FEM3102FEM3102Research Methods in Research Methods in

Adult Development and Adult Development and AgingAging

THEORIES OF ADULT THEORIES OF ADULT DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Table 1 : Theoretical Approaches in Adult Development

APPROACHAPPROACH WRITER’S APPROACHWRITER’S APPROACH FOCUS TOPICFOCUS TOPIC

Behavior, social learningBehavior, social learning Bandura (1969, 1977)Bandura (1969, 1977)Seligman (1972)Seligman (1972)

Learning Learning MotivationMotivation

Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Freud (1946)Freud (1946)Erikson (1964, 1979)Erikson (1964, 1979)

PersonalityPersonalityMotivationMotivation

HumanisticHumanistic Maslow (1970)Maslow (1970)Kohlberg (1973, 1981)Kohlberg (1973, 1981)

MotivationMotivationMoral developmentMoral development

Intraindividual Intraindividual differencesdifferences

Cattel (1971), Horn Cattel (1971), Horn (1980)(1980)Guilford, Zimmerman & Guilford, Zimmerman & Guildford (1976)Guildford (1976)Schaie (1977,1978)Schaie (1977,1978)

Intellectual developmentIntellectual developmentPersonalityPersonality

AttributionAttribution Whitbourne (1985)Whitbourne (1985) Self-esteemSelf-esteemSocial psychologySocial psychology

Information processingInformation processing Sternberg (1980)Sternberg (1980) Learning, MemoryLearning, Memory

DialecticDialectic Riegel (1975, 1976)Riegel (1975, 1976) Personality, Life CrisisPersonality, Life Crisis

Behavior, Social LearningBehavior, Social Learning This approach focus on the environment This approach focus on the environment

as an indicator of behavior & behavioral as an indicator of behavior & behavioral changeschanges

Reward and punishment will influence Reward and punishment will influence human behaviors.human behaviors.

This approach considered role model This approach considered role model which has emotional bond and can which has emotional bond and can influence human behaviors.influence human behaviors.

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis Focuses on emotional conflict and Focuses on emotional conflict and

unconscious mental processunconscious mental process Emotional conflict is a result of social Emotional conflict is a result of social

responsibilities or reality against responsibilities or reality against individual desireindividual desire

Erikson – expanded psychoanalysis to Erikson – expanded psychoanalysis to adulthoodadulthood psychosocial crisis in psychosocial crisis in adulthood is intimacy conflict, adulthood is intimacy conflict, productivity and integrity productivity and integrity

HumanisticHumanistic Focuses on motivation as the primary Focuses on motivation as the primary

difference between human and animal.difference between human and animal. Emphasize on personal growth Emphasize on personal growth self- self-

actualizationactualization Humans will put the highest Humans will put the highest

expectations to get the best outcome expectations to get the best outcome

Individual differencesIndividual differences This approach is always used in This approach is always used in

psychology test for example intelligence psychology test for example intelligence test and personality testtest and personality test

Each individual is different Each individual is different

Information processingInformation processing Can give explanations of older people’s Can give explanations of older people’s

memories and perceptionsmemories and perceptions Human operation = computerHuman operation = computer

AttributionAttribution Labeling on events that happened in Labeling on events that happened in

societysociety This label can be attribution depending This label can be attribution depending

on types of label toward that events on types of label toward that events The individual will behave accordingly The individual will behave accordingly

to the label of events that been given.to the label of events that been given.

Dialectic Dialectic focuses on changes and emphasizes on focuses on changes and emphasizes on

resolution and synthesis after individual resolution and synthesis after individual face conflicting issues face conflicting issues

Individual is seen as an active organism Individual is seen as an active organism always face incongruent and always face incongruent and conflicting situations and therefore conflicting situations and therefore increase higher level skills through increase higher level skills through revolution and synthesis to handle revolution and synthesis to handle conflict. conflict.

Problem situationProblem situation

Leah and Sarah are both 75 years and Leah and Sarah are both 75 years and are in fairly good health. They believe are in fairly good health. They believe that their memory is not as good as it that their memory is not as good as it once was, so they both use various once was, so they both use various memory aids: Leah tries to think of memory aids: Leah tries to think of images in her mind to remember her images in her mind to remember her grocery list, whereas Sarah writes them grocery list, whereas Sarah writes them down. Leah and Sarah got into a down. Leah and Sarah got into a discussion recently about which discussion recently about which technique works better. technique works better.

Measuring adult Measuring adult development development

and agingand aging Three approaches:Three approaches:

1.1. Observing systematicallyObserving systematically

2.2. Using tasks to sample behaviorUsing tasks to sample behavior

3.3. Asking people for self-reportsAsking people for self-reports

Researchers must also ensure that Researchers must also ensure that the participants in the study are the participants in the study are representative of the larger group of representative of the larger group of people in question.people in question.

Concepts in measuring Concepts in measuring developmentdevelopment

ReliabilityReliability The extent to which it provides a consistent The extent to which it provides a consistent

index of the behavior or topic of interest.index of the behavior or topic of interest. Example: a measure of memory is reliable to Example: a measure of memory is reliable to

the extent that it gives a consistent estimate the extent that it gives a consistent estimate of performance each time you administer it.of performance each time you administer it.

Concepts in measuring Concepts in measuring developmentdevelopment

ValidityValidity The extent to which it measures what The extent to which it measures what

researchers think it measures.researchers think it measures. Example: a measure of memory is valid if it Example: a measure of memory is valid if it

can be shown to actually measure memory can be shown to actually measure memory (and not vocabulary ability, for example)(and not vocabulary ability, for example)

Often established by showing that the Often established by showing that the measure is in question is closely related to measure is in question is closely related to another measure known to be valid.another measure known to be valid.

1. Systematic 1. Systematic ObservationObservation

Involves watching people and Involves watching people and carefully recording what they say or carefully recording what they say or do.do.

Two forms of systematic Two forms of systematic observation:observation: Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation Structured observationStructured observation

Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation

People are observed as they behave People are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life spontaneously in some real-life situations.situations.

Example: Leah and Sarah could be Example: Leah and Sarah could be observed in the grocery store observed in the grocery store purchasing their items as a way to purchasing their items as a way to test how well they remember.test how well they remember.

Structured observationStructured observation Researchers create a setting that is particularly Researchers create a setting that is particularly

likely to elicit the behavior of interest.likely to elicit the behavior of interest.

Especially useful to study behaviors that are Especially useful to study behaviors that are difficult to observe naturally.difficult to observe naturally.

Example: Emergency is a rare and an Example: Emergency is a rare and an unpredictable event. Therefore, researchers can unpredictable event. Therefore, researchers can stage an emergency and observe how people stage an emergency and observe how people react.react.

However, whether the behaviors in staged However, whether the behaviors in staged situations are the same as in naturally occurring situations are the same as in naturally occurring situations is difficult to determine. Therefore, it is situations is difficult to determine. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize from staged setting to the difficult to generalize from staged setting to the real world.real world.

2. Sampling behavior with 2. Sampling behavior with taskstasks

When investigators cannot directly observe certain When investigators cannot directly observe certain behaviors, they create tasks that allow them to behaviors, they create tasks that allow them to sample the behavior.sample the behavior.

Example: One way to test adults’ memory is to Example: One way to test adults’ memory is to give them a list of items, perhaps a simulated give them a list of items, perhaps a simulated grocery list, to learn and remember.grocery list, to learn and remember.

This approach is popular because it is convenient.This approach is popular because it is convenient.

However, it has a problem with validity. How do However, it has a problem with validity. How do you know what people do in real life situations you know what people do in real life situations when the list is actual items they need to when the list is actual items they need to purchase.purchase.

3. Self-reports3. Self-reports A special case of using tasks to sample people’s A special case of using tasks to sample people’s

behavior. Self-reports are simply people’s behavior. Self-reports are simply people’s answers to questions about topic of interest.answers to questions about topic of interest. Written form: QuestionnaireWritten form: Questionnaire Verbal form: InterviewVerbal form: Interview

Questions are created to probe different Questions are created to probe different aspects about the topic of interest.aspects about the topic of interest.

Example: If you think imagery and lists are Example: If you think imagery and lists are common ways people use to remember grocery common ways people use to remember grocery items, you could devise a questionnaire and items, you could devise a questionnaire and survey several people to find out.survey several people to find out.

3. Self-reports3. Self-reports

Self-reports are very convenient and Self-reports are very convenient and provide information on the topic of provide information on the topic of interest.interest.

However self-report are not always However self-report are not always good measure as they can be good measure as they can be inaccurate. People may not always inaccurate. People may not always remember precisely what they did in the remember precisely what they did in the past, or they may report what they think past, or they may report what they think the researcher wants to hear.the researcher wants to hear.

Representative Representative samplingsampling

Researchers are normally interested in Researchers are normally interested in broad groups of people called broad groups of people called populations.populations. Example: FEM students taking FEM3102, Example: FEM students taking FEM3102, the baby boomer generation.the baby boomer generation.

Almost all studies include only a Almost all studies include only a samplesample of of people, which is people, which is a subset of the a subset of the population.population.

Researchers must be careful to ensure Researchers must be careful to ensure that their sample is truly representative of that their sample is truly representative of the population of interest.the population of interest.

Representative samplingRepresentative sampling

An unrepresentative sample can An unrepresentative sample can result in invalid research.result in invalid research.

Always critically evaluate the sample Always critically evaluate the sample in a research and how the in a research and how the researchers generalize their researchers generalize their findings.findings.

General designs for General designs for researchresearch

Primary designs for studying Primary designs for studying adult development and aging:adult development and aging:1.1. Experimental studiesExperimental studies

2.2. Correlational studiesCorrelational studies

3.3. Case studiesCase studies

1. Experimental design1. Experimental design An experiment involves manipulating a An experiment involves manipulating a

key factor that the researcher believes is key factor that the researcher believes is responsible for a particular behavior and responsible for a particular behavior and randomly assigning participants to the randomly assigning participants to the experimental and control groups.experimental and control groups.

The researcher is most interested in The researcher is most interested in identifying differences between two identifying differences between two groups of people:groups of people: Experimental group receives the Experimental group receives the

manipulationmanipulation Control group does not receive manipulationControl group does not receive manipulation

The researcher exerts precise control The researcher exerts precise control over all important aspects of the study over all important aspects of the study including the variable of interest, the including the variable of interest, the setting and the participants.setting and the participants.

Researchers can infer cause-and-effect Researchers can infer cause-and-effect relations about variables due to relations about variables due to systematic manipulation of key variables.systematic manipulation of key variables.

Independent variablesIndependent variables: variables : variables manipulated by the experimenter.manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent variablesDependent variables: behaviors or : behaviors or outcomes that are measured.outcomes that are measured.

Age cannot be an independent Age cannot be an independent variable because we cannot variable because we cannot manipulate it.manipulate it.

Therefore, we cannot conduct true Therefore, we cannot conduct true experiments to examine the effects experiments to examine the effects of age on a person’s behavior. At of age on a person’s behavior. At best, we can find age-related effects best, we can find age-related effects of an independent variable on of an independent variable on dependent variables.dependent variables.

2. Correlational design2. Correlational design In a correlational study, investigators In a correlational study, investigators

examine relations between variables examine relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world.as they exist naturally in the world.

In the simplest correlational study, a In the simplest correlational study, a researcher measures researcher measures two variablestwo variables, , then sees how they are related.then sees how they are related.

The results of a correlational study The results of a correlational study usually are measured by computing a usually are measured by computing a correlation coefficentcorrelation coefficent (r). (r).

Correlations can range from - 1.0 to 1.0, Correlations can range from - 1.0 to 1.0, reflecting three different types of relations reflecting three different types of relations between the two variables:between the two variables:

When r = 0, the two variables are unrelated.When r = 0, the two variables are unrelated. When r > 0, the variables are positively related.When r > 0, the variables are positively related. When r < 0, the variables are inversely related.When r < 0, the variables are inversely related.

Correlational studies do not imply cause-Correlational studies do not imply cause-and-effect relations.and-effect relations.

However they do provide important However they do provide important information about the strength of the information about the strength of the relation between variables (reflected in the relation between variables (reflected in the absolute value of the correlation absolute value of the correlation coefficient).coefficient).

Correlational techniques are used a great Correlational techniques are used a great deal because developmental researchers deal because developmental researchers are interested in how variables are related are interested in how variables are related to factors that are very difficult, if not to factors that are very difficult, if not impossible, to manipulate.impossible, to manipulate.

Most developmental research is Most developmental research is correlational at some level because age correlational at some level because age cannot be manipulated within an cannot be manipulated within an individual.individual.

This means we can describe many This means we can describe many developmental phenomena, but we can developmental phenomena, but we can only explain some of them.only explain some of them.

3. Case study design3. Case study design Used when researchers cannot obtain measures Used when researchers cannot obtain measures

directly from people and are able only to watch directly from people and are able only to watch them carefully.them carefully.

In certain situations, researchers may be able In certain situations, researchers may be able to study a single individual in great detail in a to study a single individual in great detail in a case study.case study.

Case study is especially useful when Case study is especially useful when researchers want to investigate a rare researchers want to investigate a rare phenomena, such as uncommon diseases or phenomena, such as uncommon diseases or people with extremely high ability.people with extremely high ability.

Case studies are also useful for Case studies are also useful for opening new areas of study which opening new areas of study which can be followed by larger studies can be followed by larger studies using other methods (e.g. using other methods (e.g. experiments).experiments).

The primary limitation of this The primary limitation of this method is whether the findings method is whether the findings from one individual can be from one individual can be generalized to others.generalized to others.

Designs for studying Designs for studying developmentdevelopment

Developmental researchers need to Developmental researchers need to be sensitive of developmental be sensitive of developmental differences in choosing a research differences in choosing a research design.design.

Three key variables in developmental Three key variables in developmental research design:research design: AgeAge CohortCohort Time of measurementTime of measurement

AgeAge

Age effectsAge effects reflect differences caused by reflect differences caused by underlying processes, such as biological, underlying processes, such as biological, psychological or sociocultural changes.psychological or sociocultural changes.

Although usually represented by Although usually represented by chronological agechronological age, age effects are , age effects are inherent changes within the person and inherent changes within the person and are not caused by the passage of time are not caused by the passage of time per se.per se.

CohortCohort Cohort effectsCohort effects are differences caused by are differences caused by

experiences and circumstances unique to experiences and circumstances unique to the generation to which one belongs.the generation to which one belongs.

In general, cohort effects corresponds to In general, cohort effects corresponds to the the normative history-gradednormative history-graded influences. influences.

However, it is not easy to define a cohort However, it is not easy to define a cohort as it can be as it can be specificspecific such as in all people such as in all people born in one particular year or born in one particular year or generalgeneral as as in the baby-boom cohort.in the baby-boom cohort.

Each generation is exposed to Each generation is exposed to different sets of historical and different sets of historical and personal events e.g. World War II, personal events e.g. World War II, home computers, or opportunities home computers, or opportunities to attend college.to attend college.

Cohort effects can have significant Cohort effects can have significant implications on research.implications on research.

Time of measurementTime of measurement Time-of-measurement effectsTime-of-measurement effects reflect differences reflect differences

stemming from sociocultural, environmental, stemming from sociocultural, environmental, historical or other events at the time data are historical or other events at the time data are obtained from the participants.obtained from the participants.

The point in time in which a researcher decides The point in time in which a researcher decides to do research could lead him or her to different to do research could lead him or her to different conclusions about the phenomenon being conclusions about the phenomenon being studied.studied.

Example: Data about wage increase may be Example: Data about wage increase may be influenced by the economic conditions of that influenced by the economic conditions of that year (economic recession vs. boom)year (economic recession vs. boom)

The three building-block variables The three building-block variables (age, cohort, and time of measurement) (age, cohort, and time of measurement) can be represented in a single chart.can be represented in a single chart.

Time of MeasurementTime of Measurement

CohortCohort 20002000 20102010 20202020 20302030

19501950 5050 6060 7070 8080

19601960 4040 5050 6060 7070

19701970 3030 4040 5050 6060

19801980 2020 3030 4040 5050

Cohort is represented by the years in Cohort is represented by the years in the first column.the first column.

Time of measurement is represented Time of measurement is represented by the years across the top.by the years across the top.

Age is represented by the numbers in Age is represented by the numbers in individual cell. Computed by individual cell. Computed by subtracting the cohort year from the subtracting the cohort year from the time of measurement.time of measurement.

Confounding is any situation in which Confounding is any situation in which one cannot determine which of two or one cannot determine which of two or more effects is responsible for the more effects is responsible for the behaviors being observed.behaviors being observed.

Cross-Sectional Cross-Sectional Design Design

Longitudinal Design Longitudinal Design Sequential DesignSequential Design

Three types of research Three types of research designdesign

subjects are tested only once subjects are tested only once subjects are from different ages & subjects are from different ages &

groups groups would tell us about age differences would tell us about age differences

but not change over time but not change over time Example: 100 people (1/4 are 20, 1/4 Example: 100 people (1/4 are 20, 1/4

are 30, 1/4 are 40, 1/4 are 50) are are 30, 1/4 are 40, 1/4 are 50) are given a one time survey about given a one time survey about education. education.

Cross sectional designCross sectional design

Cross-Sectional Cross-Sectional DiagramDiagram

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Cross-Sectional Design Cross-Sectional Design ______________________________ ______________________________

AdvantagesAdvantages Popular because they are relatively in-Popular because they are relatively in-

expensive, easier to manage & less time expensive, easier to manage & less time time consuming.time consuming.

Avoid the problems of subject attrition Avoid the problems of subject attrition (subjects dropping out of the study) and (subjects dropping out of the study) and practice effects (subjects being repeatedly practice effects (subjects being repeatedly tested) that plague longitudinal studiestested) that plague longitudinal studies

Cross-Sectional Design Cross-Sectional Design ______________________________ ______________________________

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Drawbacks include the confounding of Drawbacks include the confounding of

age and cohort differences—i.e. age and cohort differences—i.e. differences among the groups maybe differences among the groups maybe due to their historical/ environmental due to their historical/ environmental events and not because of development events and not because of development process.process.

The results are thus contaminated by The results are thus contaminated by generational differences.generational differences.

Follow the same subjects over time Follow the same subjects over time Allowing change or consistency to be Allowing change or consistency to be

evaluated within the same group evaluated within the same group Issues specific to Longitudinal Issues specific to Longitudinal

Design: Design: Selective Attrition & Drop-out Selective Attrition & Drop-out Time of Measurement EffectTime of Measurement Effect

Longitudinal designLongitudinal design

Longitudinal DiagramLongitudinal Diagram________________________________________________________________

Time of TestingTime of Testing

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Longitudinal DesignLongitudinal Design______________________________ ______________________________

AdvantagesAdvantages Provide a good picture of individual Provide a good picture of individual

changes over time and developmental changes over time and developmental differences among individualsdifferences among individuals

One can look for the long-term effect of One can look for the long-term effect of earlier events, make predictions and earlier events, make predictions and observe outcomes and do retrospective observe outcomes and do retrospective analyses of developmental events to analyses of developmental events to look for patternslook for patterns

Longitudinal DesignLongitudinal Design______________________________ ______________________________

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Time consuming & expensiveTime consuming & expensive Subject attrition is a significant problem Subject attrition is a significant problem

because if too many subjects drop out (due because if too many subjects drop out (due to disinterest, moving away, death and so to disinterest, moving away, death and so on) the sample become less and less on) the sample become less and less representative representative

Failure to respond a survey is correlated Failure to respond a survey is correlated with severe disability, institutionalization with severe disability, institutionalization & death& death

Lead to bias in findingsLead to bias in findings

A combination of Cross-sectional & A combination of Cross-sectional & Longitudinal Longitudinal

Five types of Sequential Design: Five types of Sequential Design: Time-lag Time-lag Time-sequential –treat age & time as Time-sequential –treat age & time as

IVIV Cohort-sequential –treat age & cohort Cohort-sequential –treat age & cohort

as IVas IV Cross-sequential –treat cohort and Cross-sequential –treat cohort and

time as IV time as IV Panel studiesPanel studies

Sequential designSequential design

Time-Lag DiagramTime-Lag Diagram________________________________________________________________

Time of TestingTime of Testing

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Time-Sequential Time-Sequential DiagramDiagram

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Cohort-Sequential Cohort-Sequential DiagramDiagram

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Cross-Sequential Cross-Sequential DiagramDiagram

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Panel DiagramPanel Diagram

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* * Same individuals over Same individuals over timetime

Sequential DesignSequential Design____________________________ ____________________________

AdvantagesAdvantages combine some strengths of both the cross combine some strengths of both the cross

sectional and longitudinal approaches, while sectional and longitudinal approaches, while at the same time attempting to minimize the at the same time attempting to minimize the confounding of age, cohort and time of confounding of age, cohort and time of measurement influencesmeasurement influences

provide greater internal validity than either provide greater internal validity than either the traditional single-cohort longitudinal or the traditional single-cohort longitudinal or the single-time-measurement cross-sectional the single-time-measurement cross-sectional designsdesigns

Represent an important contribution of adult Represent an important contribution of adult dev. To research in developmental dev. To research in developmental psychological psychological

Sequential DesignSequential Design____________________________ ____________________________

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Its too expensive and need high Its too expensive and need high

commitment commitment The complexity has probably The complexity has probably

hindered their widespread use to hindered their widespread use to date date

Time-Lag DesignTime-Lag Design____________________________ ____________________________

AdvantagesAdvantages Provides a picture of the effects of Provides a picture of the effects of

sociohistorical change at a sociohistorical change at a particular point in developmentparticular point in development

we see how the same age group we see how the same age group behaves in different historical behaves in different historical periods and contextsperiods and contexts

Time-Lag DesignTime-Lag Design____________________________ ____________________________

DisadvantagesDisadvantages cohort and time-of-cohort and time-of-

measurement influences are measurement influences are confoundedconfounded

expensive and time consumingexpensive and time consuming Only one age is studied Only one age is studied