Feminism in India
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Transcript of Feminism in India
SOCIOLOGY
PROJECT REPORT OF
SOCIOLOGY
TOPIC - FEMINISM - LIBERAL AND
RADICAL APPROACH
Submitted to:- Compiled by:-
Mrs. Daizy Mohit Munjaal
Roll No. 197/11
8th Semester
UILS, PU
Chandigarh
INTRODUCTION
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The term ‘feminism’ is derived from the Latin word, ‘femina’ meaning women, it originally
meant ‘having the qualities of females’. It began to be used with reference to the movement for
sexual equality and women’s rights, replacing womanism in the 1890s. Dictionaries define it as the
advocacy of women’s rights based on the belief in the equality of the sexes, and in its broadest use
the word refers to everyone who is aware of, and seeking to end, women’s subordination to
man.Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having
coined the word "feminism" in 18371. Feminism is a collection of movements and
ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and
social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women
in education and employment. Depending on historical moment, culture and country,
feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist
historians assert that all movements that work to obtain women's rights should be
considered feminist movements, even when they did not apply the term to themselves.
While other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist
movement and its descendants. But, basically a feminist advocates or supports the rights
and equality of women. Feminist theory, which emerged from these feminist movements,
aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and
lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to
issues such as the social construction of sex and gender. Some of the earlier forms of
feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated
perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically specific or multi-cultural forms of
feminism. Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical
fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology,
economics, women's studies, literary criticism, art history, psychoanalysis and philosophy.
Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics,
power relations, and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political
relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and
interests.
1 Goldstein, L., Early Feminist Themes in French Utopian Socialism: The St.-Simonians and Fourier, (1982), Journal of the History of Ideas, vol.43, p. 92
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In the present discussion I would like to discuss feminism in the Indian context
which over a period of time has carved a distinct and separate niche for itself due to its
several distinctive features based mainly on the on the diversified socio-cultural facets of
India. Feminism in India has been a long, unsettled debate which is still persistently
prevalent in various forms. Indian feminist researchers or Women Studies researchers
have not yet been able to define “Indian Feminism”. Unlike western feminism, Indians don’t
have any clear cut corpus of writing which can categorically be referred to as “feminism” or
“feminist writing/theory”. Until the 1990s, Indian feminist scholars were not engaged in
academic conversation within the corpus of what is a western-dominated international
academic feminism. Indian feminism has always been looked down upon due to the
sparseness of theoretical writings which could grasp the crux of the problems of the Indian
women, it’s inevitable and unavoidable association with “western feminism” and the
existence of a recurrent sense of evasion, ambivalence and ambiguity towards the term
“feminism” itself. Feminism in India can be defined as a set of movements aimed at
defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal
opportunities for Indian women. It is the pursuit of women's rights within the society of
India. Like their feminist counterparts all over the world, feminists in India seek gender
equality: the right to work for equal wages, the right to equal access to health and
education, and equal political rights2. From anti-dowry campaigns in the '80s, to anti-rape
demonstrations in the '90s, Indian feminism has taken a trajectory that has brought it into
closer contact with the spontaneous struggles of women throughout the country. Indian
feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within India's patriarchal society,
such as inheritance laws and the practice of widow immolation known as Sati. Despite the
progress made by Indian feminist movements, women living in modern India still face
many issues of discrimination. India's patriarchal culture has made the process of gaining
land-ownership rights and access to education challenging. In the past two decades, there
has also emerged a disturbing trend of sex-selective abortion. To Indian feminists, these are
seen as injustices worth struggling against.
2 Ray, Raka Fields of Protest: Women's Movements in India, (1999) University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, page 13.
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The above mentioned topic has been discussed in a detailed and analytical manner
in various upcoming sections.
Various phases of the feminist movement in India.
Unlike the Western feminist movement, India's movement was initiated by men, and
later joined by women. The efforts of these men included abolishing sati, which was a
widow's death by burning on her husband's funeral pyre, the custom of child marriage,
abolishing the disfiguring of widows, banning the marriage of upper caste Hindu widows,
promoting women's education, obtaining legal rights for women to own property, and
requiring the law to acknowledge women's status by granting them basic rights in matters
such as adoption. The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women's issues
come under the spotlight and reforms began to be made. Much of the early reforms for
Indian women were conducted by men. However, by the late 19th century they were joined
in their efforts by their wives, sisters, daughters, protégées and other individuals directly
affected by campaigns such as those carried out for women's education. By the late 20th
century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent women's
own organizations. By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be constructed
regarding "women's activism". This was newly researched and expanded with the vision to
create 'logical' and organic links between feminism and Marxism, as well as with anti-
communalism and anti-casteism, etc. The Constitution of India did guarantee 'equality
between the sexes,' which created a relative lull in women's movements until the 1970’s3.
The history of the Indian feminist movements can be categorized into three different
phases with each phases dealing with the various aspects of the same issues.
First phase: 1850–1915
The colonial venture into modernity brought concepts of democracy, equality and
individual rights. The rise of the concept of nationalism and introspection of discriminatory
practices brought about social reform movements related to caste and gender relations.
This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the social evils of sati
3 Kumar, Radha, The History of Doing- Kali for Women, New Delhi, (1998).
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(widow immolation), to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marriage, and to reduce
illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through
legal intervention. In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints
they faced under Brahminical traditions. However, efforts for improving the status of
women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted by the late nineteenth century, as
nationalist movements emerged in India. These movements resisted 'colonial interventions
in gender relations' particularly in the areas of family relations. In the mid to late
nineteenth century, there was a national form of resistance to any colonial efforts made to
'modernize' the Hindu family. This included the ‘Age of Consent’ controversy that erupted
after the government tried to raise the age of marriage for women4.
Second Phase: 1915 - 1947
During this period the struggle against colonial rule intensified. Nationalism became
the pre-eminent cause. Claiming Indian superiority became the tool of cultural revivalism
resulting in an essential model of Indian womanhood similar to that of Victorian
womanhood: special yet separated from public space. Gandhi legitimized and expanded
Indian women's public activities by initiating them into the non-violent civil disobedience
movement against the British Raj. He exalted their feminine roles of caring, self-abnegation,
sacrifice and tolerance; and carved a niche for those in the public arena. Women-only
organizations like All India Women's Conference (AIWC) and the National Federation of
Indian Women (NFIW) emerged. Women were grappling with issues relating to the scope
of women's political participation, women's franchise, communal awards, and leadership
roles in political parties.5The 1920s was a new era for Indian women and is defined as
'feminism' that was responsible for the creation of localized women's associations. These
associations emphasized women's education issues, developed livelihood strategies for
working class women, and also organized national level women's associations such as the
All India Women's Conference. AIWC was closely affiliated with the Indian National
Congress. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, it worked within the nationalist and
anti-colonialist freedom movements. This made the mass mobilization of women an
4 Gangoli, (2007), pages 88–89.5 Sen, Amartya, The Many Faces of Gender Inequality -The New Republic, 17 September 2001; p. 39
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integral part of Indian nationalism. Women therefore were a very important part of various
nationalist and anti-colonial efforts, including the civil disobedience movements in the
1930s6. This phase of the nationalist played a significant role in bringing out the women as
feminists. The mass participation of the women on the freedom movement developed their
critical consciousness regarding their rights and status in the independent Indian society.
This period can be termed as the transitional period whereby the women replaced the men
as the flag-bearers of the feminist movement in India.
Third Phase - Feminism: Post-1947
Post independence feminists began to redefine the extent to which women were
allowed to engage in the workforce. Prior to independence, most feminists accepted the
sexual divide within the labor force. However, feminists in the 1970s challenged the
inequalities that had been established and fought to reverse them. These inequalities
included unequal wages for women, relegation of women to 'unskilled' spheres of work,
and restricting women as a reserve army for labor. In other words, the feminists' aim was
to abolish the free service of women who were essentially being used as cheap capital.7
Feminist class-consciousness also came into focus in the 1970s, with feminists recognizing
the inequalities not just between men and women but also within power structures such as
caste, tribe, language, religion, region, class etc. This also posed as a challenge for feminists
while shaping their overreaching campaigns as there had to be a focus within efforts to
ensure that fulfilling the demands of one group would not create further inequalities for
another. Now, in the early twenty-first century, the focus of the Indian feminist movement
has gone beyond treating women as useful members of society and a right to parity, but
also having the power to decide the course of their personal lives and the right of self-
determination8.
6 Ibid.7 Supra 3.8 Ibid.
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Change in the perspective of feminism (after 1990’s) and its
impact on the Indian society.
The feminism in the Indian society has come a long way since the independence. In
the due course it has underwent a series of changes making it more bold and dynamic. The
feminist movement that started in India during late 1990’s can be termed more as a radical
feminism but still there certain feminist who deny to this fact.
Radical Feminism was the result of the disillusionment resulted from the failure of
Marxist Feminism. According to radical feminists, in order to liberate women, it is not
capitalism that is to be overthrown but patriarchy. Above all, they opposed the growing
sexual crimes against women. The analyses of radical feminism points out the need for
women to escape from cages of forced motherhood and sexual slavery. Hence, the
immediate goal of radical feminist politics is for women to regain control over their own
bodies. In the long run, the radical feminists seek to overthrow patriarchy and to create a
new society informed by the radical feminist values of wholeness, trust and nurturance of
sexuality, joy and mildness. Radical Feminists see men’s domination of women as the result
of the system of patriarchy which is independent of all other social structures – that is, it is
not a product of capitalism9.
On the other the feminists who deny the fact that the feminist movement taking
place in the Indian society is a radical form of feminism argue that the particular movement
going on in the Indian society cannot be termed as a radical form of feminism rather than it
is sort of feminist movement with the post-modern philosophy forming it’s basis.
Postmodern feminism emerges from two main sources. First, out of criticisms of modernist
9 Freedman, Feminism, p. 5.
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feminist theorizing and second, perhaps obviously, from postmodern and post-structural
thought. Following this, postmodern feminists are equally keen to expose the flaws and
weaknesses of traditional feminisms, particularly with regard to their modernist
commitments. One of the significant aspects is the destabilization of the category of
woman. It is certainly the case that postmodernists are keen to develop ideas about the
social world that do not rely on the traditional understanding10. Contemporary postmodern
feminism thus emerges out of the conflicts within feminist theorizing and the influence of
postmodernist thought. Postmodern feminism thus is aligned with the deconstructive
strategies of postmodernism in general but has a specific interest in gender and the
feminine/female11.
The contemporary Indian women’s movement is a complex, variously placed, and
fertile undertaking. It is perhaps the only movement today that encompasses and links
such issues as work, wages, environment, ecology, civil rights, sex, violence, representation,
caste, class, allocation of basic resources, consumer rights, health, religion, community, and
individual and social relationships. Perhaps the most significant development for women in
the last few decades has been the introduction of 33% reservation for women in local,
village-level elections. In the early days, when this move was introduced, there was
considerable skepticism. Another development to watch with interest is the diasporic links
among Indian women’s groups. This diasporic network is unusual and could become an
important source of mobilization against communal identity politics.
Impact of feminist movement in Indian Society
The feminist thought and feminist movement in the west have some influence on the
woman’s movement in the developing country like India. Yet, feminism as it exists today in
India has gone beyond its western counter parts. Uma Narayan rightly puts it third world
feminism is not mindless mimicking of western agenda in one clear and simple sense. Until the
1990s, Indian feminist scholars were not engaged in academic conversation within the corpus
of what is a western-dominated international academic feminism. Indian feminism has always
been looked down upon due to the sparseness of theoretical writings which could grasp the
10 Zalewski, Feminism after Postmodernism, p. 17.11 Zalewski, Feminism after Postmodernism, p. 26.
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crux of the problems of the Indian women, its inevitable and unavoidable association with
“western feminism” and the existence of a recurrent sense of evasion, ambivalence and
ambiguity towards the term “feminism” itself. The impact of the feminism in the Indian society
can be best in the areas of the literature, academics and in the politics. Here, I would like to cite
certain feminist who are in the same line regarded as the best known feminists of India. Indian
writing in English is now gaining ground rapidly. In the realm of fiction, it has heralded a new
era has earned many laurels both at home and abroad. Indian woman writers have started
questioning the prominent old patriarchal domination. Today, the works of Kamla Markandaya,
Narayan Sahgal, Anita Desai, Geetha Hariharan, Shashi Deshpande, Kiran Desai and Manju
Kapur and many more have left an indelible imprint on the readers of Indian fiction in English.
A major development in modern Indian fiction is the growth of a feminist or women centered
approach, that seeks to project and interpret experience, from the point of a feminine
consciousness and sensibility. As Patricia Meyer Specks remarks:
“There seems to be something that we call a women’s point of view on outlook sufficiently
distinct to be recognizable through the countries.”12
Shobha De, a supermodel, celebrity journalist and the well-known author stands as a
pioneer in the field of popular fiction and ranks among the first to explore the world of the
urban woman in India. She has given importance to women’s issues and they are dealt with
psychology in her style of intimate understanding. Her novels indicate the arrival of a new
Indian woman, eager to defy rebelliously against the well-entrenched moral orthodoxy of the
patriarchal social system, eager to find their identity in their own way. Her female characters
break all shackles of customs and traditions that tie them in the predicaments and rein in their
freedoms and rights. They are not against the entire social system and values but are not ready
to accept them as they are. Her female characters are modern, strong and take bold decisions to
survive in society. This secures her position in literature as a feminist novelist.
Similar, is the situation in the area of politics. Discussing the importance of the
women in the scene of Indian politics would be a futile job because for the fact that the
active participation of women in the politics in India is second to none. But, there is a high
level of discrepancy in the ratio of men and women when the question is about the top
positions. Although the provisions for a women reservation bill has been made whereby
12 Patricia Meyer Specks, Feminist Sensuality, Antwerp, 2002, p. .37.
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33% reservation is given to the women in the local and the state govt. have been all but
futile. Although the situation do seem to be grim in the arena of the politics but the
situation is developing gradually with the women being given certain positions of
authority. But, still it is far from satisfactory.
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To critically analyze the Indian feminism in relation to the western
feminism.
Feminism has attracted attention due to its impact in social change in the Indian society.
While feminism in some forms is generally accepted, dissenting voices do exist. Many people
object to the feminist movement as trying to destroy traditional gender roles. They say that men
and women have many natural differences and that everyone benefits from recognizing those
differences. Although the Indian women movement can legitimately claim a rich, unique history,
but the recent upheavals are forcing us to reconceptualise (or, it could be argued, to
conceptualise for the first time) the basic concepts of patriarchy, gender and empowerment. It is
not for nothing that some of the current debates affecting women, such as those around a uniform
civil code, or reservations for women in Parliament none of them new issues --- are nonetheless
raising far reaching questions for which existing answers are inadequate. More to the point, the
current mood in feminist circles is anything but complacent. The Indian feminism has been
criticised on certain points chalked out in relation to the western feminist movement.
Most criticisms of Feminist perspectives have stemmed from Feminists themselves
(this is sometimes referred to as an "internal critique" (that is, one that comes from various
writers
working within the same broad perspective). The following points refer to this kind of
internal critique...
1. Liberal Feminism
a. Liberal Feminists have focused their attention upon "equality of opportunity" between
males and females. They have largely ignored the study of social structural factors that
other Feminists see as a basic cause of inequality in Capitalist societies (for example,
patriarchy and the inequalities created by Capitalist forms of economic production).
b. Liberal Feminists have been criticised for their failure to understand that in any society
that is fundamentally unequal in its economic and social structure "equality of opportunity"
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is a fairly meaningless concept. In a society divided along class lines and driven by
economic exploitation, women - like working class men - are at a fundamental economic
disadvantage.
2. Radical Feminism.
a. There is no real evidence that women constitute a "sex class", since it is clear that apart
from a common biological structure, women may have no real shared interests "as a class
apart from men". It is difficult to see, for example, what "common interests" are shared by
upper class and working class women - aside from the fact that they are women. The
experiences and life chances of upper class females are significantly different to those of
working class females where the position of the former may be closer to that of men than
to their working class counterparts.
b. The primary importance attached to patriarchy downgrades the importance of concepts
like social class and ethnicity. For Marxist Feminists, patriarchy itself stems from the way in
which women are generally exploited economically.
c. To view women as a "sex class" whose basic interest involves emancipation from men
would leave unresolved the problem of economic exploitation.
d. Radical Feminism tends to overlook the fact that the general position of women in
society has changed over time and this can only be explained in terms of wider economic
and political changes in society.
e. Socialist Feminists do not see women as a "sex class", nor do they see all men as "the
class enemy". Not all male / female relationships are characterised by oppression and
exploitation, for example. Technological "solutions" to female exploitation are also viewed
with suspicion (since control over development and exploitation of technology has
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traditional been a male preserve), as is the idea that a matriarchal society is somehow
superior and preferable to a patriarchal society.
f. Radical Feminists over-emphasise factors that separate women from men their biological
anatomy in particular - over-stating the significance of biological differences - and also
unsubstantiated / uncritical assumptions about male and female psychology.
3. Socialist Feminism.
a. This form of Feminism underplays the significance of Capitalist forms of exploitation.
b. Socialist Feminism is criticised for being neither revolutionary nor radical enough to
create lasting solutions to the problem of female economic and social exploitation.
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CONCLUSION
It is important to recognize that for a country of India’s magnitude, change in male
female relations and the kinds of issues the women’s movement is focusing on, will not come
easy. For every step the movement takes forward, there will be a possible backlash, a possible
regression. But this backlash could lead to positive results. The women, who are denied
opportunities to come forward and hence oppressed, are more motivated to take up the cause
more seriously. This makes possible for women who can aspire to, and attain, the highest
political office in the country, and for women to continue to have to confront patriarchy within
the home, in the workplace, throughout their lives. The women’s movement in India today is a
rich and vibrant movement, which has spread to various parts of the country. It is often said that
there is no one single cohesive movement in the country, but a number of fragmented campaigns.
Activists see this as one of the strengths of the movement which takes different forms in different
parts. While the movement may be scattered all over India, they feel it is nonetheless a strong
and plural force.
In India, women’s movement is beginning to show results. The society accepts the
equality of both sexes. The Indian society is still patriarchal and hence the space for women to
actualize and to assert themselves is limited. Yet we hope that women’s movement will lead to a
more radical feminist movement. This does not mean that we are going to ape the Western
feminism. An authentic Indian way of being feminine has to be sought and put into practice by
the Indian feminists. Third wave feminism suggests that women are different and distinct. The
well-being of the society depends on each man and woman; neither can develop without the
other. The feminist movement in India invites Indians to affirm the uniqueness of the feminine,
to cherish their uniqueness and thus giving them a right place in human society, because it is a
woman who ultimately is responsible for the uplift of the society. Therefore, the future is
predicted to be bright and clear with dreams unlimited.
Feminism of today marches into this heaven of freedom where the world has not been
broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls of division, exploitation, domination, over
the other. That is the dream of feminism, the desire of a true human society, of a true human
world. As Margaret Mead has rightly pointed out, ‘feminism is fundamental to the change’. It is
fully integrated into evolution and it implies a real transformation of humanity, of the totality,
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not only for women, but also for men. On this depends in a big way the revival of the world; it is
a consciousness which has already begun to emerge slowly and insistently, but the repercussions
are yet to be foreseen and identified.
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