FER-6, Oklahoma's Endangered and Threatened...

46
Oklahoma’s Endangered and Threatened Species

Ronald E. MastersAssistant Professor of Forestryand Extension Wildlife Specialist

The information in this manual is current as of January 1, 1993. It is subject to additions ordeletions as the status of different species are reviewed and updated. A current county by countylisting of species may be obtained from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, 222South Houston, Suite A, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74127 (Phone: 918-581-7458). Specific questions aboutthe Endangered Species Act(s) should also be directed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

A list of endangered animals protected by state law in Oklahoma is maintained by the OklahomaDepartment of Wildlife Conservation. Requests for information about endangered species protectedby state law should be directed to the Nongame Program, Oklahoma Department of WildlifeConservation, 1801 N. Lincoln Blvd., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73105 (Phone: 405-521-4663).

On the cover —The black-capped vireo is a summer resident of Blaine, Canadian, Caddo, andComanche counties. Fewer than 300 of these small birds, which once could be found from Kansasto Mexico, remain in Oklahoma.

Oklahoma’s Endangered and Threatened Species 45

Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendmentsof 1972, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, religion,disability, or status as a veteran in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educationalservices.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Charles B. Browning,Director of Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University asauthorized by the Dean of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of $13,641.81 for 4,000 copies.#3087 0493 CC.

CONTENTSAcknowledgments ................................................................................................2Introduction ..........................................................................................................3The Value of Endangered Species ......................................................................3

Ecological Value .......................................................................................... 3Medicine .......................................................................................................4Agriculture .....................................................................................................4Early Warning System ................................................................................. 4

The Endangered Species Act ..............................................................................4Legal Implications of Federal Legislation ............................................................ 5Critical Habitat ..................................................................................................... 6Legal Implications of State Legislation .................................................................6Species Not Covered in This Manual ...................................................................6Interpreting Range Maps .................................................................................... 7Oklahoma’s State Endangered and Threatened Species ....................................7Oklahoma’s Federal Endangered and Threatened Species ................................8Species Accounts ................................................................................................9Plants

Cumberland Sandgrass ..............................................................................10Ouachita Mountain Indigo ...........................................................................11Ozark Chinquapin .......................................................................................12Prairie Fringed Orchid, Eastern ..................................................................13Prairie Fringed Orchid, Western .................................................................14Waterfall’s Dodder ......................................................................................15

InsectsAmerican Burying Beetle ............................................................................16

MusselsOuachita Rock-Pocketbook ........................................................................17

FishesArkansas Darter ..........................................................................................18Arkansas River Shiner ................................................................................19Leopard Darter ............................................................................................20Neosho Madtom .........................................................................................21Ozark Cavefish ...........................................................................................22

ReptilesAmerican Alligator .......................................................................................23

BirdsAmerican Peregrine Falcon ........................................................................24Arctic Peregrine Falcon ..............................................................................24Bald Eagle ..................................................................................................25Black-capped Vireo .....................................................................................26Least Tern ...................................................................................................27Piping Plover ...............................................................................................28Red-cockaded Woodpecker .......................................................................29Whooping Crane .........................................................................................30Wood Stork .................................................................................................31

MammalsGray Bat ......................................................................................................32Indiana Bat ..................................................................................................33Ozark Big-eared Bat ...................................................................................34

References .........................................................................................................35Listing of Endangered and Threatened Species by County ...............................37Glossary .............................................................................................................42Photo Credits .....................................................................................................43


Acknowledgments

This manual was produced by the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service with partial fundingthrough a grant from the U. S. Forest Service, Forest Stewardship Program, and in cooperation withthe Oklahoma Department of Agriculture — Forestry Services. Additional funding was provided bythe Oklahoma Chapter of The Nature Conservancy. I am grateful to the following people andorganizations for assistance with this publication. Providing either information, assistance, or reviewswere Laura Hill, David Martinez, Sonja Jahrsdoerfer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Nora Jones,Melissa Nagel, and Sara Wilson, The Nature Conservancy; Ian Butler, Dr. Becky Rudman, Dr. CarynVaughn, and Dr. Linda Watson at the Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory, Dr. John Skeen,Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation; Dr. Larry Magrath, University of Science and Arts ofOklahoma; Robert Ziehmer, Missouri Department of Conservation; Dr. Anthony Echelle, Dr. TerryBidwell, Dr. Tracy Carter, Dr. Jim Criswell, Dr. David M. Leslie, Jr., Tim O’Hara, Dr. Jim Shaw, Dr. LarryTalent, Dr. Ron Tyrl, Chris Wilson, and Dr. Al Zale, Oklahoma State University; and Dr. Tim Fulbright,Texas A&I University. I also thank Steve Sherrod, of the Sutton Avian Research Center, for grantingaccess to photograph the bald eagle and American peregrine falcon at the research facility inBartlesville, Oklahoma.

Special thanks are due Dr. Steve Anderson, Oklahoma State University, who obtained the initialgrant; Ken Frazier, Wildlife Biologist, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Carla Chlouber, ManagingEditor, Agricultural Publications; Gayle Hiner, Graphic Designer, Agricultural Communications; andTodd Johnson, Photographer, Agricultural Communications, Oklahoma State University.

2 Oklahoma’s Endangered and Threatened Species

Introduction

This manual is primarily for landowners andnatural resource professionals working on privatelands. Over 95 percent of Oklahoma’s land base isin private ownership. The fate of many speciesdepends on the philosophy of private lands manage-ment. The concept of land stewardship and thereturn of a land ethic is growing among privatelandowners. Many realize the importance and valueof retaining the diverse flora and fauna of our state forfuture generations.

Landoence of thrtheir uniquForemost alivelihood. tions of maa threatentheir land. and managor endange

wners are concerned about how the pres-eatened or endangered species will affecte set of land management objectives.mong their concerns is the effect on their

This manual discusses the legal implica-nagement activities for landowners shoulded or endangered species be found on The manual also provides descriptionsement suggestions for each threatenedred species.

The Value of Endangered Species

Over the course of time new species developand other species become extinct. Some scientistsbelieve that the current rate of species extinction isaccelerating. It is estimated that during approxi-mately 3,000 years of the last Ice Age, about 90species became extinct for a rate of three extinctionsper 100 years. Past and present extinction rates aredifficult to quantify because many species are as yetto be described. Figures on the current rate ofspecies extinction show considerable variation. Ac-cording to some authorities, we may be losing anaverage of one species per year on a worldwidebasis. Others put the extinction rate at one per day.The above figures are often quoted but need somequalification. Our evidence of extinctions during thelast Ice Age is based on the fossil record, which is farfrom complete. There is some debate as to whatexactly constitutes a species, subspecies, or variety;therefore the number lost could be lower or higher.Even though exact figures are difficult to determine,it appears that the rate of extinction is rapidly increas-ing. Although species may become extinct as anatural occurrence, our concern is the effects ofhuman activities on the rate of extinction. Loss ofhabitat, pollution, introduction of exotic species, andexploitation of species are man-induced factors thathave increased extinction rates.

A simple analogy between an ecosystem and alarge multi-storied building may help make the pointclearer. We can readily understand that each partthat goes into the building, from electrical wiring tostructural components (girders, etc.), serves an im-portant purpose. We may toss out a few items hereand there and not affect the function of the building asdesigned. However, if we cut a few electrical cables,or pull out a few supporting girders, the buildingceases to be safe or function as designed. If we

continue discarding components, at some point thebuilding collapses. To paraphrase Aldo Leopold, thefirst rule of intelligent tinkering is to keep all the parts.Our quality of life and ultimate survival depend onkeeping all ecosystems functioning.

Ecological ValueEach plant or animal species has a particular

function (niche) within the environment. Each spe-cies is related in some way to other plants or animalswithin a given ecosystem. You cannot remove onespecies without affecting many others. Our knowl-edge of these relationships or the ecology of aparticular species is often limited. The full impact ofan extinction may not be apparent for some time, untilparts of an ecosystem cease to function.

Some species play a key role in defining a givennatural community. For example, prairie dog townsdefine a unique natural community upon which manyother species are dependent. The black-footed ferret(Mustela nigripes), ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis),burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), and others arelinked to the community that forms as a result ofprairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) activity.

Other species like the red-cockaded woodpecker(Picoides borealis) are tied to a distinct plant commu-nity, in this case a pine-grassland plant community.The red-cockaded woodpecker is an indicator of thequality and quantity of this particular habitat type.Indicator species can provide information on thecondition of an ecosystem. If the species is decliningor barely maintaining itself, some part of the systemmay have been disrupted. Knowledge of the speciesecology may help to determine what may be theproblem.


MedicineEach plant and animal species has a unique

biochemical makeup. Only a small fraction of theplants have been studied to determine this uniquechemistry. This is important because one-half of allprescriptions written annually contain chemicals orderivatives discovered in plants and animals. Thesechemicals are used to manufacture medicines totreat heart disease, cancer, and a host of otherillnesses and diseases. By eliminating a particularplant or animal, are we destroying the treatment forcancer or placing discovery of that treatment well intothe future? Animals have adaptations that help themcope with specific problems. By studying how spe-cies have adapted we may, for example, learn moreabout immune system response and gain ideas onhow to solve medical problems.

AgricultureScientists have recognized that over 80,000

species of plants are edible, yet fewer than 20 providealmost 90 percent of the world’s food. Diseases andpests continually develop and adapt to pesticidesand control measures. We must seek additional foodsources should we lose some major food items.


Germplasm from wild plant varieties may be intro-duced into domestic varieties to improve diseaseresistance and stress tolerance or enhance taste.New varieties may be developed that could adapt toregions without large food sources. Natural pestcontrol agents may be developed or discoveredthrough continuing research on plant systems.

Early Warning SystemWe live in the same overall environment as other

animal and plant species. Humans are very mobileand can modify their immediate surroundings. Lessmobile and more specialized species are more sen-sitive to environmental change. We became alert tothe potential hazards of certain pesticides by observ-ing declines in bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) populations.Through research on such species as the easternwhite pine (Pinus strobus) and the red spruce (Picearubens), we are made aware of potential effects ofother environmental contaminants. These tree spe-cies, although not endangered, can give indicationsof sulfur dioxide levels, possibly ozone depletion, andother contaminants. Endangered and threatenedspecies can be a critical early warning system ofserious environmental problems.

The Endangered Species Act

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)protects wildlife and plant species and their habitatsthat may face extinction if no actions are taken. Itcategorizes certain plant and animal species asthreatened or endangered. The U.S. Fish and Wild-life Service determines which species may face ex-tinction through man’s activities or natural causesthat alter habitats or directly eliminate the species.Species that face extinction throughout all or alarge part of their range are classified as endan-gered. Threatened species are those likely tobecome endangered in the near future.

Some species may be classified as threatenedor endangered based on similarity of appearance toan endangered species, such as the American alliga-tor (Alligator mississippiensis). The American alliga-tor may be locally abundant across the southeasternUnited States but is very similar to the Americancrocodile (Crocodylus acutus). The American croco-dile is limited in distribution and abundance. Regula-tions allowing take of the American alligator might bedetrimental to the crocodile, if not properly imple-mented, because a high potential exists for mistakenharvest of the crocodile.

The ESA allows for consideration of species ofeither extremely low numbers or limited distribution

for inclusion on the list of endangered and threatenedspecies. Rarity or limited distribution are not enoughto place a species on the list. The U.S. Fish andWildlife Service reviews available scientific and com-mercial information on the species to determinewhether it should be designated as endangered orthreatened. Factors that are considered in the deci-sion to list a species are:

1. the present or threatened destruction, modi-fication, or curtailment of its habitat or range;

2. overutilization for commercial, recreational,scientific, or educational purposes;

3. disease or predation;

4. the inadequacy of existing regulatory mecha-nisms;

5. other natural or manmade factors affecting itscontinued existence.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service publishes anotice of review for species that are candidates forinclusion on the list. Through these notices biologicalinformation about candidates is sought. Candidatesunder active consideration for listing are classified as

Category 1 or 2 species. Category 1 species havebeen determined to be in need of protection bybeing listed as endangered or threatened. Cat-egory 2 species’ populations have declined andmay be in need of protection by being listed asendangered or threatened, but need further studyfor the status to be determined.

Before species can be listed as protected, exist-ing and potential threats to both the species andhabitat must be evaluated. Only those species thathave been evaluated and subjected to scientificreview and public comment can be added to the list.Species may be removed from the list or placed inlower categories if research shows that they are notin danger of extinction. Category 1 and Category 2

species are not “protected” and do not carry thepenalties associated with the endangered or threat-ened status.

Federal StatusEndangered = Facing extinction

Threatened = Likely to become endangered

Category 1 = Under active consideration for listing asendangered or threatened

Category 2 = May be in need of protection but furtherstudy needed

Legal Implications of Federal Legislation
Plants or animals placed on the Federal endan-
gered and threatened list are legally protected by theESA. No one can “kill, harm, harass, possess, orremove protected animals from the wild.” Listedplants and animals and their parts and productscannot be possessed, taken, or transported in inter-state or international commerce without a specialpermit.

Section 9 of the ESA prohibits “taking” of anyendangered or threatened species. This sectionapplies to both public and private actions. “Take” isdefined as to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot,wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt toengage in such conduct. “Taking” of a speciesincludes willfully harming an endangered or threat-ened animal. It also includes habitat destruction ordegradation that significantly interferes with an es-sential behavior such as breeding, feeding, or seek-ing shelter. Endangered and threatened plants re-ceive limited protection unless they are on Federalproperty. Maximum penalties for individuals underSection 11 include civil fines of $25,000 per violationand criminal penalties of $50,000 and/or one year inprison per violation. Additionally, any equipmentused in taking, transporting, storing, and selling of aprotected species may be impounded by the court.

Potentially, the greatest impact on landownerswill come from pending changes in pesticide use andlabeling information. A 1988 review of listed endan-gered and threatened species indicated that 20 per-cent of the protected species were listed, in part,because of pesticide use. Pesticides may delayrecovery or stress a listed species.

The Environmental Protection Agency is devel-oping interim county map bulletins of critical habitatsand range maps of listed species as part of thepesticide label information. These bulletins will show

pesticide use constraints within the counties affected.Interim bulletins will not become law until the finalrules are developed and adopted. As a result,landowners could be asked to use ground rather thanaerial application of pesticides in specific areas.They may be asked to use either a different formula-tion or a suitable substitute. Landowners may beasked to consider a different use for a parcel of landso that contamination of adjacent lands and water-ways is minimized.

The primary purpose of these proposed rules isto protect listed species by minimizing the rate ofpesticide use, not to prohibit pesticide use. Land-owners should be aware that either improper use,failure to follow adopted bulletins, or misapplicationcould be construed as take, harm, or harassment ofa protected species. Additional penalties could arisefrom failure to comply with pesticide label instruc-tions.

Landowners may be affected indirectly throughinvolvement in Federal programs. Section 7 of theESA requires Federal agencies to ensure that activi-ties they undertake, fund, or permit will not jeopardizethe continued existence or result in detrimental im-pacts to designated critical habitat for endangered orthreatened species. This applies to lands owned bythe Federal government and state or private lands inwhich there is some type of Federal involvement.Federal involvement includes “activities or programsof any kind authorized, funded or carried out, in wholeor part, by a Federal agency.” Some examples are“the granting of licenses, contracts, leases, ease-ments, and permits, the issuance of regulations,grants-in-aid, or funding of projects, and other activi-ties that directly or indirectly cause modification to theland, water or air....”


If a landowner performs a management activityon land that has Federal involvement and may affecta protected species, then the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService must be contacted. The law sets forth a“consultation” process with specific guidelines. Thisdoes not apply to activities of an entirely privatenature on private lands. Landowners should note


that activities that are cost-shared or come under theauspices of a Federal program may not be exempt. Ifa protected species resides on their land and they areenrolled in a Federal program, then consultation maybe required by law. On private lands the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service will typically offer alternate manage-ment options.

Critical Habitat
Critical habitat is an often misunderstood part of
the Endangered Species Act. When a species isproposed for listing, areas of habitat essential tocontinued existence of the species may be desig-nated as “critical habitat.” Critical habitat is “thespecific areas...on which are found those physicaland biological features (I) essential to the conserva-tion of the species and (II) which may require specialmanagement consideration or protection....” Thisusually includes only occupied habitats but may alsoinclude areas outside the species’ current rangewhen they are considered essential to the species’

survival and recovery.Critical habitat may be designated on state or

private lands. However, activities on these lands arenot restricted by the ESA unless they directly harmthe wildlife species or there is some type of Federalinvolvement. If an area is designated as criticalhabitat, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service mustconsider the economic impacts of the designation.Areas may be excluded from this designation if theeconomic benefits of exclusion outweigh the benefitsof conservation of the area. Areas may not beexcluded if species extinction is the result.

Legal Implications of State Legislation
The Oklahoma statute pertaining to endangered
and threatened species is Section 5-412 of Title 29.It protects only wildlife species. Plants are notcurrently protected under Oklahoma statute, althoughthe Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inventory, a programof the Oklahoma Biological Survey, maintains a rankedlist of rare species for Oklahoma. Wildlife species arelisted by the Oklahoma Wildlife Conservation Com-mission. State-listed wildlife species include thosethat reproduce or reside in the state for a significantportion of the year, such as during migration or as awintering or breeding population. The purpose of thestate list is to identify and perpetuate populations ofwildlife species that may be in jeopardy of survival

within the state. State endangered species arenative species that face extinction in the state. Threat-ened species are those likely to become endangeredin the foreseeable future. The state list also includesfederally protected species.

Section 5-412 of Title 29 provides that “no per-son may hunt, chase, harass, capture, shoot at,wound or kill, take or attempt to take, trap or attemptto trap any endangered or threatened species orsubspecies....” Maximum fines are up to $1,000, upto 30 days in prison, or both. The Oklahoma Depart-ment of Wildlife Conservation prints a listing of Stateendangered and threatened species in the Okla-homa Hunting Regulations pamphlet each year.

Species Not Covered in This Manual
Not all species listed in Federal and state lists
are covered in this booklet with a photograph, de-scription, and range map. Several species currentlyon the official lists may not have occurred in Okla-homa. During legal review some will be removed.For example, several mussel species, including theArkansas fatmucket (Lampsilis powelli), the fat pock-etbook (Potamilus capax), and the winged mapleleaf(Quadrula fragosa), were listed as occurring in Okla-homa at one time, but scientific review has indicatedthat some specimens were either misidentified orerroneous locations were given for their occurrence.

Species that once occurred in Oklahoma but are nowextinct (not found anywhere) or are extirpated (notfound in Oklahoma) are not covered.

The passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius)was once abundant in Oklahoma. Early explorersand travelers across our landscape often noted theiroccurrence. Passenger pigeons once numberedabout 3 billion birds in North America. The passengerpigeon was last recorded in Oklahoma in winter1899-1900 and became extirpated from the wild in1899. The Carolina parakeet (Conuropsiscarolinensis) was never as abundant and occurred in

locally high populations in eastern Oklahoma coun-ties. The Carolina parakeet was last recorded fromOklahoma in 1886 and became extirpated from thewild in 1901. The last passenger pigeon and Carolinaparakeet both died in captivity in the Cincinnati Zoo-logical Garden in September, 1914. Both of thesespecies were at one time considered nuisances andwere subjected to widespread killing. Passengerpigeon roosts were invaded and literally wagon loadswere clubbed to death. The Carolina parakeet wasalso a gregarious species and was strongly attractedto fruit. They were often killed while raiding orchards.When one was killed, others would hover around theslain individual until they were killed. In this manner,the entire flock could be wiped out.

The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilusprincipalis), Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis), andBachman’s warbler (Vermivora bachmanii) are en-dangered bird species that have been extirpatedfrom Oklahoma. The ivory-billed woodpecker wasnever abundant in Oklahoma and occurred in bot-tomland hardwoods in the eastern and some centralcounties. Latest reliable records of the ivory-bill werein winter 1883-84. This woodpecker was thought tobe extinct until it was recently rediscovered in Cuba.The Eskimo curlew was once an abundant migrantthrough central and western Oklahoma. It was lastreported in 1948. Bachman’s warbler was neverabundant and was last reported in 1963.

The gray wolf (Canus lupus), red wolf (Canusrufus), grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), and black-footedferret (Mustela nigripes) are now extirpated from

Oklahoma. Numerous references were made to thegray wolf in Oklahoma by early travelers. They wereoften seen following bison (Bison bison) herds. Thegray wolf was extirpated some time after the turn ofthe century and the red wolf disappeared by 1950.Grizzly bears were probably eliminated from the statewell before the 1900’s but no records of occurrencehave survived. The black-footed ferret was extir-pated from the state at least by the early 1970’s andpossibly in the 1960’s. Small populations of thesespecies exist in a few other states. The Floridapanther (Felis concolor coryi) is a subspecies thatsome zoologists think may have occurred in Okla-homa. Although no specimens have been collectedin Oklahoma, at least one specimen exists frommountainous northwestern Arkansas near the Okla-homa border.

Several authorities list either Eastern elk (Cervuselaphus canadensis), Manitoban elk (Cervus elaphusmanitobensis), or Merriam elk (Cervus elaphusmerriami) as being the subspecies that once oc-curred in Oklahoma. The Eastern elk probably didoccur to some extent in forested regions, and theother two are open to debate. Regardless, theeastern and Merriam subspecies are now extinct andthe Manitoban elk limited in distribution. Native elkwere abundant in most parts of Oklahoma until the1830’s. The last record for native elk was from theRainy Mountain area of Kiowa County in the early1880’s. Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni)were introduced in 1911 in the Wichita Mountains,Oklahoma.

Interpreting Range Maps
Range maps given in the following species de-
scriptions were drawn from current accounts by ex-perts on those species, recent surveys by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Oklahoma Natural Heri-tage Inventory database, and my personal fieldrecords. The solid dots indicate that the species maybe found in that county at least some time of the year.Species that are migratory (some birds and bats) areidentified in the text, and specific months are given fortheir occurrence in designated counties. Solid dots

represent confirmed sightings, although they maypotentially occur in other counties. Other speciesoccur in these counties year-round. Open circlesrepresent historical distribution of the species inquestion. The species once occurred within thatcounty, but not presently.

Legend: - current distribution

- historical distribution

Table 1. Oklahoma’s State Endangered and Threatened Species List (Current as of January 1, 1993). 1

State Endangered - Cave Crayfish (Cambarus tartarus) - a crayfish.Neosho Mucket (Lampsilis rafinesqueana) - a mussel.Longnose Darter (Percina nasuta) - a fish.

State Threatened - Arkansas River Shiner (Notropis girardi) - a fish.Blackside Darter (Percina maculata) - a fish.

1 This list also includes Federal Endangered and Threatened wildlife species found in Table 2.


Table 2. Oklahoma’s Federal Endangered and Threatened Species List (Current as of January 1, 1993). a

Common Name Scientific Name Federal Status

Plants Cumberland Sandgrass Calamovilfa arcuata Category 1c

Ouachita Mountain Indigo Amorpha ouachitensis Category 1c

Ozark Chinquapin Castanea pumila var. ozarkensis Category 1c

Prairie Fringed Orchid, Eastern Platanthera leucophaea Threatened?

Prairie Fringed Orchid, Western Platanthera praeclara Threatened Waterfall’s Dodder Cuscuta attenuata Category 1c

Insects American Burying Beetle Nicrophorus americanus EndangeredMussels Arkansas Fatmucket Lampsilis powelli Threatened?

Fat Pocketbook Potamilus capax Endangered?

Ouachita Rock-pocketbook Arkansia wheeleri Endangered Winged Mapleleaf Quadrula fragosa Endangered?

Fish Arkansas Darter Etheostoma cragini Category 1c

Arkansas River Shiner Notropis girardi Category 1c

Leopard Darter Percina pantherina Threatened Neosho Madtom Noturus placidus Threatened Ozark Cavefish Amblyopsis rosae ThreatenedReptiles American Alligator Alligator mississippiensis Threatenedsa

Birds American Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus anatum Endangeredo

Arctic Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus tundrius Threatenedo

Bachman’s Warbler Vermivora bachmanii Endangeredx

Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Endangered Black-capped Vireo Vireo atricapillus Endangered Eskimo Curlew Numenius borealis Endangeredx

Ivory-billed Woodpecker Campephilus principalis Endangeredx

Least Tern Sterna antillarum Endangered Piping Plover Charadrius melodus Threatened Red-cockaded Woodpecker Picoides borealis Endangered Whooping Crane Grus americana Endangered Wood Stork Mycteria americana Endangeredo

Mammals Black-footed Ferret Mustela nigripes Endangeredx

Gray Bat Myotis grisescens Endangered Gray Wolf Canis lupus Endangeredx

Indiana Bat Myotis sodalis Endangered Ozark Big-eared Bat Plecotus townsendii ingens Endangered Red Wolf Canis rufus Endangeredx

a This list was compiled from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service publication, Endangered and ThreatenedWildlife and Plants, 50 CFR 17.11 & 17.12, and from the Federal Register, Part VIII, 50 CFR Part 17, Nov.,1991.

c Category 1 species have been determined to be in need of protection by listing as Endangered or Threatened.o Occasional in occurrence, considered accidental in Oklahoma, the state is not within its normal range.sa Considered threatened because of similarity of appearance to the American crocodile.x Apparently extirpated from Oklahoma.? Some question exists about this species’ occurrence in Oklahoma.


Oklahoma’s Endangeredand Threatened Species:

Species Accounts

Federal Status*Endangered = Facing extinction

Threatened = Likely to become endangered

Category 1 = Under active consideration for listing as endangered or threatened

Category 2 = May be in need of protection but further study needed

*See page 4 for further explanation of Federal status.


Cumberland Sandgrass(Calamovilfa arcuata)

Federal Status: Category 1. May soonbe reclassified as Category 2.

Species Description: A perennial bunch-forminggrass, with several stems per bunch. Plants mayreach 4.5 feet in height. It forms a shallow growingrhizome (underground stem) that may take root at thejoints. Most leaves grow from the base of the clumprather than being attached to the erect main stems.The flowering stems are erect and form open panicles(seed heads) of flowers and fruits borne on spreadingbranches. They are 6 to 15 inches long and purplishin color. The flowers occur at the end of short stalksin clusters called spikelets in which seed will form.Individual spikelets are ringed with hair at the bases.Joints along the stalk are also ringed with fine hairs.Leaves are flat and come to a thread-like point.

Similar Species: Sandgrass may be confused withswitchgrass (Panicum virgatum) or purpletop (Tridensflavus) which are found in similar habitats. Switch-grass, however, grows taller and is a larger plant withstiffer panicles. Purpletop has a denser inflores-cence that droops, and the branches and spikeletsare covered with a sticky odorous substance.


Range: Sandgrass has been found only in Atoka,McCurtain, and Pushmataha counties. This grass isknown only from Oklahoma, a single site on theCossatot River in Arkansas, and isolated populationsalong the Obed River in the Cumberland Plateauregion of Tennessee.

Habitat Requirements: Cumberland sandgrassoccurs in rocky, dissected, mountainous areas insoutheastern Oklahoma. Plants occur along open,rocky, seasonally flowing streams and drainages.They may be found in the rocky stream beds or alongbanks among large rocks. Typically, these areasshow disturbance from overland water flow.

Biology and Reproduction: Cumberland sandgrassis generally scattered in distribution, with populationscomprised of only a few individuals. This speciesflowers in September.

Land Use Considerations: Several populations ofsandgrass have been lost because of reservoir con-struction and flooding of its habitat (e.g., McGeeCreek Lake). In areas where this species is foundand timber harvest is prescribed, skidders and log-ging apparatus should be restricted to crossing drain-ages and streamside zones at designated locationsin order to minimize impacts on established popula-tions.

Management: Streamside management zones andunharvested buffer strips along drainages are animportant management strategy for protection of thisspecies. Suitable habitat should be protected andlogging operations confined to areas outside of rockydrains and streamside zones.

Ouachita Mountain Indigo (

Federal Status: Category 1. May soon be

Species Description: A small shrub that may reach7 feet in height. Current season’s growth of twigs istypically hairless. Bark is light gray and smooth. Theleaves are pinnate and 3 to 9 inches long, with 9 to 13broadly elliptical or oblong-shaped leaflets. Leafletsare usually opposite, 1 to 1.5 inches long, and 0.5 to1 inches wide, with smooth margins (outer edges).Leaflets may be smooth to slightly hairy and areyellow-green. The undersurfaces of the leaflets aredotted with fine amber-colored dots (glands), visibleonly with a hand lens. Flowers are borne singly or inloose dark purple elongated clusters. Individualflowers have showy yellow anthers (the male repro-ductive part of flowers that extends outward from thecenter) which contrast with the dark purple petals.The fruits are single oblong pods and are finely dottedwith amber-colored glands.

Similar Species : The Ouachita Mountain indigoresembles false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa) and shin-ing indigo (Amorpha nitens). Both leaves and leafletsof false indigo have obvious stalks and the leafletsare thick, dull and have fine amber-colored dots onthe surface that are visible with a hand lens. Shiningindigo has shiny thin leaflets without the ambercolored dots on the lower leaflet surface. Someauthorities consider the Ouachita Mountain indigo tobe very similar to shining indigo and believe thatfurther research is needed to differentiate the two.

Range: They are known from the Ouachita Mountainregions in southeastern Oklahoma and Arkansas. In

Amorpha ouachitensis)

reclassified as Category 2.

Oklahoma they are known to occur only in LeFlore,McCurtain, and Pushmataha counties.

Habitat Requirements: This plant occurs in openwoods or clearings on rocky hillsides, immediatelyadjacent to streams.

Biology and Reproduction: The Ouachita Moun-tain indigo is in the legume family. It flowers in Mayand June. This plant is often found as isolatedindividuals and occasionally in small populations. Itis an understory to low-midstory shrub. Little isknown of the ecology of this species and its adapta-tions to fire.

Land Use Considerations: This small shrub shouldbe protected and encouraged in forest managementplans. It should be retained as a stand constituent inareas where timber harvest is planned. Broadcastapplications of herbicides should not be used. Pre-scribed fire should be applied with caution only duringthe dormant season where this species occurs. Ex-clusion of equipment in areas where this plant mayoccur is warranted. Streamside management zonesand unharvested buffer strips along drainages are animportant management strategy for protection of thisspecies.

Management: Protect suitable habitat and leaveplants undisturbed when timber is being harvested.


r

Ozark Chinquapin (CastaneFederal Status: Category 1. May soon be

Species Description: A shrub or small tree that mayreach 25 feet in height with a diameter of 4 inches.The bark is light gray to reddish brown, with scaly orsomewhat furrowed plates. The lance-shaped leaveshave short, curved, saw-toothed edges. The leavesare yellow-green on the upper surfaces and palerbelow, 5 to 10 inches long, and 2 to 4 inches wide.Leaves in full sunlight tend to be narrower than thosein shade. The staminate or male flowers are in smallwhite, elongated clusters called catkins. The pistil-late, or female, flowers are typically borne in clustersof two or three and enclosed in a spiny husk. The nutsare dark brown, rounded, and enclosed in a spiny bur.Several nuts are borne along a single stalk and are0.75 to 1 inches in diameter. They mature in latesummer and fall.

Similar Species: None in Oklahoma. E. L. Little, Jr.,in his book Forest Trees of Oklahoma, and otherauthorities make a distinction between the Ozarkchinkapin (chinquapin) (Castanea ozarkensis) andthe Allegheny chinkapin (Castanea pumila).

Range: The Ozark chinquapin is found in scatteredlocations in sheltered mountain sites in eastern Okla-homa. It also occurs in the Ozark region of Missouriand Arkansas.

Habitat Requirements: In eastern Oklahoma, plantsoccur on moist, sheltered, upland sites in ravines andcoves in oak-hickory forests. They may also occurlocally along dry, rocky ridges or sandy uplands. The


a pumila var. ozarkensis)

eclassified as Category 2.

frequent fires occurring in eastern Oklahoma in theearly 1900’s following settlement may have beendetrimental to this species and restricted it to topo-graphic sites that burned at less frequent intervals.

Biology and Reproduction: The Ozark chinquapinis related to the American chestnut (Castaneadentata), which was once wide-spread in the Appa-lachian Mountain region of the eastern U.S. TheOzark chinquapin is also affected by the same para-sitic fungus that killed the chestnut. Infected trees aretypically top-killed, then resprout and live for severalyears until reinfection. Plants flower in June afterthey have leafed out.

Land Use Considerations: This species has de-clined in abundance because of forestland conver-sion to pastures. The fire history of Oklahoma duringsettlement times may have had detrimental impactson this species but the effects of fire are largelyunknown. This small tree should be considered,protected, and encouraged in forest managementplans. Broadcast applications of herbicides shouldnot be used. Prescribed fire, when necessary forforest management where this species occurs, shouldbe applied as low-intensity burns only during thedormant season. It should be left in areas wheretimber is being harvested.

Management: Protect suitable habitat and leaveplants undisturbed where timber is being harvested.

Eastern Prairie Fringed Orc(Platanthera leucophaea)

Federal Status: Threatened.

Species Description: A moderately large, stout,herbaceous perennial plant with an open cluster of 10to 40 flowers. Plants are 8 to 40 inches tall withrounded stems sheathed with elliptical to lanceolateleaves. Flowers are creamy white, 0.5 to 1 incheslong, each with a distinct three-part fringed lip andconspicuous hood.

Similar Species: Western prairie fringed orchid isvery similar. Both were considered to be a singlespecies until 1986. The Eastern orchid has smallerflowers, a more elongated arrangement of flowers,and a more rounded stem.

Range: Oklahoma’s only known specimen wascollected by the explorer and botanist Thomas Nuttallin 1819 near the confluence of the Kiamichi and RedRivers in Choctaw County. It may no longer occur inOklahoma. Small isolated populations occur in Illi-nois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, New York,Ohio, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Ontario, Canada.

Habitat Requirements: This plant is found in moistto wet tallgrass prairies or sedge meadows withsandy or silt-loam soils. Potentially, Eastern prairiefringed orchids are long-lived plants. They may occurafter disturbance in successional habitats.

hid

Biology and Reproduction: Plants flower fromJune to August. Flowers are fragrant at night andpollinated by hawkmoths. Eastern prairie fringedorchids may go into dormancy during times of drought.Because dormant season burns and high rainfallpromote flowering, fire may be important to thisspecies. Most native prairie fires occurred in mid-spring and late summer. However, little is knownhow this season of burn affects the species.

Land Use Considerations: This orchid has de-clined because of cropping of formerly suitable prai-rie lands, drainage of wetland habitats, invasion ofwoody species, overcollecting, and possibly exclu-sion of fire. Fire plays an important role in haltingwoody plant establishment in prairies and may helpmaintain suitable conditions. Introduction of exoticplants into pastures and prairies may have detrimen-tal effects.

Management: Management must allow for flower-ing and propagation of new plants. Periodic pre-scribed burning, careful grazing management, andregulation of hay cutting have been used. Thesepractices control mulch buildup that can suppressgrowth. Grazing or haying should be postponedduring flowering periods.


Western Prairie Fringed Or(Platanthera praeclara)


Species Description: A large, stout, herbaceousperennial plant that has open clusters of 15 to 25flowers. Mature plants are from 1 to 4 feet tall withangular stems and only 2 to 5 sheath-like lanceolateleaves. Flowers are white to creamy white and maybe tinged with light green. Flowers are 1 to 1.5 incheslong. Each flower has a distinct three-part fringed lipand conspicuous hood.

Similar Species: Eastern prairie fringed orchid isvery similar. Both were considered a single speciesuntil 1986. The Western orchid has larger flowers, amore compact arrangement of flowers, and moreangular stems than the Eastern orchid.

Range: Only a few historical collections (1975) ofthese plants have been made in several locations inRogers and Craig counties in Oklahoma. Someisolated populations remain in Kansas, Missouri,Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, and North Dakota.

Habitat Requirements: In northeastern Oklahoma,plants were collected on moist to wet loamy soils oftallgrass prairies.

Biology and Reproduction: The Western orchidflowers from May to August. It may go into dormancyduring times of drought. Flowers are fragrant at night


chid

and pollinated by hawkmoths. Fire may be importantto this species because dormant season burns andhigh rainfall have been shown to promote flowering.Historically, most prairie fires occurred in mid-springand late summer. However, little is known how thisseason of burn affects the western prairie fringedorchid.

Land Use Considerations: This orchid has de-clined in abundance because of conversion of prai-ries from pasture and hay meadows to croplands andimproved pastures. Additional factors related todeclining abundance are drainage of prairie wetlandhabitats, succession to woody species, overcollecting,and possibly exclusion of fire. Fire plays an importantrole in halting encroachment of woody plants inprairies. The introduction of exotic plants into pas-tures and prairies may have detrimental effects.Pasture improvement practices that disturb the soil,increase competition from other plants, or directly killorchids should not be used.

Management: Management practices must allowfor flowering and propagation of new plants. Periodicprescribed burning, moderate grazing, and regula-tion of hay cutting have been used as managementtools. These practices control mulch buildup that cansuppress growth of the orchid.

Waterfall’s Dodder(Cuscuta attenuata)

Federal Status: Category 1. May soonbe reclassified as Category 2.

Species Description: A parasitic, herbaceous an-nual plant that twines around the host plant. Thestems are yellow to reddish orange, without obviousleaves. When present, leaves are tiny and scale-like.Flowers are in small white clusters and may appearto be attached directly to the stem. Individual flowersare less than 0.25 inches long, with 5 tiny petals. Thefruit is green, small and spherical.

Similar Species: Compact dodder (Cuscutacompacta) is similar but has smaller flowers and fruit.

Range: Known only from floodplain areas in south-ern Oklahoma and Texas. Populations occur spo-

radically from McCurtain County west to ComancheCounty and Cleveland County.

Habitat Requirements: Waterfall’s dodder is appar-ently parasitic only on annual sumpweed (Iva ciliata)but has been reported once on aster (Aster sp.).Sumpweed commonly occurs following disturbancein floodplain soils, and distribution of this dodder isapparently closely related to its occurrence.Sumpweed does occur on drier disturbed sites.Waterfall’s dodder may be more widespread thanpreviously thought because it is easily overlooked.

Biology and Reproduction: Plants flower from Julyto October. As seeds germinate in the spring, thestems twine about the stems of sumpweed. Thedodder becomes entirely parasitic and loses rootconnection with the ground. They attach to the hostplant’s stem by means of suckerlike appendages thatdevelop at contact points.

Land Use Considerations: Populations of thisdodder may have declined because of clean farmingpractices on floodplain croplands and use of herbi-cides to control annual herbaceous plants such assumpweed, which is considered a weed.

Management: Management efforts should providesuitable habitat for host species. Allow for weedypatches in odd corners of cropped areas and protectthem from herbicide use.


this species.

Species Description: A large, shiny, black beetlewith 2 pairs of irregularly shaped, reddish-orangespots on the wing covers. The pronotum, a largeplate-like area behind the head, is also reddish-orange. The conspicuous antennae are orangetipped, large, and club shaped at the end. Matureindividuals are about 1 to 1.5 inches long.

Similar Species: Several species of the samegenus (Nicrophorus spp.) are similar; however, noneof these have the reddish-orange pronotum.

Range: Known from a few locations in Bryan, Chero-kee, Haskell, Muskogee, Latimer, Leflore, Pittsburg,Sequoyah and Tulsa counties. This species onceoccurred over a large part of the eastern U.S. but hasdeclined drastically. It has been found recently onlyin Arkansas, Oklahoma and Rhode Island. Recentefforts to collect the burying beetle indicate that it maybe more abundant than previously thought.

Habitat Requirements: Habitat requirements arelargely unknown. Collections in Oklahoma havebeen from level areas with relatively loose, well-drained soils, and a well-formed litter layer of previ-ous years’ vegetation. The American burying beetlehas been collected from oak-pine and oak-hickoryforests, from grasslands and open fields, and alongforest edges in Oklahoma.

Biology and Reproduction: This generally noctur-nal (active at night) beetle apparently lives about one

American Burying Beetle (NFederal Status: Endangered.


year. They are known for their habit of burying smallanimal carcasses such as a mouse or other carrion.The beetles are attracted to carrion by using chemo-receptors on their antennae to detect the odor of acarcass. If the carcass is suitable, the males willbroadcast pheromones (a chemical attractant) toattract potential mates. A hole is excavated, usuallywithin 3 feet of the carcass location, and the carcasscleaned of hair or feathers. The beetle coats thecarcass with oral and hindgut secretions as a preser-vative and then buries the carcass. Eggs are laid inan access tunnel adjacent to the carcass. One orboth parents guard the eggs. Larva feed on thecarcass upon hatching. Adults feed and tend to thelarvae upon hatching. Burying beetles as a group areunique among beetles in that they provide a greatdeal of parental care for young.

Land Use Considerations: Practices that causedeclines in suitable carrion species such as mice ornestling birds should be considered detrimental tothis species. Insecticides, disease, prey limitation,and/or habitat loss may be the major factors fordeclines in this species. Insecticides should not beused where this species occurs. Herbicides canhave negative impacts by eliminating habitat or chang-ing habitat characteristics for prey species.

Management: Little is known about management for

icrophorus americanus)

(

Species Description: An oval, reddish-brown toblack freshwater mussel. Adults may be 3 to 4 incheslong. Young tend to be more chestnut brown in color.The outer shell is satiny in appearance and relativelysmooth except for numerous small wrinkles occur-ring at right angles to growth lines. The inner shell isbluish-white to white.

Similar Species: Mussels are difficult to identify.Over 27 species of mussels are known from theKiamichi River, and several species may be con-fused with this one. If in doubt, contact the U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service office in Tulsa.

Range: Known only from the Kiamichi River inPushmataha and Leflore counties, Oklahoma and inthe Little River in Arkansas. The total population isestimated to be just over 1,000 individuals.

Habitat Requirements: Rock-pocketbooks are foundin coves and pools adjacent to riffles in moderate toslow moving streams. Apparently, they do not occurin the headwater areas and tributaries, preferringmain channels instead. Streams with gravel andcobble or gravel and sand bottoms are preferred.Stream bottom characteristics may be the most im-portant habitat variable for this species.

Biology and Reproduction: Mussels feed by filter-ing nutrients from the water. Mussel shells have twosymmetrical valves that protect the boneless bodyinside. The valves are held together by a strongligament. Mussels move slowly by contraction and

Ouachita Rock-pocketbook

Federal Status: Endangered.

expansion of a muscular foot. Young mussels, calledglochidia, are expelled from the female and immedi-ately attach to a fish host or die. They then undergometamorphosis, a physical change, to the juvenileform. Juveniles drop from the host fish to the streambottom. The stream bottom must exhibit suitablecharacteristics for the mussel to survive. Manymussel species use only one or a few fishes as a host.Host requirements for the rock-pocketbook are un-known.

Land Use Considerations: Because mussels arefilter feeders, water quality is an important consider-ation. Industrial pollutants, improperly treated sew-age effluent, and chemical runoff from adjacent landscan severely impact this species. Habitat loss ismainly from dam construction, channelization, anddredging operations. Management practices thatincrease siltation of the stream bottom, turbidity of thewater, or change stream bottom characteristics aredetrimental to this species. Practices that result insoil movement into streams should be carefully moni-tored. Forestry and land-clearing operations shouldincorporate streamside management zones and un-harvested buffer strips with minimum widths of 150feet either side of adjacent drainages. Gravel andsand removal operations in rivers should be curtailedwhere these mussels are found.

Management: Protection of habitat, for both themussels and host fishes, from disturbance and main-tenance of high water quality are the only manage-ment options at present.

Arkansia wheeleri)


Arkansas Darter (EtheostomFederal Status: Category 1.

Species Description: A small (2.5 inches or less)olive-colored fish with 6 to 9 dark brown saddles onthe back. There are 12 to 15 indistinct dusky spotsalong the side. The head appears large for this fishand has a short, blunt snout. The dorsal and tail(caudal) fins are banded (caudal fin has 5 to 7 verticalbars). Breeding males may have gill membranes andthe anal, caudal, and front dorsal fins tinged withorange.

Similar Species: None within preferred habitat.

Range: The Arkansas darter is found sporadically insuitable habitat in the Arkansas River Basin fromColorado east to south-central Kansas, southwestMissouri, and northeast Oklahoma. In Oklahoma, itsrange is primarily restricted to suitable habitat intributaries of the Grand (Neosho) River system.Little information is available on the historic range ofthis species in Oklahoma.

Habitat Requirements: Arkansas darters live insprings, pools along spring-fed tributary streams,and seeps partially overgrown with watercress orother aquatic vegetation. The pools are generallyfloored with soft organic sediment.


a cragini)

Biology and Reproduction: The specialized habi-tat requirements of this darter make it vulnerable todrought conditions. They can withstand unfavorableenvironments for short periods of time. Males havebeen captured in breeding coloration from mid-Feb-ruary to April, so this darter is an early spring spawner.Little else is known about the biology and reproduc-tion of this species.

Land Use Considerations: Land use practices thatmodify the character of springs and seeps may bedetrimental. Removal of forest cover in adjacentareas may change water temperatures and wateryields and affect reproductive success. Livestockuse of springs and seeps may also be detrimental.Pond construction in seep areas and springs candestroy habitat. Pesticide use should be restricted inareas surrounding suitable habitat.

Management: Management efforts should protectspring and seep areas from livestock by fencing.These areas should be protected from disturbanceand pesticide runoff. Buffer zones of uncut treesshould be retained around suitable habitat to provideshade.

r

Species Description: A small (less than 2 inches)dusky-colored minnow. Mouth is horizontal in ap-pearance. Coloration is tan along the top and silveryon the sides. A small chevron-like dark spot is oftenpresent at the base of the caudal (tail) fin.

Similar Species: Several species may be confusedwith this shiner. Because shiners are difficult toidentify, a fisheries biologist should be contacted. Ifin doubt, contact the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serviceoffice in Tulsa.

Range: Historically, the Arkansas River shiner oc-curred in the Arkansas River and its tributaries inArkansas, Kansas, Colorado, Texas, and New Mexico.Currently, it occurs in significant numbers only fromthe South Canadian River of Oklahoma, Texas, andupstream to the Ute Reservoir in eastern New Mexico.Relict populations may remain in the upper Cimarronand North Canadian Rivers in western Oklahoma.

Habitat Requirements: Arkansas River shiners livein unshaded, broad, sandy, main channels of majorstreams and rivers. These rivers vary considerably inflow rates and water temperature over the course ofa year. At times these streams may be muddy fromhigh concentrations of suspended sediments. Dur-ing seasons of low flow rates, the steady, shallow flowforms a series of unstable, small, dune-like, sandyridges. Arkansas River shiners commonly lie on thelee side of these ridges facing into the current to feed

Arkansas River Shiner (NotFederal Status: Category 1.

on organisms that are washed downstream or ex-posed in the shifting sand. They prefer sandy-bottomed streams rather than mud or rock-bottomedstreams.

Biology and Reproduction: Arkansas River shin-ers spawn from early May to August when streamsapproach flood stage after heavy rains. Spring rainsare variable; therefore, this shiner is uniquely adaptedto reproducing in this type of environment. The eggsfloat freely with the current near the surface anddevelop as they are washed downstream. Becausereproductive success is related to periods of highflow, this species is susceptible to extended droughtconditions. Little else is known about this species.

Land Use Considerations: Land use practices thatmodify flow rates of streams such as impoundmentsand irrigation are detrimental to this species. Im-poundments and irrigation that control or modifywater flow, particularly during peak flow periods,seriously reduce reproduction. Minnows are typicallysensitive to pollution and runoff containing pesti-cides. No evidence exists to indicate that commercialminnow harvesting operations or commercial sandoperations have adversely affected this species.

Management: Management emphasis should focuson timing water releases from impoundments so thatshiners can reproduce. Further research is neededon the Arkansas River shiner.

opis girardi)


may occur along the back, and 11 to 14 circular spotsoccur along the sides. Smaller spots may occurbetween these two series. The background color ispale olive above, gradating into yellowish-olive alongthe sides. A black stripe extends from the nostrils tothe eye, and a distinct, black, vertical bar is under theeye.

Similar Species: The blackside darter (Percinamaculata), which also occurs in the Little River drain-age, may be confused with the leopard darter. How-ever, the leopard darter has smaller scales and amore spotted appearance. Spots on the blacksidedarter are more elongated.

Range: In Oklahoma, the leopard darter occurs inthe Upper Little, Glover, and Mountain Fork Riverdrainage systems in LeFlore, McCurtain, andPushmataha counties. It also occurs in the RollingFork and Cossatot Rivers in Arkansas. Historically,it probably occurred throughout the Little River drain-ages in Oklahoma and Arkansas. Leopard dartersdeclined primarily because of reservoir construction.

Habitat Requirements: Leopard darters are prima-rily a pool dweller, except during the spawning sea-son. They prefer areas 1 to 3 feet in depth with littleor no detectable current over a rubble and boulderstream bottom. During the spawning season, Marchand April, riffle areas are selected. The bottoms ofriffle areas generally are composed of coarse gravel

Leopard Darter (Percina paFederal Status: Threatened.

Species Description: A small (2 to 3 inches) fish with le


and rubble. The leopard darter does not occur inupper headwaters and is considered more of a river-ine species.

Biology and Reproduction: Leopard darters arevisual feeders and prefer blackfly, mayfly, and midgelarvae. Spawning begins in early March when malesfollow females onto the tailwaters of riffles at theheads of pools. They are very specific in the type ofspawning habitat selected. Water depth and rifflesubstrate (stream bottom composition) are the maindeterminants. Females lay approximately 60 eggs infine gravel. A given female may spawn 6 to 7 timesover a 30 day spawning season. The eggs are buriedin the process of spawning and hatch in about 6 days.

Land Use Considerations: Large impoundmentsdestroy habitat for this species. Practices (such asbuilding logging roads) that increase, stream siltationor remove gravel threaten this species. Agriculturaland other operations that increase water pollutionthrough chemical runoff are also a threat.

Management: Management should emphasizeprotection of river habitats. Use buffer strips andstreamside management zones in operations adja-cent to suitable habitat. These practices should alsobe applied to upstream tributaries flowing into streamscontaining suitable habitat.

ntherina)

opard-like black spots. Some 11 to 13 irregular blotches

Neosho Madtom (Noturus placidus)


Species Description: A small (2 to 3 inches long)catfish, yellowish in color with a brownish mottledappearance. The scattered brown mottling may formfour indistinct saddle patterns along the sides andback. The madtom has a distinctly flattened headand heavy-bodied appearance. The tail (caudal) finhas 2 or 3 distinct crescent-shaped dark brownbands.

Similar Species: Several madtoms could be con-fused with this species in Oklahoma. If in doubt,contact the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service office inTulsa.

Range: The Neosho madtom is limited in distributionto the Neosho (Grand) River drainage system inKansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. In Oklahoma, thisspecies was recently reported as occurring at sixsites west of Commerce. Historically, the Neoshomadtom occurred in the Neosho River, Spring River,and the lower Illinois River down to the ArkansasRiver. The madtom declined primarily because ofreservoir construction.

Habitat Requirements: These madtoms live in riffleareas of moderate sized, clear-flowing streams. TheNeosho madtom prefers riffle areas along slopinggravel bars where loose gravel may accumulate onthe bottom. They typically hide in crevices andspaces under loose rocks in riffle areas.

Biology and Reproduction: The Neosho madtomfeeds at night on aquatic insects and their larvae.They live for about 2 to 3 years. Little is known about

spawning habitat conogy. Other madtoms cin June or July. The mbrood when hatched.

Land Use Consideratidestroy habitat and crreproduction becausetices that either increalution (through chemicalter stream flow, or species.

Management: Managtection of stream habstreamside managemcent to suitable habitatment strategies shouldtions or where runoff c

ditions and reproductive biol-reate a nest cavity and spawn

ale guards the nest and the

ons: Large impoundmentseate conditions unsuitable for of cold water releases. Prac-se stream siltation, water pol-al runoff or feedlot operations),remove gravel threaten this

ement should emphasize pro-itats. Use buffer strips andent zones in operations adja-. Lagoons and other manage- be used near feedlot opera-ontains other pollutants.


Ozark Cavefish (AmblyopsiFederal Status: Threatened.

Species Description: A small (2 inches) opaque,white to pinkish-white blind fish. The Ozark cavefishhas no skin pigmentation and the pinkish cast is frominternal organs that are evident through the skin. Thehead is flattened in appearance. The cavefish has nopelvic fins (normally adjacent to the stomach), andthe upper (dorsal) and lower (anal) fins are locatedwell back on the fish. The dorsal, anal, and tail(caudal) fins are rounded with soft rays.

Similar Species: In Oklahoma, none.

Range: The cavefish occurs in 6 counties in north-east Oklahoma, northwest Arkansas and southwestMissouri in the Ozark Highland Region. In Okla-homa, it is known to occur in 6 caves in DelawareCounty, with historic records from Mayes and Ottawacounties.

Habitat Requirements: The Ozark cavefish is highlyadapted to cave existence and requires clear-flowingwater in cave streams. The streams may have arubble bottom but must be permanently dark.

Biology and Reproduction: Little is known aboutthe life history of this fish. It feeds on small inverte-brates, larvae of salamanders, and other living mate-rial found in caves. Cavefish are thought to spawn inFebruary to April with the female laying approxi-


s rosae)mately 25 eggs. The female is thought to carry eggsand young fish with yolk sacs within the gill cavity forabout four to five months. Cavefish have sensoryorgans on their head, sides, and tail that may assistthem in moving around. An important source fornutrient input into the cave ecosystem (and for thecavefish) may be from bat guano (droppings). Somescientists believe Ozark cavefish are long-lived spe-cies (up to 30 years). Lack of reproduction is listed asone of the causes for decline.

Land Use Considerations: Land use practices thatchange cave stream flow characteristics, such asflooding from reservoir development and practicesthat change drainage patterns, are detrimental to thisspecies. This species is an indicator of water quality.Cave sites, sinkholes, and locations where streamsrun underground should not be used as landfills ortrash dumps. Pollution of groundwater through runofffrom agricultural operations and effluent from opera-tions with high heavy metal concentrations or organicwaste threaten this species. Forested areas adja-cent to cave areas encourage bat use and may act asa natural filter and improve water quality.

Management: Management should emphasize pro-tection of caves from disturbance, collecting, andpollutants. Bats related to the ecology of this speciesshould be protected. Cave access must be con-trolled with fences or gates that allow free bat entrybut restrict human access.

r milar

Species Description: A large, semi-aquatic reptilewith plate-like appearing skin on the back. Theaverage adult alligator ranges from 6 to 16 ft. in lengthand has a broad rounded snout and long, conspicu-ous tail. Alligators are dark in color, varying from darkgreenish brown to grayish black. Adults may weighfrom 150 to over 500 pounds. The young hatch outat or about 9 inches and have yellowish crossbandingalong sides and back.

Similar Species: In Oklahoma, young spectacledcaiman (Caiman crocodilus) that have been releasedcould be confused with young alligators. However,the caiman has a rounded bony ridge in front of theeyes and occurs naturally only in south Florida andMexico south to South America. The Americancrocodile (Crocodylus acutus), which does not occurin Oklahoma, could also be confused with the alliga-tor.

Range: The alligator is thought to occur in the LittleRiver and Red River drainages in McCurtain County.Historically, alligators occurred in the Little River andRed River drainages in Choctaw, McCurtain, andPushmataha counties. Alligators declined becauseof poaching and drainage of wetland habitats.

American Alligator (AlligatoFederal Status: Threatened because of simcrocodile.

Habitat Requirements: American alligators live inox-bows, sloughs, swamps, rivers, and lakes. Malesuse open water more frequently than females. Foodsinclude other reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds, andsmall to medium-sized mammals.

Biology and Reproduction: Alligators will often liein shallow water areas with snout and eyes or headexposed above the water. Alligators hibernate duringwinter. They may use old beaver dens along well-defined banks or dig holes. They mate in April andMay. Males attract females by loud bellowing. Fe-males lay 20 to 60 hard eggs in a large mound-likenest constructed from mud, leaves, and decayingvegetation. The eggs are covered after laying andfemales guard the nest.

Land Use Considerations: Land use practices thatdrain sloughs, oxbows, and other wetland habitatsare detrimental to this species. Large impoundmentscan also destroy habitat.

Management: Management efforts should protectsuitable habitat and control poaching activities. Cre-ation of suitable wetland areas, when absent, isanother management option.

ississippiensis)

ity of appearance to the American


lcn

American Peregrine FalconArctic Peregrine Falcon (Fa

Federal Status: American Peregrine FaArctic Peregrine Falco

Species Description: A crow-sized falcon, 15 to 21inches in height, with a wing span of just over 3 feet.Peregrine falcons have long pointed wings and longnarrow tails. Adults are slate colored on the wingsand back and underparts are white to light reddish-brown with black bars or spots. The head is dark withconspicuous “black mustache” marks along the sideof the face. The throat is white to buff colored. Thewings and tail are barred from the underside. Imma-ture birds are brown and have darker underparts.The Arctic subspecies is smaller, paler in color, andhas a narrower mustache mark.

Similar Species: The prairie falcon (Falcomexicanus), merlin (Falco columbarius), and kestrel(Falco sparverius) are similar. The prairie falcon ispaler in coloration, has black markings at the base ofthe wings when viewed from below, and lacks thedistinct facial markings. The merlin and kestrel areboth much smaller. The merlin lacks the facialmarkings and the kestrel has a russet colored tail.

Range: Formerly, peregrine falcons were wide-spread from North America to South America. Theyare an occasional to rare migrant, occurring in manycounties in September to December and mid-April tomid-May. No records of nesting have been reportedin Oklahoma. Peregrine falcon decline was directlyattributed to use of organochlorine-based insecti-cides. A pair of these birds wintered in downtownTulsa during the winter of 1991-92.


(Falco peregrinus anatum)lco peregrinus tundrius)

on - Endangered - Threatened

Habitat Requirements: Peregrine falcons preferopen country and may be found along rivers andlakes. They nest in areas with rocky, steep cliffs. Thisfalcon has been known to nest occasionally in rivercut-backs and large hollow trees. They often nestnear water.

Biology and Reproduction: Peregrine falcons feedalmost entirely on birds ranging in size from smallsong birds to ducks. They usually take prey in flight,plunging at speeds up to 180 mph. In spring, 3 to 4creamy white eggs with cinnamon brown blotchesare laid in a rough, poorly defined nest on a ledge. Asthis species is at the top of the food chain,bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals ingested throughprey species has caused significant problems for thisand other birds of prey. Chlorinated hydrocarboninsecticides, once commonly used, caused thin eggshells and infertile eggs. The thin egg shells wereeasily broken in the nest during incubation.

Land Use Considerations: This species is ex-tremely tolerant of human activities (other than pes-ticide use) and have been known to nest on buildingledges in large cities.

Management: Management efforts should workthrough educational programs to control indiscrimi-nate use of remaining organochlorine-based pesti-cides and indiscriminate shooting .

Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leuFederal Status: Endangered.

Species Description: A large dark-brown bird ofprey, 31 inches in height with a wingspan of 6 to 7.5feet. Adults, 5 years or older, are characterized by thepure white head and tail. Immature birds may havevarying degrees of white on the head. The tail andunder the wings of immature birds may be mottledwhite. As birds get older, white on the head and tailbecomes more prominent.

Similar Species: Immature birds are often confusedwith golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Immaturegolden eagles have a distinct broad white tail bandand white wing patches on the underside. The legsof the golden eagle are feathered to the toes, whilethe bald eagle’s legs are feathered halfway down.

Range: Oklahoma is an important wintering area(October to March) because of the numerous riversand large reservoirs. Bald eagles may be seen inseveral counties. Nests have been documented inHaskell, Noble, and Pittsburg counties. They may beseen year-round in Sequoyah and Haskell counties.Wintering eagles may be seen at many large reser-voirs such as Keystone Lake, Kaw Lake, Lake Eufaula,and Robert S. Kerr Lake and Navigation System.

Habitat Requirements: Bald eagles live along riv-ers, lakes, and wetlands where fish are abundant.They need large trees and snags adjacent to riversand lakes for perching, roosting, and nest sites. Theyhave been observed in both forested and prairieregions. During migration they may be seen alongmountain ridges.

cocephalus)

Biology and Reproduction: Bald eagles formerlynested throughout most of North America. Currently,breeding status is limited to Alaska, parts of Canada,northern U.S., and isolated areas in southeasternU.S. Bald eagles form pairs for life and constructnests in tall trees. Occasionally, they may nest alongcliffs. Nests are a loose collection of limbs and sticksand are lined with softer herbaceous material. Eagleswill revisit nest sites each year and add to the struc-ture. Over time the nests may be expanded to hugestructures weighing up to 2 tons. In late summer 2 to3 eggs are laid and both birds will share incubation.Use of organochlorine insecticides has caused thin-ning of egg shells and thus lowered reproductivesuccess. Bald eagles winter along reservoirs andrivers and may often be seen roosting together belowdams where they have easy access to fish that maybe injured by turbines. Eagles feed primarily on fish,but have also been known to consume carrion, smallmammals, and birds.

Land Use Considerations: While reservoir con-struction has caused the decline of many species, ithas been beneficial to bald eagles. Retention oftimbered buffer strips or streamside managementzones are beneficial for this species. The use oforganochlorine-based insecticides should be avoided.

Management: Retain large trees and snags aroundlakes, rivers, and wetland areas to encourage use byeagles. Protect areas from human disturbance andtake. Report poaching incidents immediately.


Black-capped Vireo (Vireo aFederal Status: Endangered.

Species Description: A small migratory bird (smallerthan a sparrow), approximately 4.5 inches long. Themale black-capped vireo is olive green on the backand white on the breast and along the sides. Thewings and tail are dark olive to black, with the wingshaving 2 white to yellow wing bars. The top of thehead and along the sides are glossy black, giving thebird a “capped” appearance. The eyes are red andappear to be framed with white “spectacles.” Fe-males are similar in appearance but the cap is slategray.

Similar Species: Bell’s vireo (Vireo bellii), white-eyed vireo (Vireo griseus), and red-eyed vireo (Vireoolivaceus) may be confused with the black-cappedvireo. The summer habitat of these birds may be inclose proximity depending on habitat interspersion.The combination of a black cap, wing bars, and redeyes will eliminate other species from considerationin the black-capped vireo’s preferred habitat.

Range: In Oklahoma, fewer than 300 birds aresummer residents in a few locations in Blaine, Cana-dian, Caddo, and Comanche counties. Historically,the black-capped vireo was a summer resident fromsouth-central Kansas to Mexico.

Habitat Requirements: Black-capped vireos favorlow, dense, scrubby oak woodlands (primarily black-jack and post oak), broken by small interspersedopenings among the brushy vegetation. They mayuse other scrub-shrub vegetation such as sumac,plums, and persimmons. Habitat structure and ar-rangement are important for this species. Fire plays


tricapillus)

an important role in maintaining scrubby habitatsrequired for this bird. Fire top-kills oaks up to 8 inchesin diameter and promotes root sprouting that pro-vides low brushy cover. The largest populationgroups of this vireo occur in areas recovering fromfire.

Biology and Reproduction: This species winters inMexico and arrives in Oklahoma from mid-April toearly May. They leave Oklahoma in late August andearly September. Both males and females constructa small cup-like nest suspended from the fork of twigsabout 2 to 6 feet above the ground. A clutch consistsof 3 to 4 eggs, but females may nest several timesduring the summer. Both males and females attendto incubation. The brown-headed cowbird (Molothrusater) is an important nest parasite on this vireo.Black-capped vireos feed on insects gleaned fromleaves, and may also eat small fleshy fruits.

Land Use Considerations: Brush-control practicesthat eliminate woody cover are detrimental to thisspecies. Protection from fire is undesirable becauseit allows junipers to invade and trees to mature anddevelop an open understory with little dense foliage.Fire promotes development of the shrubby, brushy,patchy habitat required for this bird. Fragmenting ofhabitat may promote nest parasitism.

Management: Management should emphasize theuse of prescribed fire to maintain blocks of the brushy,shrubby stage of plant succession. Brown-headedcowbirds and junipers should be controlled.

m
Least Tern (Sterna antillaruFederal Status: Endangered.
Species Description: A migratory, slender, gull-likebird, 8 to 10 inches long. A black cap covers the headand nape of the neck. The forehead, breast andalong the undersides are white, and the back, wings,and tail are light pale gray. The outer wing feathersare black. The legs are orange to yellow, dependingon sex (females tend to be yellowish). The bill variesfrom orange to yellow in color and is black-tipped.This is the smallest tern found in North America.

Similar Species: The fall black tern (Chlidoniasniger) may be mistaken for the least tern. The leasttern is smaller and has light rather than dark tailfeathers.

Range: The least tern is a rare summer resident thatoccurs along sandy reaches of the Red, Canadian,Arkansas, and Cimarron rivers. In Oklahoma, thelargest concentration of least terns occurs at SaltPlains National Wildlife Refuge.

Habitat Requirements: Least terns are found alongbare river sandbars with adjacent open reaches ofriver, broad sandy areas, and salt plains. They sharesimilar habitat with the piping plover in some placesin Oklahoma.

Biology and Reproduction: Least terns winteralong the coast of Central and South America andarrive in Oklahoma from late April to early May. Theyleave Oklahoma by early September. A courtship

)

flight with much displaying on the ground precedesmating. A shallow nest depression is scraped out inan open sandy area or exposed flat. They may nestin loose colonies or at scattered sites. Typically, 2 to3 eggs are laid in a clutch and both males and femalesattend to incubation. Nesting territories are defendedand other nests in a colony may be defended. Theyoung require some vegetation or debris for shadingafter hatching. This tern feeds on minnows and othersmall fish, and occasionally, insects and crusta-ceans. They often hover over shallow waters beforeplunging down to catch fish.

Land Use Considerations: Practices that destroyor alter sandbars and sandy flats along rivers aredetrimental to this species. Free-flowing rivers aredynamic systems. Sandbars and small sandy is-lands are unstable in the riverine system, often chang-ing considerably with seasonal flow. Reservoir con-struction for hydro power, flood control, navigation,and irrigation, have stabilized flow rates along muchof these riverine systems in Oklahoma. As a result,woody vegetation is invading many of these areas.Dredging activities are potentially harmful.

Management: Management efforts should controlvegetation encroachment on sandbars and othersuitable nesting areas and protect sites from humandisturbance. Suitable nesting habitat should beprotected from river diversion and impoundmentprojects.


Piping Plover (Charadrius mFederal Status: Threatened. Endangered in

Species Description: A migratory, pale, sparrow-sized bird, 6 to 7.5 inches long. A black bandencircles the neck and may not be complete. Thebreast and along the side is white, and the back is alight pale gray similar to dry beach sand. Legs andfeet are yellow. In winter the bill is dark and in springit is yellow.

Similar Species: The snowy plover (Charadriusalexandrinus) may be confused with the piping plo-ver. The snowy plover has dark legs, a dark ear-patch, and a slender black bill and may be slightlysmaller. The semipalmated plover (Charadriussemipalmatus) is similar in size and appearance, buthas a brown back and may be larger.

Range: Sight records of migrant piping plovers existfrom many central and eastern Oklahoma counties.A nesting record exists from Texas County. A raremigrant in mid-July to early October and mid-April tomid-May. Winganon Flats at Oologah Lake is atraditional migration rest stop.

Habitat Requirements: In Oklahoma, the pipingplover is found on drier portions of broad sandyexpanses along rivers and reservoirs with sparsevegetation. Sparse clumps of grass or herbaceousvegetation are important habitat components, butwoody vegetation encroachment is detrimental.

Biology and Reproduction: Piping plovers occursingly or in small flocks. These birds are difficult to


elodus)

the Great Lakes watershed.

see along sandy shores because of protective col-oration. Piping plovers generally do not nest inOklahoma. Typically they nest along the northernAtlantic coast, Great Lakes Region, and upper Mid-west. In spring, the female lays 4 dark spotted eggsin a shallow depression in sand that may be lined withsmall rocks or bits of shell. Human recreational useof beaches or sandy river shorelines increases en-ergy expenditures by the birds because of continualdisturbance. This energy normally would be used formigration. Birds under nutritional stress generallyhave lower reproductive success. Piping plovers eata variety of insects, worms, and small crustaceans.

Land Use Considerations: In Oklahoma, practicesthat destroy sand bars and sandy flats along rivers,such as dredging, are detrimental to this species.Rivers are dynamic systems and sandbars and smallsandy islands are by their nature unstable in theriverine system, often changing considerably withseasonal flow. Because reservoir construction forhydro power, flood control, navigation, and irrigationhave stabilized river flow rates, woody vegetation iscolonizing beaches and shorelines. Human distur-bance along beaches may be detrimental.

Management: Management efforts should empha-size control of woody vegetation encroachment onsandbars and other suitable nesting areas and pro-tection from human disturbance. Suitable habitatshould be protected from river diversion and im-poundment projects.

Red-cockaded Woodpecker


Species Description: A black-headed, ladder-backed (horizontal, alternate black and white stripes)woodpecker with a prominent white cheek patch.The male has a tiny, inconspicuous red patch nearthe ear. Adults are about 8.5 inches in length.

Similar Species: Hairy (Dendrocopus villosus) anddowny woodpeckers (Dendrocopus pubescens) arerelatively common and may be mistaken for the red-cockaded. Hairy and downy woodpeckers differ inthat they are not ladder-backed woodpeckers andhave a wide white stripe down the back and a distinctblack stripe through the white cheek patch.

Range: Limited to the McCurtain County WildernessArea and possibly one colony in Pushmataha County.Only 9 colonies are known to exist in Oklahoma, witha total population of between 22 to 30 birds. Scat-tered populations exist from Texas to Florida and toNorth Carolina in coastal plain regions. Few popula-tions remain in interior mountainous highlands orPiedmont regions in the southeastern U.S.

Habitat Requirements: These birds require open,park-like, old -growth (70 years+) shortleaf pine standswith little hardwood midstory. A high percentage ofthe pine trees used as cavities are infected with redheart disease, which makes cavities easier to exca-vate. They are indicative of pine-grassland plantcommunities, once prevalent across the lower south-eastern U.S. Historically, lightning fires and fires setby native Americans were important factors thatcreated open park-like pine stands.

Biology and Reproduction: Red-cockaded wood-peckers are a resident bird species. This is the onlyspecies of woodpecker that will excavate a cavity andnest in living pine trees. Red-cockaded woodpeckersfeed almost entirely in pines on insects. They live ingroups called clans of up to 7 birds with a highlydeveloped social order. Typically, these birds forageover about a 60 to 160 acre area, depending onhabitat quality. These woodpeckers will abandoncavity sites when the “free flight” path becomesobstructed with hardwood foliage. Nesting occurs inApril to June, with females laying 2 to 5 eggs. Thereis only one breeding pair per colony. Recent re-search has shown that black rat snakes can beimportant predators on nestlings.

Land Use Considerations: Short-rotation forestrypractices that eliminate old-growth or large diametertrees over an extensive area are detrimental to thisspecies. Although they will forage in younger pineswith some hardwoods, an open-aspect, large diam-eter old-growth pine component is essential. Hard-wood midstory control is imperative to maintain open-aspect stands.

Management: Forestry operations should retain anold growth pine component with uncut core areas ofa minimum of 400 yards in radius around active sites.Prescribed fire, an extremely important managementtool, should be used at 3 to 5 year intervals to controlhardwood invasion.

(Picoides borealis)


Species Description: A large white bird, about 4feet in length, with a wingspan of 7.5 feet. The wingtips are black and the neck is very long and out-stretched in flight. The whooping crane has a distinctred crown and may be red or black on the cheeks,depending on age.

Similar Species: From a distance the wing patternmay look similar to the wood stork (Mycteriaamericana) or snow goose (Chen caerulescens).Otherwise, whooping cranes are larger than heronsand other wading birds. The sandhill crane (Grusamericana) is gray.

Range: Whooping cranes breed near Wood BuffaloNational Park in northwest Canada and winter nearAransas National Wildlife Refuge on the Gulf coast ofTexas. They migrate through Oklahoma and mayrarely be seen in central and western areas of thestate. They are most frequently seen at Salt PlainsNational Wildlife Refuge and along the Red River.

Habitat Requirements: Whooping cranes inhabitlarge, shallow, prairie wetland areas. They breed inmarshy wetlands with interspersed shallow freshwa-ter potholes. They winter in coastal prairies andmarshes. Whooping cranes stop over in prairie wet-land areas in Oklahoma. Wetlands must be large andthe birds must have good visibility. They have beenobserved in wheat fields in Oklahoma.

Biology and Reproduction: This wading bird mi-

Whooping Crane (Grus amFederal Status: Endangered.


ericana)

grates south through Oklahoma in mid-October tomid-November and returns north during the first halfof April. Whooping cranes form pairs for life andreturn to the same vicinity to nest each year. Theynest in a mound of bull rushes or other marsh vegeta-tion and lay 2 buff-colored eggs covered with darkblotches. Fewer than 150 birds are in the original wildpopulation. This is a considerable increase from thelow of 16 in 1941. In recent years whooping craneeggs have been introduced into sandhill crane neststo establish another population. Sandhill cranesreadily accept them. About 13 birds exist in this re-introduced population at Grays Lake National Wild-life Refuge in Idaho. Whooping cranes feed on bluecrabs, crayfish, freshwater shrimp, minnows, grasses,sedges, and other plants.

Land Use Considerations: In Oklahoma, wetlandareas should be protected from drainage and landuse conversion. These areas provide critical stop-over points in migration. Practices that destroy oralter breeding and wintering habitat are detrimentalto this species. Breeding and wintering habitat de-struction, collecting, poaching, and human distur-bance were responsible for whooping crane de-clines. Pesticides may have detrimental effects onthe whooping crane by eliminating food, by directtoxic effects, or bioaccumulation.

Management: Prairie wetland areas should beprotected from development. Avoid spraying cropswith pesticides before and during periods whenwhooping cranes may migrate through the state.

Wood Stork (Mycteria americFederal Status: Endangered.

Species Description: Wood storks are large whitestorks, about 3.5 feet in length, with a wingspan ofclose to 5 feet. The wings have extensive black areasthat are evident during flight. The neck and legs areoutstretched in flight. The head is unfeathered anddark gray in appearance. The slightly curved bill isgray on adults and yellow on immature birds.

Similar Species: Wood storks may be confused withthe white herons at a distance. However, the woodstork has black on the wings and flies with neckoutstretched, unlike herons. Close up, the gray-blackunfeathered head is much different from herons.

Range: A rare to occasional visitor to the southeastand south central portions of the state from mid-Julyto mid-September. Confirmed sightings are rare.The wood stork typically occurs in southern coastalareas from Texas to South Carolina.

Habitat Requirements: Wood storks requireswamps, ponds, and wetland areas with tall trees andsnags. They breed in cypress or mangrove swampsand nest in colonies called rookeries. Foraginghabitat is in shallow water in marshes, swamps, andponds with extensive shallow areas. Wood storksrequire emergent and shallow open-water wetlandsfor feeding areas.

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iology and Reproduction: The wood stork nestsn colonies, in trees, adjacent to, or in swampy areas.hey build large stick platforms and lay 2 to 3 whiteggs in nests. This bird has slow, but powerfulingbeats and may be seen soaring high in the air on

hermal currents. Their feeding habit is slow andethodical. They may be seen slowly stalking through

hallow wetland areas or perched motionless on aranch while searching for prey. The wood stork

eeds on fish and occasionally amphibians and rep-iles.

and Use Considerations: Drainage projects andand development projects have caused drastic de-lines in this species over recent years. Destructionf rookery sites may be an important factor. Forestedetlands and forests adjacent to wetlands should be

eft intact for perching and roosting areas. Wetlandsnd shallow ponds provide important foraging habi-

at.

anagement: Management practices for the woodtork include retaining forest buffer zones aroundetland areas and protection of cypress swamps andottomland hardwoods of southeastern Oklahoma.etain emergent and shallow open-water wetlands

or feeding areas.


Gray Bat(Myotis grisescens)


Species Description: The gray bat is a larger bat,approximately 2 to 4 inches in length, with a wing-spread of 11 to 12 inches. The body fur is uniformlygray to rusty brown, depending upon time of year.Each hair is uniformly colored from the base to the tip.The wings are gray.

Similar Species: The Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis)and little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) are similar butsmaller bats. However, the wing skin of the gray batis attached to the ankle rather than at the base of thetoe, as it is in the Indiana bat and little brown bat. Batsare almost impossible to identify on the wing.

Range: In summer, gray bats may occur in Adair,Cherokee, Delaware, and Ottawa counties. Theywere formerly found in other counties. Most gray batsare found in Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouriand Tennessee. Their numbers have been stabilizedand may be beginning to increase.

Habitat Requirements: Gray bats show a prefer-ence for caves or cave-like places close to water orreservoir shorelines. They are found primarily inlarge caves with significant streams. Gray batsmigrate to wintering caves and hibernate in large


colonies in only a few caves located in Alabama,Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee. Over95 percent of all gray bats hibernate in 9 caves.Foraging habitat is generally over rivers and streamswith well-developed riparian vegetation. Gray batsrequire specific cave environments for roost sites.Lack of suitable cave habitat may limit distribution.

Biology and Reproduction: Gray bats are gregari-ous and live in colonies. They migrate from summerareas to winter hibernation caves. They mate uponreaching hibernation caves in the fall. They beginhibernating by early November. These bats mayform mats several tiers deep on the ceiling of hiber-nation caves. In April, females emerge from hiberna-tion and return to summering areas. They locate incolonial nursery caves and give birth to single youngin late May to June. The young are able to fly at 3 to4 weeks of age. After weaning, colonies break up anddisperse to summer caves. In May, adult males andjuveniles return to summering areas and disperse tocaves. Gray bats feed at dusk and early night hourson insects and can be beneficial to humans bycontrolling insect numbers. Forests adjacent to lakes,rivers, and streams provide valuable foraging areas.

Land Use Considerations: Human disturbance,conversion of forest to pasture and cropland, andlarge reservoir construction are detrimental. Largereservoir construction may flood caves. Insecticidesmay have direct and indirect effects on bats throughbioaccumulation of toxic chemicals and reducingfood abundance. Forest conversion along water-ways, pollution, and stream siltation reduce aquaticinsects important to these bats. Gray bats areextremely intolerant of disturbance.

Management: Management should include for-ested buffer zones and streamside managementzones in and adjacent to riparian areas. Use gates torestrict human access to caves.

Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalisFederal Status: Endangered.

Species Description: A medium-sized bat, approxi-mately 2 inches in length, with a wingspread of 10inches. The body fur is chestnut gray above, andunderparts are cinnamon to pink in coloration. Eachhair is tri-colored from the base to the tip. Theshoulders are brown.

Similar Species: The gray bat (Myotis grisescens)is similar but larger. Wing skin of the Indiana bat isattached at the toe, not the ankle. Individual hairs ofIndiana bats vary in color shade from the base to thetop. Bats are almost impossible to identify in flight.

Range: Indiana bats occupy the cool temperatezone of eastern U.S. They are rare in Oklahoma. Atone time, Indiana bats were found in the summer inAdair, Delaware, Leflore, and Pushmataha counties.During recent winters, several hibernating Indianabats have been reported from LeFlore County.

Habitat Requirements: Indiana bats require winter-ing caves with constant temperature. They havebeen known to hibernate in mine shafts. About 87percent of the total population hibernates in 7 caves,most of which are in Indiana and Kentucky. Preferredforaging habitat occurs near foliage of riparian andfloodplain forests along small streams. Closed-canopy riparian forests are a key summer habitatcomponent. Indiana bats have been found roostingunder bridges, in old buildings, and under the loosebark of dead trees during the summer.

Biology and Reproduction: Indiana bats are gre-garious and live in colonies. They migrate fromsummer areas to winter hibernation caves. Theymate during the first 2 weeks in October after reach-

)

ing hibernation caves. They begin hibernating in lateNovember. In March, hibernating colonies disperseto summer areas. Females give birth to single youngduring late June in nursery colonies. Small nurserycolonies have been found in hollow trees, hollowlimbs, and under loose bark of dead trees. Afterweaning, females often forage with the young. Theyforage in a zone 6 to 100 feet above the forest in darkhours, feeding upon soft insects such as flies, moths,butterflies, and caddisflies.

Land Use Considerations: Human disturbancethrough commercialization of caves, improper gatingof caves, and destruction of bats in hibernation caveshave caused rapid decline of this species. Conver-sion of riparian and floodplain forest to pasture andcropland and large reservoir construction removeessential foraging habitat. Insecticides have directand indirect effects on bats through bioaccumulationof toxic chemicals and decreasing food abundance.

Management: Management must allow for foragingareas above riparian and floodplain forests alongwaterways. Forested buffer zones and streamsidemanagement zones should be retained for foraginghabitat. Hollow trees and snags should be left withinstands and care exercised in timber stand improve-ment. Controlling vandalism and visitation of caves isanother effective management strategy.


Species Description: Ozark big-eared bats aremedium-sized bats, approximately 2 to 3.5 incheslong, with a wingspread of almost 12 inches. Thebody fur is rusty brown on the back and tan under-neath. This bat has large ears about 1.5 inches inlength and 2 prominent lumps on the snout.

Similar Species: The western big-eared bat(Plecotus townsendii pallescens), which is not en-dangered, is smaller and paler in coloration andoccurs in the western third of Oklahoma and otherwestern states. Rafinesque’s big-eared bat (Plecotusrafinesquii) is also similar. Rafinesque’s bat is darkgray, and hairs on the undersides are tipped withwhite.

Range: Ozark big-eared bats winter and summer innortheast Oklahoma and northwest Arkansas in theOzark Mountains. This species has been reportedfrom Adair, Cherokee, Delaware, and Ottawa coun-ties. The total population in Oklahoma numbersabout 1,700, which represents a majority of theknown population.

Habitat Requirements: The Ozark big-eared bat isa dweller of limestone caves in oak-hickory forests ofthe Ozark Plateau region. Five of the fewer than onedozen caves in which they have been found are inOklahoma. Like many other bats, they require spe-cific temperature and humidity ranges for a cave to besuitable for roosting.

Biology and Reproduction: Ozark big-eared batsare somewhat gregarious and live in colonies. They

may wsuitabdeepecloseOctobbats mto earbirth t3 weesummgenerfeed alongcontro

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Ozark Big-eared Bat (Plecotus tFederal Status: Endangered.


inter and summer in the same cave, if it isle for hibernation. Typically, they will mover into the cave to have young and hibernate

to the entrance. They mate in the fall prior toer and are into hibernation by December. Theseay hibernate singly or in clusters. In late March

ly April, females form nursery colonies and giveo single young in June. Young are able to fly atks of age and are weaned at 6 weeks. In theer, adult males may roost singly and femalesally continue to roost in clusters. These batsduring dark hours on insects (mainly moths) forest edges and can be beneficial to man bylling insect numbers.

Use Considerations: This bat has declinedse of human disturbance of caves and possiblyxcessive conversion of forest to pasture. Ex-e land conversion and clean farming practicese essential foraging habitat. Forest manage-

should include wide buffer zones around cave and limestone rock outcrops. As with othernsecticides may have direct and indirect effectsh bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals and al-

abundance of foods.

gement: Proper forest management can ben-is species by providing much-needed foraging along forest edges. Suitable cave habitat andng habitat should be protected. Control vandal-nd cave visitation through proper use of gateseep humans out, but allow bats free access,se these bats are intolerant of disturbance.

ownsendii ingens)

s
Reference
Bissonette, J. A., and Maughan, O. E. 1978. Comple-tion report-southeastern Oklahoma Coal Investi-gation: Endangered species. Project No. 14-16-002-77-080. Oklahoma Cooperative Wildlife andFisheries Research Unit, Oklahoma State Univ.,Stillwater, Okla. 101p.

Bowles, M. L. (Undated). Recovery plan for theeastern prairie fringed orchid Plantantheraleucophaea (Nuttall) Lindley. U.S. Fish and Wildl.Serv., Twin Cities, Minn. 69p.

Caire, W., J. D. Tyler, B. P. Glass, and M. A. Mares.1989. Mammals of Oklahoma. Univ. of OklahomaPress., Norman, Okla. 567p.

Chapman, J. A., and G. A. Feldhamer (Editors).1982. Wild mammals of North America: biology,management, and economics. The John HopkinsUniv. Press, Baltimore, Md. 1147p.

Clark, B. 1991. Activity patterns, habitat use, andprey selection by the Ozark big-eared bat (Plecotustownsendii ingens). Ph.D Thesis. OklahomaState Univ., Stillwater, Okla. 81p.

Crockett, J. J., J. L. Gentry, Jr., P. G. Risser, R. J. Tyrl.1978. Field study of the threatened and endan-gered plants of southeastern Oklahoma. ProjectYA 512 CT7 258. Oklahoma Biological Survey,Norman, Okla.; and School of Biological Sci-ences, Oklahoma State Univ., Stillwater, Okla.65p.

Cross, F. B., and J. T. Collins. 1975. Fishes inKansas. Univ. Kansas Museum of Natural His-tory. Public Education Series No. 3. 189p.

DeGraaf, R. M., V. E. Scott, R. H. Hamre, L. Ernst,and S. H. Anderson. 1991. Forest and rangelandbirds of the United States: Natural history andhabitat use. U.S. Dept. Agric. Handbook 688.U.S. Forest Serv., Washington, D.C. 625p.

Duck, L. G., and J. B. Fletcher. 1944. A survey of thegame and furbearing animals of Oklahoma. Okla-homa Game and Fish Commission. State BulletinNo. 3. Oklahoma City, Okla. 144p.

Eddy, S. 1969. The freshwater fishes. SecondEdition. Wm. C. Brown Co. Publishers. Dubuque,Iowa. 286p.

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Table 3. A listing of Oklahoma’s Federally listed endangered and threatened species that couldpotentially occur in a given county (current as of January 20, 1993).

County Species Status

Adair Bald eagle EndangeredGray bat EndangeredIndiana bat EndangeredOzark big-eared bat EndangeredPeregrine falcon Endangered

Alfalfa Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Atoka Bald eagle EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Beaver Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Beckham Interior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Blaine Bald eagle EndangeredBlack-capped vireo EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Bryan American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Caddo Bald eagle EndangeredBlack-capped vireo EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Canadian Bald eagle EndangeredBlack-capped vireo EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened


Carter Bald eagle EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Cherokee American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredGray bat EndangeredOzark big-eared bat EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Choctaw Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWood stork EndangeredPiping plover ThreatenedEastern prairie fringed orchid Threatened

Cimarron Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon Endangered

Cleveland Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Coal None

Comanche Bald eagle EndangeredBlack-capped vireo EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Cotton Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered



Craig Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredNeosho madtom ThreatenedWestern prairie fringed orchid Threatened

Creek Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Custer Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Delaware Bald eagle EndangeredGray bat EndangeredIndiana bat EndangeredOzark big-eared bat EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredOzark cavefish ThreatenedPiping plover Threatened

Dewey Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Ellis Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Garfield Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Garvin Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Grady Interior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened



Grant Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Greer Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Harmon Interior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Harper Interior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Haskell American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Hughes Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Jackson Interior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Jefferson Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Johnston Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredWood stork EndangeredPiping plover Threatened


Kay Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Kingfisher Interior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Kiowa Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Latimer American burying beetle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

LeFlore American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredIndiana bat EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredOuachita rock-pocketbook EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWood stork EndangeredLeopard darter ThreatenedPiping plover Threatened

Lincoln Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Logan Interior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Love Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened


McClain Interior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

McCurtain Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredRed-cockaded woodpecker EndangeredWood stork EndangeredAmerican alligator ThreatenedLeopard darter ThreatenedPiping plover Threatened

McIntosh Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Major Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Marshall Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Mayes Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredOzark cavefish ThreatenedPiping plover Threatened

Murray Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Muskogee American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened



Noble Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Nowata Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Okfuskee Peregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Oklahoma Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Okmulgee Peregrine falcon Endangered

Osage Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Ottawa Bald eagle EndangeredGray bat EndangeredOzark big-eared bat EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredNeosho madtom ThreatenedPiping plover Threatened

Pawnee Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Payne Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened



Pittsburg American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Pontotoc Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

PottawatomieBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

PushmatahaBald eagle EndangeredIndiana bat EndangeredOuachita rock-pocketbook EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredRed�cockaded woodpecker EndangeredLeopard darter ThreatenedPiping plover Threatened

Roger Mills Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Rogers Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover ThreatenedWestern prairie fringed orchid Threatened

Seminole Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened


Sequoyah American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Stephens Bald eagle EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Texas Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Tillman Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Tulsa American burying beetle EndangeredBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredPiping plover Threatened


Wagoner Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

WashingtonBald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredPeregrine falcon EndangeredWhooping crane EndangeredPiping plover Threatened

Washita Whooping crane Endangered

Woods Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered

Woodward Bald eagle EndangeredInterior least tern EndangeredWhooping crane Endangered


GLOSSARYannual - A plant that normally lives for only one year.

To perpetuate itself it must produce seed fromwhich another plant grows the following year.

bioaccumulation - The process through which pes-ticides or other contaminants are accumulated ina nontarget animal’s body over time. The pesti-cide may be ingested with food or water. Whenthe animal is unable to break down the pesticideand eliminate it with waste from the body, thepesticide then accumulates in body fat or organs,at times reaching lethal levels.

buffer strip (or zone) - An unharvested strip of forestor other undisturbed habitat type that acts as avisual screen, travel corridor for wildlife, or a filterarea. Undisturbed leaf litter acts as a filter strip byslowing overland water flow and allowing it to filterinto the ground. Soil particles carried in the watermay be dropped as the water slows and filtersthrough the leaf litter. Buffer strips can providehabitat for some wildlife species. Buffer strips donot have to be located adjacent to streams but canbe created anywhere.

chlorinated hydrocarbon - Organic pesticides orother compounds that contain chlorine. Use ofthese pesticides is restricted by the Environmen-tal Protection Agency because of harmful effectson the environment. Only a few insecticidescontaining these compounds are used.

channelization - The process by which a stream orriver channel is straightened, deepened, or wid-ened usually with large dredging equipment.Channelization takes out the winding, meander-ing course most streams naturally take and speedswater flow.

extinct - When an animal or plant species is com-pletely eliminated.

extirpated - When an animal or plant is eliminatedfrom within particular geographical or political(such as the State of Oklahoma) areas. Thespecies may still exist elsewhere.

filter feeders - Animals that draw water in through afilter-like organ to feed on organisms suspendedin the water.

fragmentation of habitat - Where a habitat type,such as a forest or prairie, is broken up into smallerand smaller isolated blocks until its value as


habitat for certain species is diminished. This istypically associated with forest and rangelandconversion to intensive agricultural uses or urban-ization.

metamorphosis - The change in body shape, func-tion, and structure that progressively takes placewhen an organism (e.g., insect or mussel) growsto maturity.

nest parasitism - Occurs when the brown-headedcowbird lays eggs in the nest of another bird. Theother species of bird will incubate and feed thenestling cowbird. The cowbird will usually developat a faster rate and will often push other nestlingsout of the nest. As a result, the other species doesnot successfully raise its own young.

old-growth - Refers to forests that have grown wellbeyond the age that forests are traditionally har-vested. An old-growth pine forest may be 150years old whereas an old-growth oak forest maybe 250 years old. The concept of old-growthdepends on the species of tree because somespecies live longer than others.

organochlorine - Same as chlorinated hydrocar-bon.

parasitize - The process by which one plant oranimal depends on another plant or animal tosustain its life, and in the process, usually harmsthe host.

perennial - Plants living for more than two years.They re-sprout from roots, tubers or top growtheach year.

succession - The continual change in plant commu-nities over time. For example, a farm field clearedfrom forest, if left unplowed, goes through a weedy(annual broad-leaved forbs and grasses) thenbrushy stage, before becoming a forest onceagain.

streamside management zone - A strip of forest leftadjacent to streams or rivers. These zones maybe subject to limited harvest with selective meth-ods. Disturbance and number of trees removed islimited. Buffer strips can be a streamside man-agement zone.

turbidity - The relative amount of suspended par-ticles in water. Water high in turbidity is lesstransparent and less likely to support microorgan-isms that aquatic animals feed on because ofdecreased photosynthesis.

PHOTO CREDITSOuachita Mountain Indigo Ron Tyrl, Oklahoma State UniversityCumberland Sandgrass Kay Wright, University of OklahomaOzark Chinquapin Ron Tyrl, Oklahoma State UniversityWaterfall’s Dodder Ron Tyrl, Oklahoma State UniversityEastern Prairie Fringed Orchid Marlin BowlesWestern Prairie Fringed Orchid Mike Fritz, Nebraska Game and Parks CommissionAmerican Burying Beetle Andrea Kozol, Boston UniversityOuachita Rock-Pocketbook Patrica Mehlhop, New Mexico Natural Heritage ProgramOzark Cavefish U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceOzark Cavefish (inset) Missouri Department of ConservationNeosho Madtom Suzanne L. Collins and Joseph T. Collins, University of KansasLeopard Darter William N. RostonArkansas River Shiner Richard L. Mayden, University of KansasArkansas Darter Suzanne L. Collins and Joseph T. Collins, University of KansasAmerican Alligator Todd Johnson, Oklahoma State UniversityPiping Plover Lang ElliotAmerican Peregrine Falcon Todd Johnson, Oklahoma State UniversityWhooping Crane Frederick K. TruslowBald Eagle Todd Johnson, Oklahoma State UniversityWood Stork Frederick K. TruslowWood Stork (inset) Tom UlrichRed-cockaded Woodpecker Ron Masters, Oklahoma State UniversityLeast Tern A. Archibeque, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceBlack-capped Vireo Joseph GrzybowskiGray Bat Merlin B. Tuttle, Bat Conservation InternationalGray Bat (inset) Merlin B. Tuttle, Bat Conservation InternationalIndiana Bat Merlin B. Tuttle, Bat Conservation InternationalOzark Big-eared Bat Bryon and Brenda Clark


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