCFCs through the U.S. Clean AirAct. That Act states that intentional

emissions of these refrigerants are ille-gal. Regulations specify in great detailhow refrigerants are to be monitored,handled, how leaks are to be fixed andhow refrigerants are to be disposed.These regulations specify the level ofexpertise a technician must achievebefore handling refrigerants, how muchvacuum must be maintained whenevacuating a system, and when a leakmust be repaired. For CFCs andHCFCs the rules are detailed and arenumerous.The rules are a bit different for HFCs.Because the U.S. is not a signatory tothe Kyoto Accord on Climate Changeand the U.S. Clean Air Act does prima-rily focuses on ozone depleting chemi-cals like CFCs and HCFCs, the author-izing language in the statute is not asclear about HFCs. The Clean Air Actstates that HFCs cannot bevented/released to the atmosphere butneeds to be responsibly cared for. TheU.S. Environmental Protection Agency,the regulating authority, has not taken astrong position on enforcement ofHFCs even though the rules coveringCFCs and HCFCs mention that similarenforcement folds over onto the alter-

Using RefrigerantsResponsibly

DAVID LEWIS MARK MENZER

Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute - ARI

NEW TRENDS OF TRAININGATF in the name of the 19 European Associations which are associated in AREA (Air condition-ing and Refrigeration European Association) has signed a final agreement with NATE (the mostimportant association which certificates the HVACR US technicians). This has been done to sat-isfy the increasing requirement to have qualified technicians and certify their qualification, to dis-tinguish them from other operators not properly trained and qualified.This arises from the fact thatCentro Studi Galileo’s certificate in 30 years of activity has achieved a very high reputation, asnow CSG certificate is recognised and required by some of the most important companies ofHVACR sector and the most important international associations and institutes. In relation to this,as a further service, Centro Studi Galileo, following the international request of qualification of theoperators, will follow the USA example of NATE, and so will mentor the technicians who will seekthe ultimate recognition of their professionalism with a “Merit Certificate”.

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native refrigerants. The first goal of theResponsible Use Initiative is to encour-age the EPA to aggressively enforcethe no venting rules! The next step willbe to strengthen and enhance theClean Air Act to proactively promotethe responsible use of HFCs. ARI isworking with Congress and the U.S.EPA to treat the handling and use ofHFCs in the same manner that theytreat other refrigerants.Another project of the Responsible UseInitiative is to demonstrate that manu-facturers are proactive within their man-ufacturing facilities to contain refriger-ants. ARI surveyed manufacturers tolearn about their practices to containrefrigerants as they use them to chargethe millions of units manufacturedevery year. The results of this surveywere reviewed by industry experts andcomplied into a list and published asthe Responsible Use Guide forMinimizing Fluorocarbon Emissionsin Manufacturing Facilities. Thisguide has been distributed to all ARImanufacturers. It has been printed in aformat that makes it easy for facilitymanagers to carry it with them as theyinspect their plants to assure measuresare being taken to contain refrigerant ina facility.This guide is available to otherindustry associations and to HVACRequipment manufacturers around theworld from the ARI website at http://www.ari.org/_documents/RUI-guide.pdf.An important development in theresponsible use of refrigerants isASHRAE Standard 147, Reducingthe Release of Halogenated Refrig-erants from Refrigerating and AirConditioning equipment and Sy-stems. This standard has the potentialof demonstrating the industry’s leader-ship in promoting responsible use.ASHRAE has provided a valuable serv-ice in promulgating this standard andwith some revisions; it can beembraced by manufacturers. Theserevisions might include a repeatablemethod of measuring small leaks aswell as a leak rate standard, acceptablefor varying types of equipment.ASHRAE has established a standardscommittee to consider improvements tothe standard.It is clear that technicians who areproperly trained tend to be moreresponsible in refrigerant handling. Inthe U.S., technicians must pass a gov-

ernment test in order to be able to pur-chase and use refrigerants. While thatis good, U. S. industry is encouraging ahigher level of competence. It has insti-tuted a technician certification program,called the North American TechnicianExcellence Program (NATE). NATEadministers a series of tests that meas-ure a technician’s competence.Industry feels that NATE certificationshould be required for technicians thatwork on refrigerant containing equip-ment. As a first step, industry wouldlike the U.S. federal government torequire NATE certification in order towork on federal projects.The most ambitious project in ARI’sresponsible use portfolio is calledRefrigerant Management USA (RMUSA). Some would claim that every bitof refrigerant that is manufactured willeventually wind up in the atmosphere.

RM USA will provide incentives fortechnicians to return used refrigerants,for wholesalers to process them and forreclaimers to either clean or destroyused refrigerants. Planning is in theformative stages and more informationshould be available later this year.The Responsible Use Initiative is awide ranging and ambitious effort toimprove the containment of refriger-ants, improve refrigerant handlingpractices, and make refrigerantsbenign at their end of life. It will takethe cooperation of the entire HVACRindustry: manufacturers, installers,and service and maintenance person-nel to make this effort a success. It isimperative that we succeed, if we areto have a variety of safe, efficient andreliable refrigerants available in theyears to come.

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“Indian Leadership for Improved Mobile Air Conditioning (MAC)”By Karen Thundiyil, Stephen O. Andersen (US Environmental Protection Agency);Sridhar Chidambaram, Yash P. Abbi (The Energy and Resources Institute, India)

Recent changes in regulatory policy and corporate leadership have stimulated thedevelopment and adoption of environmentally superior mobile air conditioning (MAC)systems. Cognizant of the growing demand for car A/C in India, key Indian stake-holders are working with an international team of experts to transform A/C technolo-gy in new cars manufactured and sold in India in order to save customers money whileprotecting the climate. The idea is to have car buyers pay a little bit more for a moreefficient and reliable A/C that will save enough fuel to more than pay back that invest-ment in less than one year.“Cooperation on this project has been extraordinary...,” said United NationsEnvironment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics’s (UNEPDTIE) Rajendra Shende, “The Indian MoEF joined with UNEP-DTIE, the UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), The Energy and ResourcesInstitute (TERI), and the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) toassess the potential fuel savings. Such assessment will help the Government of Indiaset policies for sustainable use of fuel.”“Now is the time to introduce fuel efficient A/C...,” said Dilip Chenoy, Director Generalof the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), “...because A/C is alreadystandard on 75% of cars sold today and by 2010 all cars sold in India will have facto-ry-installed car A/C.” In 2004, India successfully phased out CFCs in car A/C sys-tems. At that time, approximately 65% of vehicles had factory-installed A/C.The analysis, which will be featured during the 18th Meeting of the Parties to theMontreal Protocol in New Delhi this year, confirms that energy-efficient MACs offerextraordinary benefits in India’s hot and humid climatic conditions where A/C fuel con-sumption is 3 to 5 times higher than in the US or Europe.MAC technology developed by the MAC Climate Protection Partnership Programoffers fuel savings of 30% or more and refrigerant emissions reductions of at least50%, leading to significant financial and environmental benefits to the increasinglyaffluent and environmentally conscious Indian consumer. The emissions savings ofimproved car A/C systems are indicative of future car emissions reduction possibili-ties: significant savings are predicted from improved car alternators and power trainsystems.As part of its mandate to facilitate the transfer of knowledge and technology for sus-tainable development, UNEP plays a catalytic role in this MAC initiative by providingstrategic advice and bringing together the international partners with their Indiancounterparts.It is hoped that the India experience with next-generation MAC will provide inspirationto other developing countries so that they too can leapfrog to cutting-edge technolo-gies (http://www.epa.gov/cppd/mac).

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Today Mobile Air Conditioning(MAC) system are commonplace,being considered to be anessential feature of all vehicles inmany countries, particularly in thewestern countries, while diffusionis also rapidly increasing in almostall markets across the globe. Suchsystems are considered important,not only as regards overall comfortand well-being, but also in terms ofcontributing in a significant way tovehicle safety by enhancingvisibility and reducing the driverfatigue threshold.Nowadays up to 70% of passengercars and light commercial vehiclesworldwide are equipped with aMAC and penetration is expectedto raise up to the 80% before the2010 due to the forecastedincrease in demand for vehiclesparticularly in Eastern Europe,Asia and South America [1] andthe required improvement in safetyand comfort.This means that morethan 640 millions of cars and lightcommercial vehicles should beequipped with an air conditioningby 2010.

MAC systems are based on a sub-crit-ical vapour compression cycle: arefrigerant fluid - normally a HFC gas- is compressed up to 15 bar, thencooled and condensed with the ambi-ent air and undergoes to a pressuredrop through an expansion device.Then the fluid evaporates cooling theair to be newly compressed. Therefrigerant commonly used is the HFC134a, it has a GWP (Global WarmingPotential) of 1300 times the CarbonDioxide (CO2), that has a GWP of 1,and no effect on the ozone layer; theR134a replaced CFC fluids that havea high depletion effect on the ozonelayer.The reduction of greenhouse gasemissions by 8 % compared to 1990within the EU countries agreed in theKyoto Protocol corresponds to areduction of more than 300 milliontons CO2-equivalent, and this willrequire an intense effort: MAC systemcould play a significant role beingresponsible for Global Warming contri-bution both indirectly due to additionalfuel consumption and directly throughrefrigerant emissions via leakage.On the basis of the studies carried outboth by the Ecole de Mines de Parisand by the CRF in a joint project [2, 3]and by other organisations [4], 0.8l/100 km represents a rough estima-tion of the annual average fuel con-sumption due to the presence of theair conditioning system, a figure whichvaries depending on average climateconditions, as might be expected.Considering an average travelled dis-tance of about 20,000 kilometres per

year, the impact of the MAC systemson the world fuel consumption can beestimated to be approximately 75 mil-lions of tons of fuel equivalent to 175millions of tons of CO2 and represent-ing around 3.5% of the world CO2emission from road transport, estimat-ed to be 5 billions of tons of CO2 [5].Instead studies carried out by Sintef[6] , Armines [7], Jama [8] and Dupont[9] indicated that the average annualemission of HFC is approximately100g per vehicle. This leads to a glob-al annual emission of about 85 mil-lions of tons of CO2 equivalent(68,000 tons of HFC).Correspondingly the present MACtechnology, projected to 2010, couldbe responsible of Green HouseEmissions of about 270 millions of tonof CO2 or equivalent gases.As a consequence of the public opin-ion, high sensitivity regarding environ-mental issues and the Kyoto protocol,the E.U. has adopted a policy whichpromotes the reduction of the environ-mental impact of MAC systems result-ing in a decision to ban the HFC refrig-erants for mobile applications startingfrom the 2011 and to limit the HFCannual emission to 40 g per vehiclefrom 2007.Europe’s position has been stronglyinfluenced by the research movementstarted by Gustav Lorentzen [10] inlate 80s’ and focused to demonstratethat natural refrigerants could replacethe synthetic ones while guaranteeingacceptable performance and eliminat-ing all negative effects on the environ-ment.The research, which was mainly

Mobile Air Conditioning

CARLOANDREA MALVICINO

Centro Ricerche Fiat - Interiors & Thermal Systems Dept.- Vehicle Systems

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conducted in Europe [11], identifiedCarbon Dioxide (CO2), labelled R-744when used as refrigerant, as the mostfavourite candidate to replace theHFC. CO2 has long been used as arefrigerant, is a well-know fluid, and isthe greenhouse gas with unity globalwarming potential.Now, components and parts for R-744systems are available and the majorsuppliers are ready to go in produc-tion; however, despite the significantR&D efforts addressing the on-boardsystem efficiency, the cost (particular-ly for small cars) and operational safe-ty are still open issues. This scenariocould change, in case other worldregions will join Europe in its way toapply R-744 MAC systems.Several activities are on-going whichfocus on these issues including the B-COOL project [12], partly funded inpart by the E.U., which aims to devel-op a R-744 low cost system with high

efficiency for segment A and B (com-pact and sub compact) cars: within theproject a Fiat Panda and a Ford Ka willbe equipped with the system.A second viable alternative is repre-sented by the use of HFC 152 that hasa GWP of 130 but is slightly flammableand a major decomposition product isHF. This solution has been deeplyexamined by U.S. companies demon-strating that a safe use of this refriger-ant can be achieved with the adoptionof specific safety devices or of indirectexpansion architecture. This last guar-antees other advantages in terms offuel efficiency and being particularly

suitable for vehicle having hybrid orstop & start power train [13]. This fea-ture is not dependent on the refriger-ant choice, however, this aspect couldbe very important in case of a broaddiffusion of this type of power train thatrequires special system able to guar-antee the thermal comfort when thethermal engine is off.Recently, large chemical companiesproposed other HFC fluids with verylow GWP [14]. These fluids are not ano real “drop in” solution and theirmajor drawback is that, at present, areconsidered toxic and with a certainlevel of chemical instability. R&D activ-ity is progressing rapidly but these flu-ids could not be considered a viablesolution: even if the toxicity will be reevaluated will remain the risk of a neg-ative campaign that could affect enduser purchasing decision having animpact on car sales that will favorisethe car manufacturers adopting theR-744 MAC systems.Beside the European policy andresearch activity mainly oriented to thereplacement of GHG gases so to elim-inate the direct greenhouse effect ofthe MAC, other initiatives have beenlaunched to promote the developmentof more efficient and tight MAC sys-tems. An American ChemicalCompany and the US EPA launchedthe I-MAC [9] cooperative action aim-

ing to develop to and diffuse technicalsolutions able improve the MAC effi-ciency of about the 30% and to reduceof up the 50% the HFC refrigerantemissions. The initiative had a verybroad international support and gath-ers the major part of U.S., Europeanand Japanese organisations.Finally, UNEP under the sponsorshipof U.S. EPA, launched in the 2006 theinitiative named EcoMAC devoted tothe development of an high efficiencyMAC system based on HFC fluid forsmall cars.The project has the role to increasethe sensitivity towards the MAC fuelefficiency, contributing to promote reg-ulations and other measures aimed toincentivate the adoption of energy andfuel saving systems so to avoid therisk of an even sharper increase offossil fuel consumption. The EcoMACrelevance is even more important inperspective of the rapid diffusion ofcars and MAC in the developing coun-tries, where regulations are under dis-cussion and evaluation.EcoMAC, coordinated by the FiatResearch Center, is focused to thedevelopment of an high efficiencymobile air conditioning system for asmall car. A Fiat Panda prototype willbe realised and tested.The technical activity will be carriedout in parallel with the definition of a

Thermal Manikin used to measurethe Operative Temperature and thethermal comfort level.The manikin isproduced under CRF licence bySixTau.

The modified NEDC cycle adopted for the procedure to assess the fuel consump-tion associated to the MAC system.

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procedure to evaluate the fuel con-sumption associated to the system.This procedure will be used to com-pare the EcoMAC prototype with thebaseline vehicle and with other similarvehicles having different MAC system(e.g. the B-COOL Fiat Panda).The testing method has been pro-posed initially the framework of a proj-ect funded by the ADEME Frenchagency, further developed within theB-COOL project and it is under dis-cussion and refinement in the frame-work of the EcoMAC project.The proposed procedure [15] is basedon a modified NEDC cycle performedat 35 °C and 60% R.H, 28 °C and 50%R.H. and 15 °C and 70% R.H.In addition, provisions have been iden-tified on the MAC system regulation incase of automatic as well as manualcontrol. The thermal performance ofthe system is based on the Operativetemperature measurement in thecabin using Thermal Manikins [16].The general scenario puts in evidencethe efforts of National and Supranationalorganisations, Research Entities andfinally by Companies to develop a newgeneration of Mobile Air Conditioningsystems having a lower impact on theenvironment. So, the original GustavLorentzen idea generated a positive

reaction of the world community thatresulted in a progressive increase ofthe efficiency of the HFC based sys-tems, in the production of MAC sys-tems based on natural refrigerantsand recently in the development ofvery low GWP HFC refrigerants.The process is not completed, but juststarted and very important achieve-ments are expected in the next yearson the technical and scientific side aswell as on the policy and regulationside. The on-going actions, as theEcoMAC and the B-COOL projects,are examples of actions that in thecoming years will contribute to solvethe remaining open points and that willincrease the general awareness onthe important efforts of the Public andPrivate entities to reduce the negativeimpact of human activities on the envi-ronment.

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REFERENCES[1] W. Atkinson, The World car park - Future AirConditioning Systems, Troy 2005[2] Fuel consumption of Mobile air conditioningMethod of testing and results D.Clodic et al.,Technologies Forum (ETF), Washington DC,April 2003[3] 05A9013 - Procedure to assess the con-sumption and the thermal comfort of a pas-senger car MAC system C. Malvicino et al.,First european mobile air conditioning work-shop November 29-30, 2005 Orbassano - Italy[4] Fuel Used for Vehicle Air Conditioning: AState-by-State Thermal Comfort-BasedApproach, Valerie H. Johnson, NationalRenewable Energy Laboratory, SAE2002-01-1957[5] Can cars come clean? - strategies for low-emission vehicles - isbn-92-64-10495-x (c)oecd2004 - OECD publication[6] Global Environmental Consequences ofIntroducing R744 Mobile AC Systems, A.Hafner, P. Nekså, 7th IIR Gustav LorentzenConference on Natural Working Fluids,Trondheim 28-31 May 2006, Proceedings[7] Analysis of the economic and environmen-tal consequences of a phase out or consider-able reduction leakage of mobile air condition-ers, S. Barrault, J. Benouali, D. Clodic,Armines, MAC Summit 2003, Brussels[8] JAMA’s Voluntary Action Plan to ReduceHFC-134a Emissions: Interim Field SurveyTest Report, Tohru Ikegami et al., EPA meet-ings at Drury Inn Troy, June 30, 2005[9] I-MAC 30/50: An International Multi-Stakeholder Program to Benefit theEnvironment and the Consumer, MackMcFarland, Ph.D., DuPont Fluoroproducts,Workshop on Technology Cooperation Next-Generation Mobile Air Conditioning, 3-4 March2005, new Delhi, India[10] G. Lorentzen and J. Pettersen. NewPossibilities for Non-CFC Refrigeration.Proceedings from the International Symposiumon Refrigeration, energy and Environment,Trondheim, pp 147-163, June 22-24, 1992[11] CO2 (R744) as an Alternative Refrigerant,Dr. Robert Mager et al, MAC Summit 2003,Brussels[12] B-COOL - Low Cost and High EfficiencyCO2 Mobile Air Conditioning system for lowersegment cars, Carloandrea Malvicino, CentroRicerche Fiat - Strada Torino 50. 10043Orbassano Italy, VDA winter meeting 2004,Saalfelden [13] Ultra-Low GWP Refrigerant For Mobile AirConditioning Applications, Mark W. Spatz,Honeywell, JSAE Automotive Air-ConditioningConference Tokyo, Japan, March 13-15, 2006[14] HFC152a as the alternative refrigerant,William R. Hill, General Motors Corporation,MAC Summit 2003, Brussels[15] Mobile air conditioning fuel consumption &thermal comfort assessment procedure, C.Malvicino, S. Mola, D. Clodic, 7th IIR GustavLorentzen Conference on Natural WorkingFluids, 28 - 31 May 2006 - Trondheim[16] P.A.C.O. innovative manikin to assess thethermal comfort, G.Marzullo, G.Graglia - Sixtau(Italy) C. Canta - Centro Ricerche Fiat (Italy),First European mobile air conditioning work-shop November 29-30, 2005 Orbassano - Italy

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Measured fuel additional consumption of a panel of commercialised and prototypevehicles applying the testing procedure elaborated within the B-COOL project andunder discussion in the framework of the EcoMAC initiative.

28 °C - 50% R.H.

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It is very important for refrigerationindustry to research and useenvironment-protectingrefrigerants, because CFCs andHCFCs, which are widely used inrefrigeration system and in heatinsulation materials processing inpresent, do great harm to ozonelayer and result in or at leastaggravates greenhouse effect.Thisarticle reviews the history andpresent status of refrigerantsutility, and also discusses thedevelopment trend and thereplacement of refrigerants inChina.

Introduction

It can be traced back to ancient time,that refrigeration was used by Humanbeing ,using stored ice and a numberof evaporative processes.[1] However,actual refrigerants did not appear untilthe 1830’s, when Jacob Perkin invent-ed a vapor compression refrigeratingsystem using ethyl ether in a closedcircuit and took out a patent on that.[2] The period from 1830’s to early 20thcentury was the first stage of refriger-ants use. During this stage, naturalmaterials and some easy-gainedchemicals like water, air, ammonia,sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide,methyl chloride, propane, isobutene,etc. came into use.Attention was mainly paid to safetyand performance in that time. An idealrefrigerant was believed to be stable,non-toxic, non-flammable, capable of

operating in a domestic refrigeratorwithout leaking below atmosphericpressure, and to be a substance witha low index of compression, etc. Noneof those refrigerants mentioned abovemeet such requirements completely.Therefore, Thomas Midgeley startedhis excellent job to find such refriger-ants in 1928, which was a task fromGeneral Motors.The first nearly-perfectrefrigerant Thomas found was R12.[3]The emergence of R12 as a refrigerantbegan the second stage of refrigerantsuse. Various CFCs and HCFCs likeR13, R123 and R22 were graduallyfound and came into use. All of thesechemicals were stable, non-toxic, non-flammable and highly efficient. Theybecame the dominant refrigerants rap-idly and were used in the completerange of domestic, commercial, indus-trial and air-conditioning applications.Most of the early refrigerants retiredand it appeared that there would soonbe nothing left but CFCs and HCFCs.However, researchers Molina andRowland’s research connected CFCswith Ozone Layer Depletion in1974.[4] Since then, attention beganto turn to environmental protection. Itseemed that a new era of refrigerants,marked by limitation on CFCs andHCFCs use and turning to HCFs orcoming back to natural refrigerants,was coming in 1990’s.

Environmental Issues

The main challenges for air condition-ing and refrigeration industry in pres-ent are the global environmental

issues: Ozone Layer Depletion andGlobal Climatic Change.Molina and Rowland first releasedtheir hypothesis on CFCs’ damage toOzone Layer in 1974. In 1985, it wasobserved that the ozone layer overAntarctica was being progressivelydestroyed as they had predicted.[5]People began to take Ozone LayerDepletion as a serious problem andtook rapid actions. In 1987, MontrealProtocol, a landmark internationaltreaty to protect ozone layer, wasreached. Montreal Protocol and somefurther reports propose strict restrictionon CFCs and HCFCs use. Generallyspeaking, CFCs use should be bannedin1996 in developed countries and2010 in developing countries; HCFCsconsumption should be banned in2020 in developed countries and in2040 in developing countries.

35

Refrigerants Replacementand Environmental Protectionin China

YANG YIFAN and WANG CONGFEI

Chinese Association of Refrigeration - CAR

Figure 1.Breakdown of Global

GHG EmissionsPFCs, SF6,

HFC-230.6%Nitrous Oxide

3.0%

Methane7.0%

HFCs0.4%

CO289.0%

1997

imp YANG YFAN BISS 4-08-2006 10:43 Pagina 35

The IPCC (2001) revaluation reportindicated the 90s of 20th century werethe warmest ten years and 1998 wasthe warmest one in the 90s from therecord results. HFCs were classifiedas greenhouse gases (GHG) alongwith carbon dioxide, methane, nitrousoxide, PFCs and SF6 in the KyotoProtocol. The protocol requires devel-oped countries to first eliminate anygrowth in their GHG emissions thattook place over the two decades(since 1990) and then collectively tofurther reduce their emissions 5.2%below 1990 levels on average over the2008 to 2012 time period.

Trade-off in Refrigerants Selection,environmental impact in particularconsideration

Selection of any refrigeration is a com-promise. Basic requirements for a suc-cessful refrigerant in present are that itshould be zero ODP and low GWP,and that it should be efficient to use inconventional refrigeration machineryand be safe, etc. It is almost impossi-ble to meet all these requirements atthe same time.HFCs have nearly zero ODPs andthey have been promising and essen-tial substitutes for these Ozone-Depleting refrigerants. However, theyare included in the basket of GHG forcontrol by the Kyoto Protocol, which

leads to uncertainty of some countriesand organizations about future HFCapplicability. Europe countries tend tocome back to natural refrigerants fortheir low GWP.As is broken down in the Figure 1,however, HFCs are very small part ofGHG emissions [6]Also, another important questionwhich is concerning is how to evaluatethe impacting of HFCs (HCFCs) on cli-mate change as well as natural refrig-erants scientifically.The LCCP analysis methodology isintroduced as a more scientific andcomplete procedure. It accounts forwarming impacts due to direct GHGemission for the product and to indirectGHG emissions associated with theenergy consumption of the productover the entire life cycle of refrigerantand equipment including inadvertentemissions from chemical manufacture,energy embodied in components, andemissions at the time of disposal orrecycle. The lower the LCCP value, thelower the environmental impact.The LCCP value was compared inFig.2, for residential unitary air condi-tioning include HFC blends (primarilyR407cand R410a), propane (HC-290) and HCFC-22. LCCPs havebeen calculated for a typical applica-tion in Atlanta, GA, USA, at three effi-ciency levels-seasonal energy effi-ciency ratio (SEER) level of 10, 12 and

14Btu/Watt·hr.According to LCCP values, HFCs,HCFCs and natural refrigerants arevery similar in the environmentalimpact. A report of the TEAP HFC andPFC Task Force (TEAP, 1999) stated,“the categories of ODS replacementbased on chemical nomenclaturesuch as HFC, HCFC, HFE or naturalrefrigerants are unreliable indicators ofenvironmental acceptability”.[7] Thishas been recognized and shouldbecome the basis for industry andgovernmental actions instead of GWP.

Refrigerants in the future

There are no ideal refrigerants in pres-ent or in the future. The selection ofrefrigerants should be a trade-offbetween several basic properties, anddepend on the specific application.HCFCsHCFCs are up to 98% less zonedepleting and have 80% shorteratmospheric lifetimes than the corre-sponding CFCs they replaced, andthey are also energy efficient and low-toxic. They will be popular used indeveloping countries in the comingseveral decades in different area.HFCsHFCs are convenient, safe, cost-effec-tive, high-efficiency, and the impactingto environment is not much more thannature refrigerants, as discussed

36

Figure 2.LCCP for Residential Space Conditioning in Atlanta (3 ton)

imp YANG YFAN BISS 4-08-2006 10:43 Pagina 36

above. They should still be main alter-natives, especially in the sealed sys-tem. For myself, the author doesn’tagree with the rapid and unnecessaryphase-out of HFCs, although theresponsible use for them is essential.Natural refrigerantsThe main problems for natural refrig-erants are their safety and specialrequirements. It will be limited in therecent years before the technical isdeveloping.

Refrigeration Replacement In China

Great efforts have been made inChina to protect environment andreplace of refrigerants.China subscribed Montreal Protocol in1991, and approved a national projectto phase out ODS in 1993.The nation-al project was updated in 1999 and a

more scientific and detailed schedulewas given. In 1998, China subscribedKyoto Protocol.As a developing country, China’s mostimportant task is to phase out CFCs.As is shown in Table 1, 6 of the 10kinds of ODSs to phase out in Chinaare CFCs, according to MontrealProtocol (London Amendment).Moreover, Table 2 shows the expectedreduction of different kinds of CFCsconsumption and Table 3 is about theexpected reduction of CFCs con-sumption in different areas, accordingto the national project.The CFCs replacement in China hascome to a success in some areas.R134a and R600a have become themost popular refrigerants for refrigera-tor instead of R12. Also, R134 hasreplace R12 to be refrigerants forMACs in recent years and CO2 MACs

technology is in research. For roomconditioners and unitary air-condition-ers, R22 has become the most popu-lar refrigerant used, and environmentfriendly refrigerants like R410a andR407c are also used for export. R134aand R22 have replaced R11 to be themain refrigerants used in centrifugalchillers.China has subscribed Kyoto Protocolin 1998. There are further tasks forChina to phase out HCFCs, andmaybe finally CFCs, as the protocolrequires. However, time is needed forsuch transition and acceleration of theHCFCs phase-out schedule andreduction of the HCFCs productioncap in the developing countries likeChina should not proceed before fur-thering technical development, com-mercial availability and recognizingthe economic costs to society.

Conclusion

As is stated for many times, any refrig-erant selection is a compromise. Wehave to evaluate a candidate complete-ly and scientifically with considerationof both the several basic principles andthe specific application and market.In the near future, HCFCs (mainly fordeveloping countries like China),HFCs and natural refrigerants couldbe expected to be in concurrence butin deferent uses.

●

REFERENCES1. Thévenot, R., A History of RefrigerationThroughout the World, trans. From Frech by J.C. Fidler, International Institute of Refrigeration(IIR), Paris, France, 1979.2. S Forbes Person, Refrigerants Past, Presentand Future, the 21st International Congress ofRefrigeration, 2001.3. Calm J. M. and Didion D. A., Trade-OffsRefrigerant Selections: Past, Present andFuture, ASHRAE/NIST Refrigerants Conf.,1997.4. Molina, M. J., Rowland, F. S., Stratosphericsink for chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine atomcatalyzed destruction of ozone, Nature, 1974,249, 810-812.5. Zhu M. S. and Shi L., One word, DifferentVoices, One Issue, Many Options, the 2ndAsian Conference on Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 2004.6. CAN Europe, 2002, Ozone and climate atthe crossroads, Climate Action Network-Europe, Brussels.7. TEAP, 1999, The Implications to theMontreal Protocol of the Inclusion of HFCsand PFCs in the Kyoto Protocol, MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete theOzone Layer, HFC and PFC Task Force of theTechnology and Economic AssessmentPanel, P.13, 14, 33, 37.

37

Table 2.The reduction expected in different kinds of CFCs consumption of China, ODP ton

CFC-11CFC-12CFC-113CFC-114CFC-115CFC-13

199920483110

0000

200628802040550000

200728751780

01010050

200810406900000

200934105200000

20101402560

0000

Table 3.The expected reduction of ODSs consumption in different areas, ODP ton

Foaming industryC&I refrigeration

Domestic refrigerationCleaning industryCigarette industry

MAC

199927893602046

00

220

200624601360200654150250

200728255500

1040

280

200810004400

1040

290

200933703400

1040

220

20100

13402001040

160Halon industry 5370 6470 0 0 0 1000

Table1.10 kinds of ODSs to phase out in China according to London Amendment

Annex A

Annex B

Group 1

Group 2Group 1Group 2Group 3

ODSCFC-11CFC-113CFC-115

Halon 1211CFC-13

CTCTCA

ODP1.00.80.63.01.01.10.1

ODSCFC-12CFC-114

Halon 1301

ODP1.01.0

10.0

imp YANG YFAN BISS 4-08-2006 10:43 Pagina 37

38

A change towards sustainability inthe retail sector involvingmultinational corporations tookplace in recent years.The UnitedNations Environment Programme(UNEP) promotes such changewhich aims at finding solutions tomore than one global environmentalissue. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)are widely used as replacements forreplacement of ozone depletingchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) inmany commercial refrigerationapplications, such as beveragecoolers, vending machines, icecream freezers, and open deckcoolers and freezers used insupermarkets. HFCs have zeroOzone Depletion Potential (ODP),but still have a high Global WarmingPotential (GWP) and belong to thegases whose emissions arecontrolled under the Kyoto Protocol.With HFC production increasingwith the successful replacementCFCs under the Montreal Protocol,concerned companies andorganizations are seeking long-termsolutions to address both of theseglobal environmental issues. Part ofthe answer lies in the developmentand widespread commercializationof alternative refrigeration andcooling technologies such ashydrocarbons, carbon dioxide,Stirling cycle, thermoacoustic, andsolar cooling. In 2000, at the requestof the The Coca Cola Company andMc Donald’s, UNEP along with theUS Environmental ProtectionAgency (USEPA) convened anexperts group to review the optionsand inform the process oftechnology choice at the enterpriselevel.

OBJECTIVES

After 4 years of work on differentoptions by the enterprises, Refrige-rants, Naturally! was launched in 2004as a voluntary corporate initiative byThe Coca Cola Company, Unilever andMcDonald´s, and supported by UNEPand Greenpeace. Its objective is to pro-mote a shift in the point-of-sale coolingtechnology towards alternative refriger-ation technology that protects theEarth’s climate and ozone layer. Theinitiative encourages the developmentof HFC-free technologies for point ofsale commercial refrigeration.

SUMMARY

The initiative’s members are compa-nies that have point-of-sale coolingapplications in the food and drink, foodservice and retail sectors. Membersmust show commitment to:• eliminating HFCs in point-of-sale cool-ing applications• developing a timetable for doing so• making a make a substantial resourcecommitment to achieve fluorocarbon

elimination, including R&D, testing,financial investment, staff time or politi-cal energy• sharing information between mem-bers via regular meetings, specialevents/workshops, and bilateral ex-changes• sharing data and results with othercompanies, government decision mak-ers and the publicRefrigerants, Naturally! provides mem-bers with a working group and a sup-portive environment where informationis shared to encourage and spreadexcellence for those committed to elim-inating HFCs in point-of-sale refrigera-tion.The partnership also provides a plat-form and a critical mass in communi-cating with the refrigeration technologysupply chain, with other users, govern-mental, political and public institutionsabout the feasibility and environmentalgain of non-HFC-cooling.The partners are seeking other majorcompanies in the concerned businesssector worldwide to join the initiativeand adopt similar technology.New part-ners will be expected to both contributeresources in terms of internal researchand development/investment in alter-native refrigeration technologies, and toparticipate fully in the process to man-age the initiative itself.

RESULTS

Within the framework of Refrigerants,Naturally!, The Coca Cola Company,Unilever and McDonald’s together withtheir suppliers have developed, tested

Refrigerants, Naturally!Clever cooling vs. global warming

REFRIGERANTS NATURALLY PARTNERS

imp COCA COLA 4-08-2006 10:34 Pagina 38

39

and purchased innovative, commercial-ly-viable HFC- and CFC-free refrigera-tion technologies. Some of the resultsachieved to date include:• The Coca-Cola Company haslaunched a US$ 10 million Researchand Development program that hasallowed it to identify, develop and testCO2-based cooling applicationsdesigned to efficiently chill productswhile reducing greenhouse gas emis-sions. Initial field tests, performed during2004 in Greece, Spain and Australia,indicated that CO2 equipment in real-life conditions was between 17% and35% more energy efficient than theequivalent units using standard refrig-erants. Today, the Coca-Cola Systemhas deployed over 2,000 coolers andvenders using CO2 refrigeration tech-nology. This number will grow to over4,500 by mid-2006 as pre-commercialmarket tests continue. HFC-free insula-tion has been implemented for themajority of Coca-Cola new sales equip-ment purchases and work is in processto substantially reduce the energy con-sumption of equipment, targeting a 40-50% reduction over a 2000 baseline bythe end of the decade. Coca-Cola esti-mates that, when its environmentalrefrigeration will be fully deployed, year-ly greenhouse gas emissions savingswill be equivalent to removing 150,000cars from our roads.• Tests in the first McDonald´s HFC-free pilot restaurant in Vejle, Denmarkshowed encouraging results. Therestaurant used approximately 12 per-cent less energy than a conventionalMcDonald’s restaurant and its emis-sions according to the Total EquivalentWarming Impact (TEWI) calculationare 27% lower. Based on these results,McDonald´s is focusing the develop-ment plans with their suppliers on the 3(of 10) equipment items (HVAC, walk-infreezer and ice cream/shake machi-nes) that account for 97% of the totalimpact.• Unilever owns the world’s largest icecream business selling branded icecream such as Magnum, Cornetto,Carte d’Or, Ben & Jerry’s and Breyers.Out of home sales are made throughbranded ice cream freezers of whichUnilever owns about 1.8 million. In2000, Unilever made a commitment tobuy HFC-free ice cream freezers by2005 and to meet that commitment,

Unilever has worked closely with theirsuppliers and industry experts to intro-duce ice cream freezers using hydro-carbon refrigerants. The first public testof the hydrocarbon freezers was with50 units at the Sydney Olympics in2000 followed by long scale trials inSydney and Brisbane. Independentstudies published by the DanishTechnological Institute showed thatthese hydrocarbon freezers were 10%

more energy efficient than the equiva-lent HFC freezers. Unilever moved tolarge scale trials in Denmark in 2003and a Europe wide roll out in 2004. By2006, Unilever will have 100,000 hydro-carbon refrigerated ice cream cabinetson the market in Europe. Hydrocarbonfreezers will be in the market in LatinAmerica in 2006 and in Asia in 2007.The key to the successful transition toenvironmentally friendly freezers hasbeen a close relationship with our sup-ply chain, ensuring that not only thetechnical but also the wider social ele-ments underlying the switch to hydro-carbon refrigerants were fully under-stood. Unilever has held launch eventsin several countries to support the intro-

duction and to raise consumer aware-ness of the initiative and has developeda training package for servicing hydro-carbon freezers, which will be madeavailable to third parties.Other than hydrocarbon refrigerants,Unilever has been actively involved withdeveloping and testing other environ-mentally friendly technologies like thesolar panel assisted freezer and ther-moacoustics. These tests have provid-ed support to fledgling technologiesand valuable data to underpin theirfuture introduction. Unilever’s widerEnvironmental and Social activities arein their annual report which can befound at: http://www.unilever.com/our-values/environmentandsocietyThe companies were awarded theUnited States Environmental ProtectionAgency’s Climate Protection Award2005 in recognition for their leadershipin developing innovative ways to com-bat global warming by promoting thedevelopment of environmentally-friend-ly refrigeration technology.The partners organized an internation-al conference in Brussels in June2004 that showcased the initiative andthe companies’ achievements.They willorganize another event in 2006 to intro-duce new members to the initiative andto highlight new refrigeration technolo-gies that suppliers have brought tomarket.Refrigerants, Naturally! is recognisedas a “Partnership for SustainableDevelopment” by the UN Commissionon Sustainable Development as a vol-untary, multi-stakeholder initiative thatcontributes to the implementation ofAgenda 21, Rio+5 and the Johanne-sburg Plan of Implementation.For more information, visit www.refrig-erantsnaturally.com

●

High interest on naturalrefrigerants: picture fromthe latest EuropeanSeminar about carbondioxide as a Refrigerantheld in Milan, organized byCentro Studi Galileo andAssociazione dei Tecnicidel Freddo.

imp COCA COLA 4-08-2006 10:34 Pagina 39

40

Emissions of halogenatedrefrigerants represent a majorchallenge for the environment bothdue to ozone depletion and greenhouse warming. On a global basistoday, the refrigerant emissionsrepresent GHG emissionsequivalent to about 10% of CO2emissions resulting from fossil fuelburning (IPCC/TEAP, 2005).In principle emissions can bereduced through improvedcontainment.However, even with strong focusand incentives introduced bygovernments, it has proved to bedifficult to reduce emissions toacceptable levels, especially forsome applications. A change to useof alternative refrigerants with alower or zero global warmingpotential therefore represent a moresustainable long term strategy.CO2 is a substance occurringnaturally in the biosphere.Thus, it isa long term alternative, known notto have adverse effects on theenvironment if emitted to theatmosphere. CO2 is also a non-toxicand non-flammable alternative,properties preferred in manyapplications.The CO2 used asrefrigerant is waste CO2 fromindustrial processes, the same CO2as used for carbonizing beverages.It is also important that it hasexcellent availability world-widealready today.

Ozone depleting substances are con-trolled through the Montreal protocoland will be phased out. However, theyare still extensively used in many coun-tries, especially developing countriesthat potentially may use these ozonedepleting substances for many years tocome, even if this is undesirable froman environmental point of view. Uniqueis that these countries may use thisopportunity to convert their technologydirectly to long term solutions usingnatural refrigerants.Since refrigeration, air conditioning andheat pumps generally generate indirectCO2 emissions through their powerconsumption, either through electricityproduction based on fossil fuels or inengines for transport and mobile appli-cations, it is important to focus also onthese emissions, and thereby on ener-gy efficiency. One way to address this isthrough life cycle climate performanceevaluations, LCCP, which takes thetotal emissions during the lifetime intoaccount.CO2 has become a viable alternativerefrigerant for several different applica-tions. It may serve as an alternative inreplacing ozone depleting and globalwarming refrigerants. A review of someimportant aspects of CO2 as refrigerantand the importance it may play as analternative refrigerant are given here.LCCP calculations for different climatesand applications are presented in orderto substantiate CO2 as an alternative.Focus will be given to systems usingCO2 as the only refrigerant. Thus, useof CO2 in cascade systems or as brineis not covered.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY ANDAMBIENT CONDITIONS

Due to the difference of CO2 thermo-physical properties and cycle charac-teristics compared to HFC refriger-ants, typical efficiency curves (COP,Coefficient Of Performance: coolingcapacity divided by power input) showsdifferent trends with the ambient tem-perature. CO2 tends to be more effi-cient at lower ambient temperatures,while HFC systems may be slightlymore efficient at the highest ambienttemperatures. This tendency has beenverified for various applications, suchas vehicle air conditioning and super-market refrigeration. Figure 1, fromHafner et al. (2004) illustrates this.The crossover temperature, given bythe intersection of the two curves, willvary depending on various factors,such as component efficiency andsystem design. Results comparingCO2 and HFC options reported inHafner et al. (2004) for mobile air con-ditioning systems showed a crossovertemperature above 30 °C.When comparing energy efficiency forCO2 systems and alternative technolo-gies it is of utmost importance to makea seasonal comparison based on theoperating conditions the systems willexperience during the year. A compari-son only at rating conditions, typically32 or 40 °C, will not give comparabilitywith respect to energy consumption.Usually the rating point is given for themost severe condition the equipment islikely to experience. It is very importantto ensure the required cooling or heat-

CO2 as Refrigerant, an Option toReduce GHG Emissions fromRefrigeration, Air Conditioning andHeat Pump Systems

PETTER NEKSÅ

SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim, Norway

imp NEKSA 4-08-2006 10:53 Pagina 40

ing capacity at these conditions, butoperation at this condition will mostoften not be important for the annualenergy consumption of the equipment.Results show that CO2 systems satisfycapacity requirements at the highestambient conditions very well.For several applications it has nowbecome a common procedure to workout energy consumption based on aseasonal variation of the climate inorder to compare different systems andtechnologies.This holds for example forHVAC units in USA, hot-cold vendingmachines in Japan and mobile air con-ditioning systems. LCCP calculationcomparisons for some applications arepresented below.

CO2 AS AN ALTERNATIVEIN DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS

CO2 systems have been commer-cialised in some applications, arereadily developed from an R&D pointof view for several different applica-tions and systems for yet others appli-cations are still under development.

Commercial RefrigerationThe commercial refrigeration sectorrepresents the largest GHG emissionsfrom refrigerant leakage within therefrigeration sector, more than 40% ofthe CO2-eq emissions.Figure 3 shows total yearly CO2-eqemission for a supermarket in kg CO2-eq. Assumptions; charge 600 kg HFC-404A, yearly leakage 30% (worldaverage), end of life recovery 50%,seasonal COP of refrigeration machin-ery 2,5 and a yearly operation time of75 % with a nominal capacity of 250kW. Power production are illustratedfor an average European power sys-tem (0,51 kg CO2/kWh), Norway (0 kgCO2/kWh) and Denmark (0,84 kgCO2/kWh). World average is 0.57 kgCO2/kWh. The figure is taken fromNeksa and Lundqvist (2005). A majorpart of the emissions is direct emis-sions from refrigerant leakage. Eventhough leakage may be reduced bybetter containment and red. charge, itillustrates the great need for non-HFCalternatives.CO2 is an important refrigerant alter-native to HFCs in commercial refriger-ation systems. Some of the majorcompanies have introduced direct sys-

tems using only CO2 as a refrigerantwith a transcritical/subcritical cycle,depending on ambient temperature,for both low- and medium-temperaturerefrigeration. So far, between 10 and20 supermarkets have been built inEurope with this kind of systemdesign, from Italy in south to Norwayin north. Energy consumption and costis reported to be within the range oftoday’s direct expansion R-404A sys-tems and indirect system designs,Girotto et al. (2004). Reduced cost andincreased energy efficiency is expect-ed due to ongoing development.Further LCCP figures and mitigationcost data may be found in Harnish et.al (2003) and IPCC/TEAP (2005).Also in the light commercial sector, i.e.stand alone equipment such as bottlecoolers and vending machines, someof the major companies have intro-

duced CO2 technology (RefNat 2004).Jacob et al. (2006) reported 4000units installed in a pre-commercialdeployment test. Efficiency compari-son with comparable HFC systemsshows that CO2 competes well foreven most of the hot climates aroundthe world. Zimmermann and Maciel(2006) showed very promising energyefficiency for both medium tempera-ture and low temperature cabinets.

Mobile Air ConditioningMobile air conditioning is the applica-tion with the largest HFC emissionsand the second largest GHG emis-sions in CO2-eq resulting from refrig-erant emissions.This is also one of thereasons why EU will ban use of HFC-134a in mobile air condition systemsfor all new car models from 2011.Hafner et al (2004) gives an in-depth

Figure 1. Typical efficiency (COP) curves at varying condenser/gas coolerair inlet temperature for CO2 (R-744) and HFC-134a (Hafner et al. 2004).

Figure 2. Temperature bin data for selected cities in USA, Japan andselected countries in Europe.Two extreme climates shown are Miami and

Phoenix (Hafner et al. 2004).

CO

P

41

imp NEKSA 4-08-2006 10:53 Pagina 41

42

LCCP comparison between CO2mobile air conditioning systems andHFC-134a and HFC-152a systemsbased on experimental data and cli-mate data from different cities aroundthe world. Compared to HFC-134a theinvestigations showed 18-48 % redu-ced LCCP, and thereby reduced emis-sions, for the CO2 system. Leastreductions for the very hot climate ofPhoenix in USA and most for a moremoderate German climate. Figure 4,from Hafner and Nekså (2006), showscalculated LCCP figures for CO2 andHFC-134a for the hot climates of NewDelhi in India and Rome in Italy.Leakage rates of 120 g/a for the HFC-134a system represents today’s glob-al average emission rate from thesesystems, while 30 g/a is expected tobe best case future emission scenario.

As shown, significantly reduced emis-sions can be achieved by changing toCO2 as refrigerant.

Heat Pumps and Air ConditioningHeat pump water heaters, heat pumpsfor tap water heating, was commer-cialised in Japan in 2001 for both resi-dential and commercial applications.About 210.000 units, primarily for res-idential applications, were sold in2005 (a growth rate of 60% comparedto 2004). With a seasonal efficiencyhigher than 4, these systems makesignificant reductions in GHG emis-sions compared to use of gas or elec-tricity directly. Systems adapted toEuropean conditions are under devel-opment. An important advantage isthe ability of the systems to heat waterto higher temperatures than systems

with HFC as refrigerant. Stene et al.(2006) presents CO2 systems for com-bined heating and cooling of non-resi-dential buildings. The theoretical evalu-ation demonstrates that CO2 systemscan achieve equal or higher seasonalperformance factor than heat pumpsusing HFC refrigerants. Air-to-airreversible residential heat pumps arealso under development.

Other ApplicationsR&D of CO2 systems for several otherapplications are being performed.Transport refrigeration, containers andbus air conditioning are all applica-tions with large emissions, wheredevelopment of alternative systemswill be important.

●REFERENCESGirotto, S., Minetto, S. and Nekså, P., 2004:Commercial Refrigeration System Using CO2as the Refrigerant, Intern. Journal ofRefrigeration, 27 (7), November 2004Hafner, A., Nekså, P. and Pettersen, J., 2004:Life Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP) ofMobile Air-Conditioning Systems with HFC-134a, HFC-152a and R-744, 15th AnnualEarth Technologies Forum And Mobile AirConditioning Summit, Washington, USA, April13-15Hafner, A. and Nekså, P., 2006: Factors influ-encing life cycle environmental impact calcula-tions of MACs, MAC Summit, Saalfelden,Austria, February 17 (http://www.mac-sum-mit.com/files/presentations/3_6_armin_hafn-er.pdf)Harnish et al, 2003: Risks and Benefits ofFluorinated Greenhouse Gases in Techniquesand Products under Special Consideration ofthe Properties Intrinsic to the Substance,Research project by order of The GermanFederal Environmental Agency (UBA), BerlinDepartment III 1.4, Reference: Z 1.6 - 50422/195IPCC/TEAP, 2005: IPCC/TEAP SpecialReport: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer andthe Global Climate System: Issues Related toHydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons,Cambridge University Press, ISBN 92-9169-118-6Jacob, B., Azar, A. and Nekså, P., 2006:Performance of CO2-refrigeration (R-744) incommercial cold drink equipment, IIR-GustavLorentzen Conference on Natural WorkingFluids, Trondheim, May 28-31 2006Nekså, P. and Lundqvist, P., 2005: Mitigation ofGreenhouse Gas Emissions from Commercial Refrigeration Systems. WhatMatters?, IIR Conference on CommercialRefrigeration, Vicenza, July 1 2005RefNat, 2004: Conf. Proc. “Refrigerants,Naturally”, http://www.refrigerantsnaturally.comStene, J., Jakobsen, A. and Andresen, T.,2006: CO2 heat pump system for heating andcooling of non-residential buildings, IIR-GustavLorentzen Conf. on Natural Working Fluids,Trondheim, May 28-31 2006Zimmermann, A.J.P. and Maciel, R.A., 2006:Energy consumption optimization of a singlestage CO2 reciprocating compressor on refrig-eration systems operating at MBP and LBPconditions with minimal changes, IIR-GustavLorentzen Conference on Natural WorkingFluids, Trondheim, May 28-31 2006

Figure 3. Direct, indirect and end of life emissions from a supermarket withrefrigerant emissions representative for the world average, kg CO2-eq.

Figure 4. Life Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP, kg CO2-eq) comparisonbetween CO2 (R-744) and HFC-134a for the relatively hot climates

New Delhi in India and Rome in Italy.

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Copeland, Via Ramazzotti, 26, I-21047 Saronno (va)T: +39 02 961781, F: +39 02 96178888, Internet: www.eCopeland.com

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MAKING MODERN LIVING POSSIBLE

Every business faces its own competitive challengers in today’s marketplace.

You can look to Danfoss to do business on your terms, not ours. We understand yourgoals and we can deliver just the solution you need, when and where you need it.

Together, we can tailor a set of value added services relevant to your business, fromknow-how and energy saving solutions to making sure your customers receive exactlywhat you recommend at the right time and place.

For more information on how Danfoss can help improve your business, call us today.

We’re here to make it happen…

Danfoss Srl - Corso Tazzoli, 221 – 10137 TorinoTel. 011.3000.511 – Fax 011.3000.577 – www.danfoss.it

Working with you to improve your business

REFRIGERATION &AIR CONDITIONIG DIVISION

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THE BEST OF TWO WORLDSSemi-hermetic Screw Compressors HS.85 – The New Performance Class

The new HS.85 combines the best of two high-performance compressor worlds: The advantages of the approved HS technology and the innovative

attributes of the CSH series. Special features of this modern construction are the slider control for infinite or stepped capacity regulation (start un-

loading) and the Economiser with sliding suction position, which is effective even at part load. Moreover, there is a new elaborate oil management

system: Oil filter, automatic oil stop valve, and monitoring devices for oil flow, rotation direction and oil filter clogging are integrated in the compressor.

Mounting efforts and potential leaks at the external oil distribution system are thus significantly reduced. An ideal extension of the product range

towards compressors of higher capacity, with all connections arranged on one side making them perfectly suitable for space-saving parallel operation.

Reliable. Economic. Versatile.

Bitzer. The heart of refrigeration systems.

www.bitzer.de • bitzer@bitzer.de

ATO

6.7

8G

B

Screw Compressors Scroll Compressors Pressure VesselsReciprocating Compressors Condensing Units

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