Featherwork: Beyond decorativeRenée Riedler1, Ellen Pearlstein2, Molly Gleeson2

1Private practice, Vienna, Austria, 2UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Investigation of the light sensitivity of feathers used in Californian material culture revealed that the culturalvalues held by these materials was crucial for their interpretation. It was evident that feathers are valuedboth for their tangible and intangible attributes and that tangible qualities, including color and shape, andmodification and attachment methods, often have meaning beyond their decorative and practical functions.Several different feather-working cultures, the birds that are important to these communities, how feathersfrom these birds are used to make featherwork, and how objects reveal changes in tradition over time areexamined. Much of this information requires reference to a combination of sources, including historical andcontemporary accounts, discussions with native featherworkers, ethnologists and ornithologists, and closeexamination of feathered objects in museum collections. This multidisciplinary approach leads to a morethorough understanding of feathered objects and aids conservators in better interpreting whethermodifications are the result of access to feathers, intentional alterations of cultural use, or museum display.

Keywords: Ethnographic, Feather, Basket, Regalia, Cultural value, Intangible heritage, Color

IntroductionThe stunning beauty of avian plumage is exceededonly by its diversity in color, shape and size.Feathers have always been prized and admired byvarious cultures around the world and incorporatedinto religious, royal, and everyday objects. In theAmericas, indigenous cultures from Alaska toPatagonia used feathers to create ceremonial regaliaand related items, with the cultural significance ofthe source birds making the feathers meaningful.The source birds and related featherwork have beenidentified through ethnographic accounts, oral tra-ditions, and by ornithologists; however, many ofthese accounts lack attention to the importance offeather choice and technological choices, and howsuch choices convey information about the use of theitems, the beliefs surrounding them, and changesoccurring within the cultures.The preservation of the tangible and intangible

properties of indigenous featherwork requires aware-ness of cultural meanings. While some expressionsaccompanying featherwork, such as performanceand song, may not leave physical evidence, othermaterial and technological information remainsembedded in feathered objects. Conservators’ closecontact with artifacts gives them a privileged positionto identify, document, research, and share materialand technological information with others in themuseum and heritage preservation communities.Increased collaborative work between conservators

and other specialists, such as ornithologists, artists,and regalia makers, has aided feather identificationand technical and cultural understanding.Furthermore, this research permits conservators toidentify historical adaptations within featherworking,to grasp insights into the privilege conferred by useof certain feathers, and to inform decisions aboutsubstituting alien materials for original feathers – forexample in a conservation treatment. Examples offeatherwork from the Americas are described to high-light aspects of the cultural value of featherwork whichis truly beyond decorative.

Feathers and material cultureCulturally significant birds in the AmericasSince pre historic times, birds and their feathers havebeen critically important among tribes in theAmericas. Birds are often associated with unique qual-ities and a connection to the creator and/or the spiritworld. Throughout North America, eagle feathers areperhaps the most culturally significant and widelyused. Entire birds, individual body parts and feathersof both the Bald Eagle and Golden Eagle are used cer-emonially and to create and embellish clothing anditems for religious practices. Other birds are moreregionally significant. For instance, in California,in addition to eagles, other important birds includethe California Condor, various species of woodpeckers,especially the Northern Flicker, Pileated Woodpecker,and Acorn Woodpecker, and several different speciesof hawk, owl, and duck, including the Mallard Duck.The scientific names for these and all other birds

Correspondence to: Renée Riedler, Czerningasse 29/2/10, 1020 Vienna,Austria. Email: Renee.Riedler@hotmail.com

© The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 2012DOI 10.1179/2047058412Y.0000000052 Contributions to the Vienna Congress 2012S244

mentioned are listed in Table 1. Not only do the feath-ers from these birds have deeper associations thansimply decorative, but their use in ceremonial regaliaimpacts condition and may involve exposure toabrasion, human sweat, and smoke, and impacts con-servation choices, as will be discussed below.In Central America, the featherworking tradition

beginning within the Aztec culture in Mexico and con-tinuing into the European period is particularly rich.In the Aztec realm, the most common feathers usedwere from the Quetzal, Scarlet Macaw, RoseateSpoonbill, Lovely Cotinga, Montezuma Oropendula,Squirrel Cuckoo, White-fronted Parrot, AltamiraOriole and local birds such as the Great-tailedGrackle, Harpy Eagle, and Golden Eagle, Heron,and Hummingbird. Colonial documents indicate thattropical feathers were actively traded throughout theAztec empire, permitting access in the central high-lands to non-local birds, and Berdan describes usageof feathers on items ranging from elite warrior cloaks

and shields to loose feathers pasted on the body foreveryday celebrations (Berdan, 2006). This infor-mation is largely based on documents such as theCodex Mendoza and the Florentine Codex (Berdan &Anawalt, 1997; Sahagún, 1982). Aztec featherworkoften incorporates trimmed and incomplete feathersamples (as in the example of feather mosaics), andbird source identification by ornithologists has beenchallenging (Berdan, 2006). Recent work by conserva-tors in collaboration with ornithologists has confirmedthe identification of feathers from two out of seven ofthe extant Pre-Columbian feather objects in museumcollections in Austria, Germany, and Mexico(Riedler, 2009; Bauernfeind, 2012; Korn, 2012).In South America, among Amazonian tribes, birds

and feathers have rich meanings linked to the culturalvalue placed on the ability of birds to ‘speak’ and sing,the ‘domestic’ association of nesting, and the evocativeability of crown feathers to move (Walker, 2010). Themost prominent feather sources are the differentlycolored Macaws (Trail, 2003). A selection of other fre-quently used feathers are those belonging to theChannel-billed Toucan, Spangled Cotinga, GreatEgret, Paradise Tanager, Bare-faced Curassow, RoseateSpoonbill, Harpy Eagle, and King Vulture (Robbins,1991). The prevalence of feathers from Macaws in cul-tural materials has focused conservation fading studieson feathers from this family (Solajic et al., 2002).

The use of feathers in material cultureCommon to all of the native cultures described here isknowledge of birds and their behavior. Birds were bothhunted and bred for their feathers, and there areexamples in each culture of domestication of birdsfor the purpose of harvesting their feathers. Birdsand their feathers are an integral part of these nativesystems and featherwork is often a significant markerof ethnic identity. Feather vestments, sometimes cover-ing the whole body, allow humans to be transformedinto birds and other entities, and thus chosenpersons, such as shamans, can serve as intermediariesbetween the human and non-human realms.Eagle-feather war bonnets, one of the most recog-

nizable items of regalia from North America, origi-nated from the Plains tribes in the nineteenth centurybut have since been adopted and used by many othertribes as well. These headdresses consist of Eagle feath-ers, with tufts of downy feathers and/or dyed horse-hair tied to their tips, attached to a hide cap, with aband decorated with quillwork or beadwork and dan-gling strips of fur or ribbons (Waldman, 2006) (Fig. 1).Male Golden Eagle feathers were used for these head-dresses, and among Plains tribes, men had to earn eachfeather so that the number of feathers, and thereforethe length of the headdress, reflect the status of thewearer (Eagle Feathers and the US Permit Process,

Table 1 Common and scientific names of culturally-significant birds in the Americas. Many species are commonto central and south America

Region Common name Scientific name

North America, withan emphasison California

Bald Eagle Haliaeetusleucocephalus

Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetoCalifornia

CondorGymnogyps

californianusNorthern Flicker Colaptes auratusPileated

WoodpeckerDryocopus pileatus

AcornWoodpecker

Melanerpesformicivorus

Mallard Duck Anas platyrhynchosCentral America Quetzal Pharomachrus

mocinnoScarlet Macaw Ara macaoRoseate

SpoonbillPlatalea ajaja

Lovely Cotinga Cotinga amabilisMontezuma

OropendulaPsarocolius

montezumaSquirrel Cuckoo Payana cayana

mexicanaWhite fronted

ParrotAmazona albifrons

Altamira Oriole Icterus gularisGreat tailed

GrackleQuiscalus mexicanus

Harpy eagle Harpia harpyjaSouth America Macaw species Ara spp. and

Anodorhynchus spp.Channel-billed

ToucanRamphastos vitellinus

SpangledCotinga

Cotinga cayana

Great Egret Casmerodius albusParadise

TanagerTangara chilensis

Bare-facedCurassow

Crax fasciolata

King Vulture Sarcoramphus papaTroupial Icterus icterus

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2008). Eagle feathers were – and are – used by manytribes to make other items, such as ceremonial fansand skirts. Not only are the feathers and the completedobjects culturally significant, but also the individualsresponsible for procuring the Eagles, and Eagle-catchingsites were accorded great respect (Eagle Feathers andthe US Permit Process, 2008). While Eagle feathersare legally protected within the United States, the cer-emonial importance of Eagle feathers allows membersof federally recognized American Indian tribes toobtain them through a permitting process adminis-tered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.Besides regalia, another pre-eminent type of North

American featherwork is feathered baskets, masteredby the Pomo tribes from the central part ofCalifornia. The collecting history of these basketswill be discussed below as it influences historical adap-tations to material practices in ways less widespreadbut as important as adjustments to the availability ofeagle feathers. The Pomo created feathered basketsbased on a coiled structure, as the coiling techniqueprovides the widest range of possible designs, in awide assortment of forms and sizes (Fig. 2). Feathersare incorporated into the baskets by catching the tipof the calamus into the stitches.Feather use among the Aztecs included the adorn-

ment of sacred deities, nobles, and high-achieving

warriors with precious feathers. Professional featherartisans (amantecas) manufactured ceremonial androyal clothing and their technique of gluing trimmedand whole feathers on to a substrate following agiven design reached the highest level of perfection.This technique appears on feather shields in combi-nation with threading and knotting feathers intotassels and nets which are attached onto the rim of areed disc (Fig. 3).

Probably the most iconic feathered items in theAmazon are feather crowns from the Bororo orKayapó tribal groups. After initiation into manhood,young men learn the technique of featherwork toprovide their family with feather items, although

Figure 1 Osage, Native American. Headdress, latenineteenth to early twentieth century. Wool, felt, cloth, GoldenEagle feathers, horse hair, glass beads, hide, weasel fur, silk,sinew (Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn Museum Collection,X1053). Photo: Justin Kerr.

Figure 2 Pomo feathered basket (California State IndianMuseum, Sacramento, 309-52-6L-243A). Photo: MollyGleeson.

Figure 3 Feather shield, Mexico, early sixteenth century.Feathers and rabbit hair (natural-colored and dyed withcochineal), leather, hide, plant fiber, reed, glue, gold sheet(Museum of Ethnology Vienna, 43.380). Photo: ChristianMendez.

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those adornments for social and religious purposeswere in general reserved for men. Within Amazonianfeatherwork construction, feathers are eithermounted to a rigid support made out of braidedplant material, attached to flexible knotted orbraided nets, or glued onto a substrate. For theBororo, the most important and symbolicallycharged feathers belong to the domestic Macawswith red tail-feathers, which are used for the spectacu-lar headdresses ( patiko) of which every clan owns upto five distinct forms (Crocker, 1985) (Fig. 4).

Feather color, attachment methods, andcultural changeFeather colorHistorically, most cultures in the Americas rely almostexclusively on naturally colored (i.e. undyed) feathers,though color modification methods developed earlyon, some in response to limited access to featherswith preferred colors. Iridescent feathers, such asthose from Hummingbirds, Quetzal, and the scalpand neck feathers of Mallard Ducks, are often particu-larly valued for their ability to change color dependingupon the angle of observation and illumination.

Feather attachments and modificationsThe arrangement of feathers, including size, shape andthe way the feathers are attached, is significant for eachtype of feathered item and determines not only decora-tive effects but also properties of movement and resili-ence. Feather regalia is not meant to be static. It ismade to be danced and each type of regalia is con-structed for a particular dance and to amplify particu-lar movements, and in some cases, imitate themovements of birds. A wide range of techniques toattach feathers is documented for several culturalgroups within North and South America,

encompassing methods of attaching single feathers,lengthening feather shafts or attaching featheredstrings to cord (Mead, 1907; Pearlstein et al., 2012).The Florentine Codex informs about the productionof feathered textiles in Mexico and provides instruc-tion in how to make feathered strings with Quetzal,Eagle, and Troupial feathers. Studying featherworkreveals how this technology contributes to the intangi-ble properties within these objects.For example, Flicker-feather headbands are an

iconic example of California ceremonial regalia whereactive head movement is involved in the dance. Theseheaddresses are made of red-orange wing and tailfeather shafts of the Northern (Red-shafted) Flickerand are used for dances portraying animal spirits,supernatural beings, and the Creator (Bates et al.,1980). The feather shafts are stripped of their vanesand stitched together to form long narrow flexiblebands. The headdresses are either worn horizontallyacross the forehead with sides flapping freely whilethe dancer moves, or worn as trailers attached to thehead and hanging down the back (Fig. 5).For other items, certain attachment methods allow

movement of single feathers independently and withthe movement of the dancer. These methods includebending the shaft over another element and tying the

Figure 5 Flicker-feather headdress worn by Maidu and Pomodancers, Big Time Festival 2008. Photo: Ellen Pearlstein.

Figure 4 Headdress. Bororo, Brazil. Macaw tail feathers,cord, palm leaf, taquara reed, down, glue (Collection ofGlenbow Museum, Calgary Canada, BE2333).

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shaft onto a fringe of fiber or hide. Movement effectscan also be enhanced by feather modification, andthe size of the feather matters as well. Feather head-dresses worn during the Northern California tribes’White Deerskin dance have openwork crochetedcotton thread trailers with feather fringes (Fig. 6).Feathers from various species are used, and somefeathers are attached in pairs to enlarge the size ofthe fringe element, while others are trimmed to createan overall uniformity of size (Gleeson et al., 2012).

Adaptations and replacements for traditionalfeathersCultural contact within the Americas has been respon-sible for many changes in the availability of materials,and technical modifications to native culturalexpressions. Many tribes throughout the Americasexperienced devastation from colonial control, theestablishment of the mission system, and also fromintroduced disease. Within North America, issues offorced displacement and the establishment of reser-vations impacted traditional cultures. Examiningmuseum collections reveals the modifications in feath-erwork techniques over time, making these objectsevidence of cultural change.In California, while the manufacture of feathered

baskets has long been part of the cultural traditionsof some tribal groups, most if not all of the Pomo feath-ered baskets in collections today were made for sale aspart of a commercial market which began in 1889(Smith-Ferri, 1998; McLendon, 1993). This periodwas marked by the influx of commercially availablematerials, a decrease in the availability of birds, and,soon after, the establishment of new wildlife conserva-tion laws. Despite the market influences and culturaltrauma, the Pomo people maintained tradition asmuch as possible and there was a continued use of tra-ditional feathers during the height of the basketmarket. As the new wildlife protection laws tookeffect, weavers were forced to adapt, and began usingfeathers from non-traditional birds in their baskets,

including Pheasant feathers. It is evident that commer-cially dyed feathers were available during this time butthere are only a few rare examples of baskets that incor-porate them, perhaps indicating that there was a resist-ance to using these readily available materials.

In California and elsewhere in North America, non-traditional, as well as dyed and painted feathers havebeen increasingly used for the manufacture of feather-work. Eagle feathers (because of their protected status)are probably the type most widely replicated by paintingmarkings on other non-protected feathers. Resourcesexist to assist featherworkers in making imitation Eaglefeathers (Forsythe, 2010) and a Google Shoppingsearch undertaken on 3 October 2011 for ‘eagle feathers’produced 10 200 sites each offering reproduction Eaglefeathers or instruction in their making.

Influence of feather changes on documentationand conservationThe identification of specific feathers, along with theirmethods of attachment, can contribute to the ways inwhich ethnographic examples are interpreted histori-cally and culturally. Such adaptations include theintroduction of dyed feathers within Pomo basketsand painted feathers in place of Eagle feathers, andthe use of these imitation feathers conveys differentcultural meanings about access.

Approaches to the conservation of feathered items inmuseum collections often include cleaning (Mason &Graham, 2005), and may include steps to add color(Palumbo, 2012) and to replace parts or all ofmissing feathers (Lewarne & Lin, 2011). The presenceof painted or dyed feathers where natural undyedexamples are expected will influence cleaningmethods chosen. For instance, white feathers paintedto imitate Eagle feathers require markedly differentcare practices from unpainted feathers whose colorsystem is based on melanin biopigments (Fonicello,2010). Ironically, the painted faux Eagle feathers arelikely to be more susceptible to both environmentaldamage and to solvent cleaning, though their useconfers a different historical and cultural context.

Decisions made to replace missing feathers, or torestore color to feathers, will undoubtedly be informedby the context of the items on which the feathersappear, especially if the feathers have meaningsbeyond decorative. Feathers on taxidermy specimensdesigned to convey coloration on live animals, andon European costume materials where the designers’intentions are essential, have different meaningswithin museum collections than feathers found onethnographic materials, where feathers have deeperconnections to cultural creation. Documentation oforiginal attachment methods is especially criticalwhen stabilization techniques might impact theinterpretation of earlier use.

Figure 6 White Deerskin Dance Headdress, late ninteenth toearly twentieth century (San Diego Museum of Man,1961.030.0002). Photo: Molly Gleeson.

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ConclusionsCultural decisions made in the selection of feathersand the ways they are used are significant for theinterpretation, documentation, and conservation offeatherwork in collections. While decorative aspectsof feathers are important, the connection of birds tothe spirit world informs the selection of plumage forcultural creation, and forms a tangible representationof valued intangible aspects of birds, including song,motion, and flight. Records of feather types used inmaterial cultural should be understood within a chan-ging landscape; featherworkers in the Americas haveresponded to political, legal, and environmentalchanges and to changes in religious practice that influ-ence material choices and forms of expression. Withinthis context, feather identification can be used to dis-tinguish items made by traditionalists from thosemade by workers who were either open to adaptationor obliged to change their materials. Feather attach-ment methods examined in the context of theobject’s original purpose help indicate where feathermovement, and the ability to see both sides of thefeathers, is particularly important. Legal changes inanimal protection measures throughout the Americashave changed the way feathers are procured, andhave created a market for reproductions made ofuncontrolled feathers. Inclusion of these imitationfeathers in collection material may indicate that theitem was made for sale, was commissioned, or hashad feathers added or replaced. Conservators,especially those working in collaboration with feather-workers, are in an ideal position to record and collab-orate in the interpretation of this evidence, especially ifthey become familiar with values assigned to featherselection and use within the culture.

AcknowledgementsThe authors owe thanks to many individuals forsharing their knowledge and expertise on feathers,and to several museums and their staff for access tocollections in the United States. The authors wouldalso like to acknowledge the Brooklyn Museum, theGlenbow Museum, the Museum of EthnologyVienna, the California State Indian Museum and theSan Diego Museum of Man for permission for photo-graphic reproductions.

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