Famous Men of Ancient Rome. Lives of Julius Caesar, Nero, Marcus Aurelius and Others
Transcript of Famous Men of Ancient Rome. Lives of Julius Caesar, Nero, Marcus Aurelius and Others
BibliographicalNoteThisDoveredition,firstpublishedin2005,isanunabridgedrepublicationofFamousMenofRome,originallypublishedbyAmericanBookCompany,NewYork,1904.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataHaaren,JohnH.(JohnHenry),1855–1916.
[FamousmenofRome]
FamousmenofancientRome:livesofJuliusCaesar,Nero,MarcusAureliusandothers/JohnH.HaarenandA.B.Poland.
p.cm.
“AnunabridgedrepublicationofFamousmenofRome,originallypublishedbyAmericanBookCompany,NewYork,1904.”
9780486174600
1.Rome—Biography—Juvenileliterature.2.Rome—History—Juvenileliterature.1.Poland,AddisonB.II.Title.
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920.037-dc22
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Preface
Thestudyofhistory,likethestudyofalandscape,shouldbeginwiththemostconspicuousfeatures.Notuntilthesehavebeenfixedinmemorywillthelesserfeaturesfallintotheirappropriateplacesandassumetheirrightproportions.
Inordertoattractandholdthechild’sattention,eachconspicuousfeatureofhistorypresentedtohimshouldhaveanindividualforitscenter.Thechildidentifieshimselfwiththepersonagepresented.ItisnotRomulusorHerculesorCæsarorAlexanderthatthechildhasinmindwhenhereads,buthimself,actingundertheprescribedconditions.
Prominenteducators,appreciatingthesetruths,havelongrecognizedthevalueofbiographyasapreparationforthestudyofhistoryandhavegivenitanimportantplaceintheirschools.
TheformerpracticeinmanyelementaryschoolsofbeginningthedetailedstudyofAmericanhistorywithoutanypreviousknowledgeofgeneralhistorylimitedthepupil’srangeofvision,restrictedhissympathies,andlefthimwithoutmaterialforcomparisons.Moreover,itdeniedtohimaknowledgeofhisinheritancefromtheGreekphilosopher,theRomanlawgiver,theTeutonicloveroffreedom.HencetherecommendationsostronglyurgedinthereportoftheCommitteeofTen—andemphasized,also,inthereportoftheCommitteeofFifteen—thatthestudyofGreek,Roman,andmodernEuropeanhistoryintheformofbiographyshouldprecedethestudyofdetailedAmericanhistoryinourelementaryschools.TheCommitteeofTenrecommendsaneightyears’courseinhistory,beginningwiththefifthyearinschoolandcontinuingtotheendofthehighschoolcourse.Thefirsttwoyearsofthiscoursearegivenwhollytothestudyofbiographyandmythology.TheCommitteeofFifteenrecommendsthathistorybetaughtinallthegradesoftheelementaryschoolandemphasizesthevalueofbiographyandofgeneralhistory.
Theseriesofhistoricalstoriestowhichthisvolumebelongswaspreparedinconformitywiththeforegoingrecommendationsandwiththebestpracticeofleadingschools.
Teachersoftenfinditimpracticabletogivetothestudyofmythologyandbiographyaplaceofitsowninanalreadyovercrowdedcurriculum.Insuchcasestheyprefertocorrelatehistorywithreadingandforthispurposethevolumesofthisseriessupplymostdesirabletext-books.Ithasbeentheaimoftheauthorstomakeaninterestingstoryofeachman’slifeandtotellthesestoriesinastylesosimplethatpupilsinthelowergradeswillreadthemwithpleasure,andsodignifiedthattheymaybeusedwithprofitastext-booksforreading.
TableofContents
TitlePageCopyrightPagePreface
ROMULUSNUMAPOMPILIUSTHEHORATIIANDTHECURIATIITHETARQUINSJUNIUSBRUTUSHORATIUSMUCIUSTHELEFT-HANDEDCORIOLANUSTHEFABIICINCINNATUSCAMILLUSMANLIUSTORQUATUSAPPIUSCLAUDIUSCÆCUSREGULUSSCIPIOAFRICANUSCATOTHECENSORTHEGRACCHIMARIUSSULLAPOMPEYTHEGREATJULIUSCÆSARCICEROAUGUSTUSNEROTITUSTRAJANMARCUSAURELIUS
CONSTANTINETHEGREATENDOFTHEWESTERNEMPIRE
ROMULUS
IMany,manyyearsago,inthepleasantlandofItaly,therewasalittlecitycalledAlba.Itstoodonthesunnysideofamountain,neartheRiverTiberandnotfarfromtheMediterraneanSea.Inthiscityandaroundthemountainlivedabrave,intelligentpeopleknownasLatins.Severalothertribesinhabitedtheadjacentmountainsandplains.
TheLatinswereruledbykings,andoneoftheirkingsinveryearlytimeswasnamedÆ-ne’as.HewasafamousTrojanchiefwhohadcomeovertheseastoItalyandsettledtherewithhisfamilyandfriendsafterTroywasdestroyedbytheGreeks.
AgreatmanyyearsafterthedeathofÆneasoneofhisdescendantsnamedPro’caswaskingofAlba.Heruledwiselyandwellforalongtime,andhisrathersmallkingdomonthemountainside,withitswheat-fieIdsandvineyards,wasveryprosperous.Hehadtwosons,onenamedNu’mi-tor,andtheotherA-mu’li-us.AsNumitorwastheelderhewasheirtohisfather’sthrone,butwhenKingProcasdiedAmuliusseizedthekingdombyforceandmadehimselfking.
ThenNumitor,withhistwochildren,aboyandagirl,lefttheking’spalaceatAlbaandwenttoresideonafarmashortdistanceaway.
IIAmuliuswasnowking,buthedidnotfeelquitehappy.HewasmuchtroubledaboutNumitor’ssonanddaughter.Theson,hethought,mightsomedayclaimtherighttobekingasheirofhisfather,orthedaughtermightmarryandhaveasonwhocouldbecomekingasgrandchildofNumitor.
TopreventeitherofthesethingsfromhappeningAmuliushadNumitor’ssonsecretlyputtodeath,andheappointedthedaughterSyl’vi-atobeapriestess,oranattendant,inthetempleofthegoddessVes’ta.Onlyyounggirlswereappointedattendantsinthistemple,andtheyhadtotakeavowthattheywould
notmarryforthirtyyears.TheywerecalledVestalVirgins.Itwastheirdutytokeepafireburningcontinuallyonthealtarofthegoddess.ThiswascalledtheSacredFire,anditwasbelievedthatifitwentoutsomegreatdisasterwouldhappentothecity.
AmuliusnowthoughttherewasnothingtohinderhimfrombeingkingofAlbaallhislife.ButonedaythegodMarscamedowntothecityfromhispalaceonahighmountaintopandsawSylviaasshewentoutofthetempletogetwateratawell.Hefelldeeplyinlovewithher.Shealsofellinlovewiththegod,forhehadtheappearanceofahandsomeyoungman.Theyweremarriedsecretly,andincourseoftimeSylviahadbeautifultwinboys.WhenAmuliusheardofthishegaveordersthatSylviashouldbeputtodeathforbreakinghervowandthatthetwoinfantsshouldbethrownintotheTiber.Thesewickedorderswerecarriedout,fornoonedaredtodisobeytheking.
Fortunately,however,thebabeshadbeenplacedinastoutbasket,whichfloatedalongtheTiberuntilitwascarriedbythewaterstothefootofahillcalledPal’a-tineHill.Herethehugerootsofawildfig-treeupsetthebasket,andthelittleoneswerethrownoutupontheriverbank.
Atthismomentagreatshe-wolfcamestrollingdownthehilltodrinkattheriver’sedge.Sheheardthefeeblecriesoftheinfantsandwenttotheplacewheretheylayhelplessonthewetsands.Shetouchedthemgentlywithherroughpaws,turnedthemoverandlickedtheirfacesandplumpbodies.Perhapsshethoughttheyweresomeofherowncubs.Atanyrate,shecarriedthebabesupthehilltohercaveunderalargerock.Thereshefedthemasshefedherowncubsandseemedpleasedtohavethemnearher.Itissaidthatawoodpeckerflewinandoutofthecavemanytimesaday,bringingberriesfortheboystoeat.
OnemorningasFaus’tu-lus,theherdsmanofKingAmulius,wasgoingoverPalatineHilllookingforcattlethathadgoneastrayhesawtheboysplayingwiththewolfatthemouthofhercave.Hefrightenedthewolfawayandtooktheboystohishome.Hiswifepitiedthelittlefoundlingsandcaredforthemasthoughtheywereherownchildren.
TheherdsmannamedthemRom’u-lusandRe’mus.Theygrewuptobestrong,handsomeyouths,braveandkind.Untiltheyweretwentyyearsoldtheylivedwiththeherdsmanandhelpedhiminhiswork,androamedoverthehillslight-heartedandfree.
DuringalltheseyearsNumitorlivedonhisfarm,andhisbrotherAmuliusremainedkingofAlba.Numitordidnotknowthathistwograndsonshadbeen
savedfromawaterygraveandwereliviingsoneartohim.
ButonedayRemushadaquarrelwithsomeoftheherdsmenofNumitorandtheytookhimprisoner.TheythenbroughthimbeforeNumitor,whowasmuchimpressedwiththenobleappearanceoftheyouthandaskedhimwhohewas.
RemustoldallheknewabouthimselfandRomulus;howtheyhadbeenfoundatthecaveoftheshe-wolfandhadbeenrearedbytheking’sherdsman.JustthenFaustulusandRomuluscamesearchingforRemus,andwerefullofjoywhentheyfoundthatnoharmhadcometohim.Numitorquestionedtheherdsmanaboutthefindingofthetwins,andafterhearinghisstorywasconvincedthatRomulusandRemuswereSylvia’sboys,whohadbeenstrangelysavedfromthewrathoftheircrueluncle.Hewasveryhappyatfindinghisgrandsonsandhethankedtheherdsmanforhisgoodcareofthem.
RomulusandRemuswerealsoveryhappyatfindingagrandfatherandatthesuddenchangeoftheirfortune.WhentheyweretoldaboutAmuliusandhiswickeddeeds,theyresolvedtopunishhimforthemurderoftheirmother.SowithafewfollowerstheyrushedtothepalaceatAlbaandenteredtheking’schamber.
“Behold!weareSylvia’ssonswhomyouthoughtyouhadkilled,”theyshoutedtoAmulius,ashestartedupinalarmattheirentrance.“Youkilledourmotherandyoushalldieforit.”
Beforehecouldutterawordtheysprangonhimwithdrawnswordsandcuthisheadoff.ThentheybroughtNumitortothepalace,andthepeoplewelcomedhimastherightfulkingofAlba.
IIIAfteralittletimethetwobrothersthoughttheywouldbuildacityonPalatineHill,wheretheshe-wolfhadnursedthem.Sotheywenttothehillandselectedasite.Thentheybegantotalkofanamefortheircity.
“Iwillbekingandgivethenewcitymyname,”saidRomulus.
“No,”criedRemus.“Iwillbethekingandnamethecityaftermyself.Ihavejustasmuchrightasyouhave.”
Sothebrothersarguedforawhile,butatlasttheyagreedtosettlethematterinthisway:
AtmidnightRomuluswastostandonPalatineHill,andRemuswastostand
onanotherhillashortdistanceoff.Thentheyweretoaskthegodstoshowthemasignoffavorinthesky,andthefirstwhoshouldseeanythingveryremarkablewastonamethenewcityandbeitsking.Sotheywenttowatch,butnothingappeareduntilsunriseofthesecondday,
whenRemussawsixgreatvulturesflyingacrosstheskyfromnorthtosouth.HeranswiftlytoPalatineHillandtoldRomulusofwhathehadseen.Butjustthentwelvevultures,oneafteranother,flewhighovertheheadofRomulusinanalmostunbrokenlineandweresoonlosttoview.
ThenRomulusclaimedthathehadthefavorofthegods,asmorebirdshadappearedtohim,butRemusclaimedthatthegodsfavoredhim,asthebirdshadappearedtohimfirst.Romulusaskedtheopinionofsomeofhisfriends,andastheyallagreedthathewasrightinhisclaimhepaidnofurtherattentiontoRemus,butbegantolayoutthenewcity.HegaveitthenameofRoma,orRome,afterhimself.WithaplowhemarkedoutthespaceonPalatineHillandalongthebanksoftheTiber,andhebuiltalowwallroundabouttoprotectthecityfrominvaders.
OnedaywhiletheworkwasgoingonRemuscamebyinaverybittermood.HewasstillangrywithRomulus.Helaughedscornfullyatthelittlewallandsaidtohisbrother:
“Shallsuchadefenceasthiskeepyourcity?Itmaypreventchildrenfromgettingin,butnotmen,fortheycanjumpoverit.”
Sosaying,Remusputhishandsonthewallandsprangoverit,toshowthathiswordsweretrue.Romulus,inasuddenoutburstofrage,struckhimontheheadwithaspadeandinstantlykilledhim,atthesametimecryingout:
“Soperishanyonewhoshallhereafterattempttoleapovermywall.”
ThenRomuluscontinuedhiswork.Whilehewasbuildinghiswallhealsobuiltsomehouses.Thefirsthouseswerenothingmorethanwoodhutscoveredwithmudandstraw.ButincourseoftimetheRomanshadhousesofstone,andtheybuiltfinetemplesandtheatresandstreetsandsquares,andatlastRomebecamethegreatestandgrandestcityinthewholeworld.
IVRomulusfoundedRomeintheyear753B.C.Afterhehadbuilthiscityhehadsomedifficultyingettingpeopletoliveinit.Hehadonlyafewfollowersandwasnotabletoobtainanymore.Hedecided,therefore,tomakeRomeaplaceof
refuge,towhichpeoplewhohadgotintotroubleinothercountriesmightcomeforsafety.Andsowhenthosewhohadcommittedcrimeinotherplaces,andhadtoflee
toescapepunishment,foundoutthatRomuluswouldgivethemarefuge,theycameinlargenumberstohiscity.Peoplealsocamewhohadbeendrivenfromhomebyenemies,orhadrunawayforonereasonoranother.Itwasnotlong,therefore,untilRomewasfullofmen.Thereweremenfrommanydifferenttribesandcountries.ThustheRomannationbegan,andforyearsitsteadilygrewandprospered.
ButtheRomansweremuchtroubledaboutonething.Agreatmanyofthemhadnowives,andtheycouldnotgetany,becausethewomenoftheneighboringtribeswouldnotmarrythem,fortheRomanshadabadname.Romuluswasveryanxiousthathispeopleshouldhavegoodwives,buthowtheyshouldgetthemgreatlypuzzledhimforalongtime.Atlasthehituponaplanandbeganatoncetocarryitout.
HesentmessengerstothecitiesallaroundtoannouncethatonacertaindayagreatfestivalinhonorofthegodJu’pi-terwouldbeheldontheplaininfrontofRome.Thereweretobegames,combats,horse-racing,andothersports.Thepeoplewereinvitedtoattendthefestivalandalsototakepartinthecontestsfortheprizes.
WhenthefestivaldaycameamultitudeofmenandwomenfromfarandnearassembledbeforethewallsofRome.Hundredsofprettygirlswerethereinfinedresses.AgreatmanycamefromtheS ’binetribe.ThiswasatribeofwarriorsthatlivedonamountainnearRome.
SuddenlyRomulusblewaloudblastuponahorn.Then,quickasaflash,theRomansseizedthegirlsandborethemofftoRome.
TheSabinesweregreatlyenragedatthis,andtheirking,Ti’tusTa’ti-us,raisedalargearmyandatoncebeganawaragainsttheRomans.Thewarwentonforthreeyears,buttheSabinesweresostrongthatRomuluscouldnotdefeattheminthefield.Hethereforewithdrewhisarmyintothecity.KingTatiusquicklymarchedafterhim,resolvedtotakeRomeorperishintheattempt.
NowRomulushaderectedastrongfortressonahillnearthePalatine,tokeepinvadersfromRome.ThehillwascalledtheSa-tur’ni-anHill,andthefortresswasinchargeofabraveRomancaptain,whohadadaughternamedTar-pe’i-a.
WhentheSabinesreachedthisfortresstheycouldgonofurther.They
marchedupanddownseekingforaspotwheretheymightforceanentrance,buttheycouldfindnone.Therewasasmall,barredgateinthefortress,andthroughthisgateTarpeiacameouttogetwater.KingTatiussawher.Heatoncesteppedforwardandsaid:
“Fairmaiden,openthegateandletusin.Ifyoudoyoushallhaveforyourrewardanythingyouask.”
TarpeiawasgazingwithadmirationatthebraceletsofgoldwhichtheSabinesworeontheirarms.
“Iwillopenthegate,”saidshe,“ifyouwillgivemesomeofthosethingswhichyoursoldierswearupontheirarms.”
KingTatiusagreed,andTarpeiaopenedthegate.AstheSabinesstrodepastthesillymaideneachthrewather,nothisbracelet,buthisshield.
Theshieldthenusedwasroundoroblongandmadeofbronze,orofwicker-workorox-hidecoveredwithmetalplates.Ithadtwohandlesattheback,andthesoldierhelditwithhislefthandandarmsothathecouldmoveitupordowntosavehisheadorbreastfromblows.
Tarpeiastoodinamazementastheheavyshieldsbegantopileuparoundher.Onestruckher,andthenanotherandanother.Atlastshefelltothegroundandwassooncrushedtodeath.
WhenthesoldierssawthatTarpeiawasdead,theytookuptheshieldstheyhadthrownather.Thentheyhurledherbodyfromthetopofagreatrockthatwasnearthegateshehadopened.TherockwasafterwardsknownastheTarpeianRock,andforhundredsofyearsthepunishmentfortraitorsinRomewastobethrownfromthisrock.
AssoonastheypassedthefortresstheSabinesrandowntheSaturnianHilltomakeanattackonRome.ButRomulusandhisbandofwarriorsbravelycameoutofthecitytodrivebacktheenemy.Thetwoforcesmetinthevalley,andthenafiercebattlebegan.
Butwhiletheywerefightingacrowdofexcitedwomencamerunningfromthecity.TheyweretheSabinewomenwhomtheRomanshadcarriedoff.Someofthemhadtheirinfantsintheirarmsandtheyrushedbetweenthelinesofsoldiersandbeggedthatthefightshouldstop.
“Donotfightanymoreforus,”theysaidtotheirfathersandbrothers.“WelovetheRomanswehavemarried.Theyhavebeengoodtous,andwedonot
wishtoleavethem.”
Ofcourse,thissettledthematter.RomulushadatalkwithKingTatius,andtheyagreednottofightanymore.Theyalsoagreedthatthetwonationsshouldbeasone.Theyjoinedtheirgovernmentsandtheirarmies,andeachofthekingshadequalpower.
SoonafterwardsKingTatiusdied.ThenRomulusruledalonefornearlyfortyyears.Hewasawiseandjustkinganddidagreatdealofgoodforhispeople.HeestablishedabodycalledtheSenate,tohelphiminimportantaffairsofgovernment.ltwascalledtheSenatefromsenex,theLatinwordforanoldman.ltwasformedofthechiefsoroldmenoftheearliestsettlersinRome.Thedescendantsofthosesettlerswerecalledpatricians,orfathers,fromtheLatinwordpater,afather.Theywerethenobles,orupperclass,inRome.Theordinarycitizenswerecalledplebeians,fromplebs,theLatinwordforthecommonpeople.
RomulustookcaretotrainuptheyoungRomanstobegoodsoldiers.Outsidethecity,alongthebankoftheTiber,therewasagreatplainwhichinlatertimeswascalledCam’pusMar’ti-us,orFieldofMars.HeretheRomansoldiersweredrilled.Theyweretaughthowtousethespearandthejavelinandtheswordandtheshield.Theywerealsoexercisedinrunningandjumping,andwrestlingandswimming,andcarryingheavyloads.Thustheyoungmenweremadefittobearthehardshipsofwarandtofightandwinbattlesfortheircountry.
ItisrelatedthatinhisoldageRomulussuddenlydisappearedfromtheearth.Hecalledhispeopletogetheronagreatfieldoneday,andwhilehewasspeakingtothemaviolentstormcameon.Therainfellintorrents,andthelightningandthunderweresoterriblethatthepeoplefledtotheirhomes.
Whenthestormwasoverthepeoplewentbacktothefield,butRomuluswasnowheretobefound.Thenitwassaidthathisfather,thegodMars,hadtakenhimuptothecloudsinagoldenchariot.
NextmorningatearlydawnaRomancitizennamedJu’li-ussawafiguredescendingfromtheheavens.IthadtheappearanceofRomulus,anditapproachedJuliusandsaid:
“GoandtellmypeoplethatitisthewillofthegodsthatRomeshallbethegreatestcityoftheworld.Letthembebraveandwarlike,andnohumanpowershallbeabletoconquerthem.”
AfterwardstheRomansworshipedRomulusasagod.Theyworshipedhim
underthenameQuir’i-nus,whichwasoneofthenamesofthegodMars,andtheybuiltatempletohimonahillwhichwascalledtheQuir’i-nalHill.
NUMAPOMPILIUS
IForayearafterthedisappearanceofRomulustherewasnokingofRome.ThecitywasruledbytheSenate.Butthepeoplewerenotsatisfied.Theypreferredtoberuledbyoneman,and,thoughtheyhadtherighttoelectakingthemselves,theyleftthechoicetotheSenate.TheSenatechoseNu’maPom-pil’i-us,averygoodandwiseman,whobelongedtothenationoftheSabines.
ThefirstthingthatNumadidafterlearningthathehadbeenchosenkingwastoconsulttheaugurs,tofindoutifitwasthewillofthegodsthatheshouldbetherulerofRome.
Theaugurswerewhatweshouldcallfortune-tellers.AnumberofthemlivedinRome.Theyweremuchrespectedandoccupiedalargetempleattheexpenseofthepublic.Theypretendedthatbywatchingtheskyandobservinghowbirdsandanimalsactedtheycouldtellwhatwouldhappentopeopleandtonations.Thenwhentheywerealonetheywouldhaveagreatdealoffunoverthetrickstheyplayeduponthefoolishpeople.
Numamademanyimportantchangesattheverybeginningofhisrule.BeforehecametothethroneRomanyoungmenwerebroughtuptonobusinessbutwar.ItwasconsidereddisgracefulforaRomancitizen,whetherrichorpoor,toworkatanytradeormanufacture.Theslaves,whowerepersonstakenprisonersinwars,didallthehardwork.Theymadealltheclothing,tools,arms,andhouseholdarticles.Theycookedandservedthemeals,andweregeneralservantsfortheRomanfamilies.Romancitizensmight,however,withoutbeingdegradedworkonfarmsandvineyards,andmanyofthemmadetheirlivinginthisway.
ShortlyafterKingNumabeganhisreignhedividedsomeofthepubliclandsintosmallfarmsandgaveoneofthesefarmstoeverypoorRoman.Thepubliclandswerelandsthatbelongedtothenationandnottoprivatepersons.
Itwasratherhardatfirstforthenew-madefarmerstobecontentedontheirfarmsandtodogoodwork.Theyweremostlysoldiersandhadverylittleknowledgeofanythingexceptmarchingandfighting.Butitwasnotlongbefore
theybegantounderstandwhatablessingitistobeself-supportingandindependent.Theirlittlefarmswerepleasanthomes.Theybegantolovetheirnewlifeandsoonwereabletoraiseenoughforthesupportofthemselvesandtheirfamilies,withsomethingtospare.
IIKingNumamademanygoodlaws.Theselawswereengravedontabletsofbrassandatcertaintimeswerereadandexplainedtothepeoplebylawyers.
NumawasveryfriendlywiththepeopleofthecountriessurroundingRome.Hegavethemhelpintimesoftroubleandwouldneverlistentoanytalkofwarwiththem.DuringthemanyyearsthathewaskingRomehadnoenemiesandnowars.
Inasacredgrove,justoutsidethewallsofRome,therelivedinahandsomegrotto,orcavern,abeautifulwomannamedE-ge’ri-a.Somepersonscalledheragoddess,whileothersthoughtshewasafairy.Sheseemedtohaveagreatknowledgeofmagicandcoulddowonderfulthings.Whenevershecalledtothesong-birdstheywouldcomeflyingaroundher.Theywouldalsoperchonherheadandshouldersandhands,andsingtheirsweetestsongs.Eventhefierceanimalsofthewoodswereherfriends,andgreatbearsandwolveswouldlieatherfeetforhoursandpurrlikecats.
Thismysteriouswoman-goddess,orfairy,orwhatevershewas,greatlylovedandhonoredgoodKingNuma,andatlasttheyweremarried.Thenshetaughthimmanyofthemagicalsecretsshepossessed.Hecarefullystudiedthelessonsshegavehim,andintimehewasabletodowonderfulthingshimself.
IIITheRomanswereearnestworshipersofthegodsandgoddesses.Theybelievedthatthereweremanysuchbeings,andtheyhadmanygrandtemplesforreligiousservice.
KingNumaalwayspaidgreatattentiontoreligion.Heappointedalargenumberofofficialstotakecareofthetemples,andtoseethatallthesacredceremonieswereproperlycarriedout.Hewasconstantandfaithfulinhisownworshipandthus,byhisexample,graduallyinducedthewholeRomanpeopletobecomeattentivetotheirreligion.
ThegreatestofthegodsthattheRomansbelievedinwasthegodJupiter.He
wassupposedtoruleboththeskyandtheearth.Hewassopowerfulthathecouldsendthunderboltsfromtheheavens,andmaketheearthtremblebyhisnod.HehadawifenamedJu’nowhohadagreatdealtodowithmanagingtheaffairsoftheearth.ItwasatonetimebelievedthatJupiterresidedwithmanyothergodsonthetopofahighmountaininGreece.Thismountainwassothicklycoveredbycloudsthatthegodscouldnotbeseen.Buttheycouldseeeverythingthattookplaceontheearth.
JupiterhadtwobrothersnamedNep’tuneandPlu’to.Neptunewasthegodofthesea.Helivedinagrand,goldenpalaceatthebottomoftheMediterranean.Heruledeverythingunderanduponthewatersoftheworld.Nowandthenhesailedovertheoceaninagrandchariotdrawnbylargefishcalleddolphins.Whenhewasangryhecausedtheseatoriseinhugewaves.
Pluto,theotherbrotherofJupiter,wasthegodofH ’des,orthelandofthedead.Hishomewasfardownintheearth,whereallwasdarkandgloomy.TheRomansbelievedthatwhenpeoplediedtheywereborneawaytothegloomykingdomofPluto.
TheotherprincipalgodswereMars,Mer’cu-ry,Vul’can,A-pol’lo,andJa’nus.
Marswasthegodofwar,andwasespeciallyhonoredinRomebecauseitwasbelievedthathewasthefatherofRomulus.Certaindaysoftheyearweremadefestivaldaysinhishonor,andthenthereweresplendidprocessions,songsofpraise,andreligiousdances.
Mercury,thesonofJupiter,wasthegodofeloquenceandcommerce.Hewasalsothemessengeroftheothergods.Hewasgenerallyrepresentedasflyingswiftlythroughtheair,carryingmessagesfromplacetoplace.Onhisheadandfeetweresmallwings,andinhishandheboreagoldenstaffwithserpentstwinedaroundit.
Vulcanwasaskillfulworkerinmetals.Hehadagreatforgeintheheartofaburningmountain,wherehemadewonderfulthingsofiron,copper,andgold.Helookedafterthewelfareofblacksmiths,coppersmiths,andgoldsmiths,andwastheirspecialgod.
Apollo,alsocalledPhœ’bus,whichmeantthesun,wasthegodofday.Hegavelightandheattotheworld.Hewasalsothegodofmusic,archery,andmedicine.HissisterDi-a’nawasthemoongoddessorgoddessofthenight.Shewasalsothegoddessofhunting.Inpicturessheissometimesrepresentedwithaquiverofarrowsoverhershoulderandholdingastagbythehorns.
ThegodJanuswasverymuchhonoredbytheRomans.Itwasbelievedthatthisgodpresidedoverthebeginningofeveryundertaking,andsowhentheRomansbegananyimportantworkorbusinesstheyprayedfirsttoJanus.ForthisreasonthefirstmonthorbeginningoftheyearwascalledthemonthofJanus,orJanuary.Januswasalsothegodofgatesanddoors.Instatuaryandpicturesheisoftenshownwithtwofaceslookinginoppositedirections,becauseeverydoorfacestwoways—outwardandinward.
NumaPompiliusbuiltatempleinhonorofJanus.Thedoorofthistemplewasalwaysopenintimeofwar,asasignthatthegodhadgoneouttohelptheRomans.Intimeofpeacethedoorwasshut.
TheRomansalsobelievedinVe’nus,thegoddessoflove;Mi-ner’va,thegoddessofwisdom;Flora,thegoddessofflowers,andmanyothers.
TheRomanshadnospecialday,suchasourSunday,forreligiousservice,buttheirtemples(exceptthetempleofJanus)wereopeneveryday.Theyhadprayersandsongs,andsometimeswhattheycalledsacreddances.Theyalsomadeofferingstothegods,suchasfruitsorvegetables,andoxen,lambs,orgoats.Theofferingswentfinallyintothehandsofthepriestsofthetemples.
NumaPompiliusreignedfornearlyhalfacentury,andunderhimtheRomanswereapeaceful,prosperous,andhappypeople.
THEHORATIIANDTHECURIATII
IThethirdkingofRomewasTul’lusHos-til’i-us.InhisreignaremarkablecombattookplacebetweenthreeRomanbrothersandthreeLatinbrothers.Thecombatcameaboutinthisway:
ForyearsthepeopleofRomeandthepeopleofAlba,alsocalledLatins,ashasbeenalreadysaid,werecontinuallyquarreling.Theywouldinvadeandplundereachother’slands.Atlast,aftermanypettycontests,warwasdeclaredbetweenthetwonations.
KingTullusmarchedtheRomanarmytotheborderofAlba,butherehisprogresswasstoppedbyagreatforceofLatins,underthecommandofMet’ti-us,theAlbanking.
TulluslookedatthestronglinesofLatinsoldiers,standingfirmandresolutetoresisttheadvanceoftheRomans,andthoughtthatitmightbewelltohaveatalkwithMettiustoseewhethertheycouldnotagreeonsomewayofsettlingthequarrelwithoutafightbetweenthetwoarmies.SohesentforMettiusandtheytalkedthematterover.Mettiusalsowishedverymuchtoavoidabattle,andhesaidtoTullus:
“Woulditnotbewelltofightinsuchawaythatonlyafewofoursoldierswouldbekilledinsteadofmany?Myplanisthis:YoushallselectthreeofthebestfightingmenintheRomanarmy,andIwillselectthebestthreeinthearmyofAlba.Thesixmenshallfightinthepresenceofthetwoarmies.IftheRomanswinAlbawillsubmittoRome;butiftheLatinswinthenRomemustsubmittoAlba.Whatsayyoutotheplan?”
“Itisagoodone,”saidKingTullus,“andIagreetoit.Maythebestmenwin!”
Withthesewordstheyseparated,andwenttoprepareforthecombatonwhich
wastodependthefateofthetwonations.
IITheRomansselectedastheirchampionsthreebrothersbelongingtoafamilyknownastheHoratiusfamily.ThebrotherswerecalledtheHo-ra’ti-ibecausethiswordisthepluralformofHoratius.TheHoratiibrothersweretall,handsomemen,withwonderfulstrength,endurance,andcourage.
TheAlbansalsoselectedthreebrothersastheirchampions.TheywerecalledtheCu-ri-a’ti-i.Theywerebold,skillfulsoldiers,famousformanlybeautyandstrength,andwerechampionswellworthytofightforanation.
WhenallwasreadytheHoratiiandtheCuriatiiadvancedtothecentreofalargefieldandtooktheirplaces.Theycarriedshort,thickswordsandlarge,roundshieldsmadeofstoutleatherandmetal.Thetwoarmiesgatheredaroundthesixchampions,butatadistance,soastoleavethemplentyofroomtofight.
Therewassilenceforafewmoments,andthentheshrillnotesofatrumpetrangoutasasignalforthebattle.Clash!clang!wenttheswordsupontheshields,andthefightbegan.
Quick,skillfulblowsweregivenforashorttime,butnoonewasseriouslyhurt.SuddenlytheLatinsshoutedinintenseexcitement.Lo!oneoftheHoratii,afterafiercestrugglewithoneoftheCuriatii,wasstrickendowndead!TheRomansgroaned,hungtheirheads,andlookedinanxiousdoubtattheirremainingtwochampions.
BravelytheHoratiistood—twotothree—andfoughtwithalltheirmight.StepbysteptheydrovetheCuriatiibackacrossthefield.CheersrangoutfromtheRomansatthisheroiceffort.Thevictorymightyetbetheirs!
Butalas!oneoftheCuriatii,withaswift,slysword-thrust,killedanotheroftheHoratii.ThentheLatinsshouted:
“Wehavewon!Wehavewon!Wehavewon!HailtothebraveCuriatii!”
TheRomanswerewildwithgriefandrage.Theyhadnowbutonechampionleft—Horatius,thelastoftheheroicHoratii—andhewasrunningfromthefield,asifhehadgivenupthefight.HewasfollowedbytheCuriatii,thoughtheywereallwounded.Oneofthem,runningaheadoftheothers,cameuptoHoratiusandwasraisinghisswordwhentheRomanturneduponhimquicklyandslewhim.
Thecriesofthetwoarmieswerenowhushed,asifbymagic.Alleyeswereuponthechampions,andtherewasapainfulsilence.
AnotheroftheCuriatiinowcameupandbegantofightHoratius.ButtheRomanmettheattackwithgreatcoolnessandskill,andsoonkilledthesecondLatin.Thus,underthepretenceofrunningaway,HoratiusseparatedtheCuriatiiandslewtwoofthem.ThenheadvancedinafuriousmannerontheotherLatinandbeganadesperatefightwithhim.Soonhestruckhimdownwithadeadlyblow.Romewasvictorious!FromthewholeRomanarmynowcamethecry,asiffromoneman:
“HailtothebraveHoratius!Hailtothechampionandsaviorofhiscountry!”
ThentheyseizedHoratiusintheirarmsandborehimintriumphtoKingTullus,whoplacedonhisheadthelaurelwreathofvictory.ThiswasoneofthewaysbywhichtheRomanshonoredanyoftheirsoldierswhohadbeenverybraveinbattle.ButtheyalsohonoredHoratiusbyerectingastatueofhiminoneofthetemplesofthecity.
IIIWithsongsofjoythearmymarchedbacktoRome.Horatiuswalkedbythesideoftheking.Athrongofwomencameforthfromthegatesofthecity,eagertogreetthesoldiersandtorejoicewiththemoverthegreatvictory.ThesisterofHoratiuswasinthethrong.ShehadbeensecretlyengagedtobemarriedtooneoftheCuriatii,fortheRomansandAlbanswerenearneighborsandfrequentlyvisitedoneanotherintimesofpeace.Whenshelearnedthatherbrotherhadslainherlovershebegantoweepbitterly.ThenpointingatHoratiusshecriedout:
“Youhavekilledmylover.Donotcomenearme.Ihateandcurseyou.”
Horatius,inafitofanger,suddenlydrewhisswordandstabbedhertotheheart.Asshefelldeadathisfeethecriedinaloudvoice:
“SoperishtheRomanmaidenwhoweepsforhercountry’senemy!”
ForthisshockingmurderHoratiuswastriedandsentencedtodeath.Butthepeoplewouldnotallowthesentencetobecarriedout.Hewasmadetodoacertainpenanceforthecrimeandafterwardswassetfree.
THETARQUINS
IThenextkingofRomewasAncusMar’ci-us.HewasagrandsonofNumaPompilius,andaverygoodking.HethoughtthatitwouldbeanadvantagetoRometohaveaseaharborforships.SohefoundedacityatoneofthemouthsoftheTiber,onthecoastoftheMediterranean,aboutfifteenmilesfromRome.ThecitywascalledOstia,whichisaLatinwordmeaningmouths.LatinwasthelanguagespokenbytheRomanpeople.
DuringthereignofAncusMarcius,arichmannamedLu’cu-mocametoliveinRome.HecamefromTarquin’i-i,atownsomemilesdistantfromRome,inadistrictorcountrycalledE-tru’ri-a,sotheRomanscalledhimTarquin’i-us,whichinEnglishisTarquin.
AverywonderfulthinghappenedtoTarquinwhilehewasonhiswaytoRome.Hedroveinachariot,withhiswifeTan’a-quilseatedbesidehim,andtheirservantsfollowingbehind.AstheywereapproachingthecityaneaglewhichappearedintheskyabovethemcamegentlydownandsnatchedthecapfromTarquin’sheadwithitsbeak.Afterhoveringaroundforafewmomentstheeaglereplacedthecapandwithloudscreamsflewaway.
Tarquinwasmuchsurprisedatthisstrangeevent.Hedidnotknowwhattothinkofit.ButTanaquilwasmuchpleased.Shesaidtoherhusbandthatitwasasignsentbythegodsandmeantthathewastobeagreatman—perhapsaking.
TarquinwasnotlonginRomebeforehebecameafavoritewitheverybody.Thepeoplelikedhimbecausehespentagreatdealofmoneyindoinggood.Thekingalsolikedhimandoftenaskedhisadviceinaffairsofgovernment,forTarquinwasamanofgreatknowledgeandwisdom.AndwhenKingAncusbecameoldandfeltthathisdeathwasnear,heappointedTarquintheguardianofhistwosonswhowerethenbutboys.
SoonafterwardsAncusdied,andthepeopleelectedTarquinking.Hereignedfornearlyfortyyearsanddidagreatdealforthegoodofthecity.
IIItwasKingTarquinwhobeganthebuildingofthefamoustempleofJupiterontheSaturnianHill—thesamehillonwhichstoodthefortressthatRomulusbuilt.Whiletheworkmenwerediggingforthefoundationsofthetempletheyfoundaman’sheadsowellpreservedthatitlookedasifithadbeenburiedquiterecently.Thiswassostrangeathingthattheaugurswereaskedaboutit,andtheysaiditwasasignthatRomewouldbecometheheadorchiefcityoftheworld.SothenewbuildingwascalledtheCapitol,fromcaput,theLatinwordforhead,andthehillwascalledtheCap’it-o-lineHill.Thishasgivenourlanguageaword.WecallthebuildinginwhichourCongressmeets—aswellasthatinwhichastatelegislaturemeets—theCapitol.
IttookalongtimetofinishtheCapitol,butwhenfinisheditwasagreatandbeautifulbuilding.Itcoveredmorethaneightacres.Itsgatesordoorswereofsolidbrass,thicklyplatedwithgold.Thewallsinsidewereallmarble,ornamentedwithbeautifulfiguresengravedinsilver.
TarquinalsobeganseveralotherworksinRome,whichweretoogreatandcostlytobefinishedinalifetime.Oneofthemwasawallroundthecity.ThewallthatRomulusmadewasonlyroundPalatineHill.Butsincethenthecityhadbeenmuchenlarged.Incourseoftimeitcoveredsevenhills.ThisiswhyRomeisoftencalledtheseven-hilledcity.ThesevenhillswerethePalatine,theCapitoline,theCæ’li-an,theQuirinal,theEs’qui-line,theVim’i-nal,andtheA’ven-tine.
OneoftheotherthingsTarquindidwastoestablishakindofpolicecalledlictors.Thesewereofficerswhoalwayswalkedbeforethekingwheneverheappearedinpublic.Eachlictorboreuponhisshoulderanaxenclosedinabundleofrodstiedwitharedstrap.Thiswascalledthefas’ces.Itwasamarkofthepoweroftheking.Theaxmeantthatthekingmightordercriminalstobebeheaded,andtherodsmeantthathemightpunishoffendersbyflogging.
AnotherworkofTarquinwastheCircus,afterwardscalledtheCircusMax’i-mus(greatcircus).Thiswasaplacewherehorse-racesandgamesandshowsofvariouskindswereheld.TheRomanswereveryfondofsuchamusements.Greatnumbersofthemalwayswenttotheshows,butitwaseasyforthemtogo,fortheydidnothavetopayforadmission.ThecostoftheshowswaspaidoftenbyrichRomanswhowantedtogainthefavorofthepeople,andoftenbythegovernment.
Thecircushadnoroof,buttherewereagreatmanyseatsallroundandinthe
middlewasalargeopenspacefortheperformers.Thisspacewascoveredwithsand,andwascalledthearena,awordwhichisLatinforsand.
Assomanypeopleattendedthecircusithadtobeverylarge.InthetimewhenRomewasanEmpire,aboutwhichyouwillreadlateroninthisbook,theCircusMaximuswassolargethatitcontainedseatsfor250,000people.FromthecircusandarenaoftheRomansthesewordshavecomeintouseinourownlanguage.
IIIBesidesbuildingacircus,KingTarquinalsogreatlyimprovedtheForumbymakingcoveredwalksorporticoesallroundit.TheForumwasalargeopenspaceatthefootoftheCapitolineHill,wherepublicmeetingswereheld,andwherepeoplecametohearthenewsortalkaboutpolitics.Itwasalsousedasamarket-place,andmerchantsshowedtheirgoodsinshopsorstoresalongtheporticoes.IncourseoftimegreatbuildingswereerectedroundtheForum.Therewerecourtsofjusticeandtemplesandstatuesandmonumentsofvariouskinds.TheSenateHouse,wheretheSenatehelditsmeetings,wasalsointheForum.FromtheendoftheForumnexttheCapitolineHilltherewasapassageleadinguptotheCapitol.
ButthemostusefulthingKingTarquindidwasthebuildingofagreatsewerthroughthecityandintotheTiber.BeforehistimetherewerenosewersinRome,thoughtheplacesbetweenthehillswereswampyandwet.Thismademanypartsofthecityveryunhealthy.Tarquin’ssewerdrainedtheswampsandcarriedthewaterintotheriver.Itcrossedtheentirecity.Itwassohighandwidethatmencouldsailintoitinboats,anditwassostronglybuiltthatithaslastedtothepresenttime.Thegreatsewerisstillinuse.
Tarquinwantedverymuchtochangeoneofthelawsaboutthearmy,butanaugurnamedAt’ti-usNa’vi-ustoldhimsuchathingcouldnotbedonewithoutasignfromthegods.Thismadethekingangry,andhethoughthewouldtrytoshowthattheaugurshadnotthepowerorknowledgetheyweresupposedtohave,sohesaidtoAttius:
“Come,now,Iwillgiveyouaquestion.IamthinkingwhetheracertainthingIhaveinmymindcanbedoneornot.Goandfindoutfromyoursignsifitcanbedone.”
Naviuswentaway,andshortlyafterwardsreturnedandtoldthekingthatthethingcouldbedone.ThenTarquinsaid:
“Well,Iwasthinkingwhetherornotyoucouldcutthisstoneintwowiththisrazor.Asyousayitcanbedone,doit.”
Naviustooktherazorandimmediatelycutthestoneintwowiththegreatestease.Thekingneveragaindoubtedthepoweroftheaugurs.
IVOnthedeathofTarquinhisson-in-lawSer’vi-usTul’li-uswasmadeking.Tarquinhadtwoyoungsons,andthesonsofAncusMarciuswerealsoliving;butthepeoplepreferredtohaveServiusTulliusfortheirking.
Serviuswasaverygoodking.Hehadmanygoodlawsmadeand,likeKingNumaPompilius,hedividedsomeofthepubliclandsamongthepoorpeopleofthecity.
OneoftheimportantthingsServiusdidwastofinishthewallroundthecitywhichTarquinhadbegun.Thiswallwasveryhigh.Itwasmadeofstoneandearth,andontheoutsidetherewasaditchahundredfeetwideandthirtyfeetdeep.Therewereseveralgatesinthewall,buttheywereallwellguardednightanddaybysoldiers,sothatnoenemycouldenter.
KingServiuswasthefirsttohaveacensustakeninRome.HemadearuleorlawthatonceeveryfiveyearsallthepeopleshouldassembleintheCampusMartiustobecounted.ThewordcensusisaLatinword,meaningacountingorreckoning,andsoweuseitinourowncountryforthecountingofthepeoplewhichtakesplaceeverytenyears.
ServiusTulliuswaskilledbyKingTarquin’sson,whowasalsocalledTarquinbutgotthenameofSuperbus,orProud,becausehewasaveryhaughtyandcruelman.ThedeadbodyofServiuswasleftlyingonthestreetwherehehadbeenkilled,andTullia,wifeofthewickedTarquinanddaughterofthemurderedking,droveherchariotoverit.
TarquintheProudnowbecameking.ItwasduringhisreignthattheSib’yl-lineBookswerebroughttoRome.Thesebookswerenotlikeourbooks.Theyweremerelythreebundlesofloosepiecesofparchment,havingmoralsentencesonthemwrittenintheGreeklanguage.Thisisthestoryofhowthebookswereobtained:
OnemorninganoldwomancametoKingTarquin,carryingninebooksinherhands.Sheofferedtosellthemtotheking,butwhenshenamedalargesumasthepricehelaughedatherandorderedheraway.Thenextdaythewomancame
again,butwithonlysixbooks.Shehadburnedtheotherthree.Sheofferedtosellthesix,butsheaskedthesamepricethatshehadaskedthedaybeforeforthewholenine.Thekingagainlaughedatheranddroveheraway.ThesamedayTarquinwenttovisittheaugursintheirtemple,andhetold
themabouttheoldwomanandherbooks.TheaugursdeclaredthatshewascertainlyasibylandthatherbooksdoubtlesscontainedimportantpredictionsaboutRome.
Thesibylswerewomenwhopretendedtobeabletoforetellevents.Thereweresibylsinmanycountries,butthemostfamousofthemallwastheSibylofCu’mæ,atowninthesouthofItaly.ThiswasthesibylwhobroughtthebookstoTarquin.
Tarquinwasnowsorryhehadnottakenthebooks,andhehopedthewomanwouldcomeagain.Shedidcomeonthefollowingday,butshehadonlythreebooksinsteadofsix.Shehadburnedtheotherthreethedaybefore.Thekingwasverygladtoseeher,andheboughttheremainingthreebooks,buthehadtopayjustasmuchforthemastheoldwomanhadaskedatfirstforthenine.Thenthesibyldisappeared,andwasneverseenagain.
TheordinarybookstheRomanshadwerenotliketheSibyllineBooks.Theyhadnoprintedbooks,forprintingwasnotknownformanycenturiesafter.Theirbookswerewrittenwithpensmadeofreeds.Theirpaperwasmadeofthepithofaplantcalledthepapyrus,andfromthisnamethewordpaperisderived.Tomakeabooktheycutthepaperintoleavesorpages,andafterwritingonthemtheypastedthepagesonetoanothersidewiseuntilallthepagesofonebookwereputtogether.Thislongstripwasmadeintoacylindricalroll,andwascalledavolume,fromtheLatinwordvolumen,aroll.Whenthevolumewasbeingreaditwasheldinbothhands,thereaderunrollingitwithonehandandrollingitwiththeother.
TheSibyllineBookswereputinthetempleofJupiterontheCapitolineHill.Twoofficerswereappointedtokeepwatchoverthem.WhenevertheRomansweregoingtowar,orhadanyserioustrouble,theywouldconsultthebooks.Thewaytheydiditwasthis:oneoftheofficerswouldopenthestonechestwherethebookswerekeptandtakeoutthefirstpieceofparchmenthelaidhishandon.ThentheGreeksentencefoundonthepiecewouldbetranslatedintoLatin.Itwassometimesveryhardtotellwhatthesentencereallymeant.Oftentheyhadtoguess.Whentheymadesenseoutofittheysaidthatitwasaprophecyofthesibylandwouldsurelycometopass.
JUNIUSBRUTUS
ITarquintheProudhadanephewnamedJuniusBrutus.Heseemedtobeasimpleton,buthewasreallyaverywiseman.Hisbrotherhadbeenmurderedbytheking,andhefearedthesamefatehimself,sohepretendedtobehalf-wittedandwentaboutsayinganddoingsillythings.Tarquinthereforedidhimnoharm,butratherpitiedhim.
TwosonsofTarquinoncewenttoanotedfortune-teller,takingBrutuswiththem.Theyoungmenaskedseveralquestions.Onewas:
“WhoshallruleRomeafterTarquin?”
Thefortune-tellergavethisanswer:
“Youngmen,whicheverofyoushallfirstkissyourmothershallbethenextrulerofRome.”
Theking’ssonsatoncestartedforhome,eacheagertobethefirsttokisshismother.ButBrutusthoughtthatsomethingelsewasreallymeantbytheanswer.Soaftertheyhadleftthefortune-tellerhemanagedtostumbleandfallonhisface.Thenhekissedtheground,saying,“Theearthisthetruemotherofusall.”Andasweshallsee,BrutusbecamethenextrulerofRome.
IITheeldestsonofTarquinwasnamedSextus.Hewasaverybadman.HedeeplyinjuredabeautifulwomannamedLu-cre’ti-a,thewifeofCol-la-ti’nus,hiscousin.LucretiatoldherhusbandandfatherandJuniusBrutusofwhatSextushaddoneandcalleduponthemtopunishhimforhiswickeddeed.Thensheplungedadaggerintoherbreastandfelldead.Brutusdrewthedaggerfromherbleedingbodyand,holdingitupbeforehishorrifiedcompanions,exclaimed:
“IvowbeforethegodstoavengethewrongedLucretia.NotoneoftheTarquinsshalleveragainbekinginRome.Romeshallhavenomorekings.”
TheyallvowedwithBrutusthatLucretiashouldbeavengedandthatthereshouldbenomorekingsinRome.ThentheytookupherbodyandcarriedittotheForum.Theretheyshowedittothepeople,whogatheredaroundinhorroratthesight.Brutusnolongerappeareddullandsimple,butstoodwithheaderectandflashingeyesandspoketothecrowdineloquent,stirringwords.
“SeewhathascomefromtheevildeedsoftheTarquins!”heshouted,pointingtothedeadwoman.“Letusfreeourselvesfromtheruleofthesewickedmen.DownwithTarquinthetyrant!NomorekingsinRome!”
Thepeopleweremuchexcitedbyhisspeech,andtheymadetheForumringwiththeircries:
“DownwithTarquin!DownwithTarquin!Nomorekings!Nomorekings!”
ThentheyresolvedtotakethepowerofkingawayfromTarquinandtobanishhimandhisfamilyfromRome.TheyalsodecidedtoadoptthegoodlawswhichhadbeenmadeyearsbeforebyKingServiusTullius,andtochoosetwomeneachyeartogovernthenation,insteadofaking.Themenweretobecalledconsulsandweretoruleinturn—oneforonemonth,theotherforthenext,andsoonfortwelvemonths.Attheendoftheyeartwonewconsulsweretobeelected.
MeanwhilenewsoftherevoltreachedKingTarquin,whowasatthetimeincampwithhisarmysomedistancefromRome.Heinstantlymountedhishorseandrodeinhastetothecity.Whenhereachedthegateshefoundthemshutagainsthim.Ashestoodimpatientlydemandingtobeadmitted,aRomanofficerappearedonthewallandtoldhimofthesentenceofbanishment.Tarquinrodeaway,andRomewasridofhimforever(510B.C.).
IIIThepeopleelectedJuniusBrutusandLuciusCollatinus,thehusbandofLucretia,tobetheirfirstconsuls;butafterashorttimeCollatinusresigned,becausehewashimselfaTarquin.Pub’li-usVa-le’ri-uswaselectedinhisstead.
TarquinnowsentmessengersforhishouseholdgoodsandotherthingsbelongingtohimwhichwereinRome.Themessengerswhileinthecityhadsecretmeetingswithanumberofyoungmenofnoblefamilies,andaplotwasformedtorestoreTarquintothethrone.
Theyoungnoblesvowedthattheywoulddestroythenewrepublicandbringbacktheking,fortheydidnotlikegovernmentbythecommonpeople.But
whiletheyweremakingtheirplansanintelligentslaveoverheardwhattheyweresaying.ThisslavewenttoBrutusandtoldhimoftheplot.Allengagedinitwereatoncearrestedandputinprison.TwosonsofBrutushimself,TitusandTi-be’ri-us,werefoundamongtheplotters.WhenBrutuslearnedthathisownchildrenweretraitorshewasovercome
withsorrow.Forseveraldaysheshuthimselfupinhishouseandwouldseenoone.Butwhenthedayforthetrialcamehedidhisdutysternlyasjudge—theconsulsbeingjudgesaswellasrulers.TitusandTiberiuswereprovedguiltyoftreason,togetherwiththeothers,andBrutussentencedthemtobewhippedwithrodsandthenbeheaded.Heevenwasawitnessoftheexecutionofthesentence,andwearetoldthathesatunmovedinhischairanddidnotturnawayhiseyeswhilehistwosonswereputtodeath.Itwashisdutytopunishtraitors,andhedidhisdutywithoutsparinghisownfleshandblood.
AfterthelossofhissonsBrutusbecamedullandmelancholyandappearedtocareverylittleforlife.TarquinmadeanattempttotakeRome,withtheaidofthepeopleoftwocitiesofEtruria,andBrutusledtheRomanstothefieldtofightagainsttheirformerking.Duringthefirstpartofthebattle,asonofTarquinrodefuriouslyatBrutustokillhim.Brutussawhimandadvancedrapidlyonhishorsetomeettheattack.Whentheycametogethereachranhisspearthroughthebodyoftheother,andbothwerekilled.
ThedeathofBrutusmaddenedtheRomans,andtheyfoughtfiercelyuntildark.Thenthearmieswenttotheircamps,andnooneknewwhichsidehadwon.ButinthemiddleofthenightaloudvoicecamefromawoodclosebythecampoftheEtruscans,asthepeopleofEtruriawerecalled.Thevoicesaid:
“OnemanmorehasfallenonthesideoftheEtruscansthanonthesideoftheRomans;theRomanswillconquerinthiswar.”
TheEtruscansbelievedthatthiswasthevoiceofthegodJupiter,andtheyweresofrightenedthattheybrokeuptheircampandquicklymarchedbacktotheirownland.
HORATIUS
ForatimeRomewasruledbyPubliusValerius.Hewasagoodman.HecausedlawstobepassedforthebenefitofthepeopleandwasthereforecalledPub-lic’o-la,whichmeansthepeople’sfriend.HehadtofightTarquinfrequently.ThebanishedkingwasconstantlytryingtocaptureRomeandgetbackhisthrone.Hegothelpfromvariousnationsandfoughtveryhard,butwasneversuccessfulinhisefforts.AtonetimehewasaidedbyLarsPor’se-na,kingofClu’si-um,acityofEtruria,whogatheredalargearmyandsetouttoattackRome.
ButPorsenacouldnotenterthecitywithoutcrossingtheTiber,andtherewasonlyonebridge.ThiswascalledtheSublicianBridge.ItwassocalledfromtheLatinwordsublicœ,whichmeanswoodenbeams.WhentheRomanssawthegreatarmyofEtruscansinthedistance,theyweremuchalarmed.Theywerenotpreparedtofightsopowerfulaforce.Theconsulthoughtforawhile,andthenheresolvedtocutdownthebridgeastheonlymeansofsavingRome.Soanumberofmenwereatoncesettoworkwithaxesandhammers.
Itwashardwork,forthebridgewasverystronglybuilt.BeforethebeamssupportingitwereallcutawaythearmyofPorsenawasseenapproachingtheriver.Whatwastobedone?Itwouldtakeafewminutesmoretofinishthework,andifthefartherendofthebridgecouldbeheldagainsttheEtruscansforthosefewminutesallwouldbewellforRome.Buthowwasittobeheld,andwhowouldholdit?SuddenlyfromtheranksoftheRomansoldiersthebraveHo-ra’ti-usCo’clessteppedoutandcriedtotheconsul:
“Givemetwogoodmentohelpme,andIwillholdthebridgeandstoptheenemyfromcomingover.”
Immediatelytwobravemen,Spu’ri-usLar’ti-usandTitusHer-min’i-us,rantohisside.Thenthethreehurriedovertotheotherendofthebridge,andstoodreadytokeepofftheenemy.
WhenthearmyofEtruscanssawthethreemenstandingtokeepthembackashoutoflaughterwentupamongthem.Threementokeepbackthousands!How
ridiculous!TherethethreebraveRomansstood,however,attheentranceofthebridge,withdeterminedfacesandfearlesseyes.
VeryquicklythreeEtruscans—stout,ablefighters—cameforthfromthearmytogivebattletothethreeRomans.AfterasharpcombattheEtruscanswerekilled.Threemorecameoutandcontinuedthefight,buttheytoowerebeatenbyHoratiusandhiscompanions.
Butnowthebridgebegantoshakeandcrack.Horatiusfeltthatitwasabouttofall,andhecriedtoSpuriusandTitustorunbacktotheotherside.WhiletheydidsohestoodaloneanddefiedthewholeEtruscanarmy,whichwasnowrushinguponhim.Awholearmyagainstoneman!Javelinswerehurledathim,butheskillfullywardedthemoffwithhisshield.
JustastheEtruscansreachedhimthelastbeamwascutaway,andthebridgefellwithatremendouscrash.AsitwasfallingHoratiusplungedintotheTiber,andprayingtothegodsforhelp,heswamtotheothersideinsafety.TheRomansreceivedhimwithshoutsofjoy,andeventheEtruscanscouldnothelpraisingacheerinadmirationofhisbravery.
ThethreeRomanswerewellrewarded.AfinestatueofHoratiuswasbuiltinoneofthesquaresofthecity.Onthebaseofthestatuewasplacedabrasstablet,withanaccountoftheheroicdeedengravedonit.TheSenatealsogaveHoratiusasmuchlandashecouldplowaroundinaday.
MUCIUSTHELEFT-HANDED
ButPorsenastillremainedwithhisarmyontheothersideoftheriver.Hethoughtthatbypreventingfoodfrombeingsentintothecityhecouldforcetheinhabitantstosurrender.SohegotshipsandstationedthemontheTibertodriveawayorseizeanyvesselsthatshouldattempttocometoRomewithfood.
NowtherewasinRomeatthistimeaverybraveyoungmannamedCa’i-usMu’ci-us,andhethoughtofaplantosavethecity.Hisplanwastomarchboldlyintotheenemy’scampandkillKingPorsena.SoheconcealedaswordunderhistunicandwentacrosstherivertotheEtruscancamp.Thenhemadehiswaytotheplacewherethekingwassitting.
Ithappenedthatitwaspaydayinthearmyandthesoldiersweregettingtheirmoney.Asecretary,whosatbesidethekingandwasdressedverymuchlikehim,wastalkingtothemenandgivingthemorders.MuciusmistookthesecretaryforPorsenaandrushedforwardandstabbedhimtodeath.InstantlythedaringRomanwasseizedbytheguards.Heheardthesoldierscryingoutthatthesecretarywaskilled.Thenheknewwhatamistakehehadmade.
Porsenawasgreatlyenragedatseeinghissecretarykilled,andinaloudandangryvoicehecommandedMuciustotellwhohewasandwhyhehadcommittedsuchadeed.WithoutshowinganysignoffeartheboldMuciusanswered:
“IamaRomancitizen.Icameheretokillyou,becauseyouareanenemyofmycountry.Ihavefailed,butthereareotherstocomeaftermewhowillnotfail.Yourlifewillbeconstantlyindanger,andyouwillbekilledwhenyouleastexpectit.”
OnhearingthesewordsPorsenajumpedfromhisseatinagreatfuryandthreatenedtoburnMuciustodeathifhedidnotatoncetellallabouttheotherswhowerecomingtokillhim.ButMuciuswasnotfrightened,andtoshowhowlittlehecaredabouttheking’sthreathethrusthisrighthandintotheflameofafirewhichhadbeenlightedclosebyandheldittherewithoutflinching.Atthesametimehecriedouttotheking:
“BeholdhowlittleweRomanscareforpainwhenitistodefendourcountry.”
Porsenawasastonishedatthissight,andhesomuchadmiredthecourageandpatriotismoftheRomanthatheorderedtheguardstosethimfree.ThenMuciussaidtotheking:
“InreturnforyourkindnessInowtellyouofmyownfreewillwhatIwouldnottellyouwhenyouthreatenedmewithpunishment.KnowthenthatthreehundredRomanyouthshaveboundthemselvesbyoathtokillyou,eachtomaketheattemptinhisturn.Thelotfellfirstonme.Ihavefailed,buttheattemptwillbemadeagainandagainuntilsomeonesucceeds.”
KingPorsenawassoterrifiedonhearingthisthatheresolvedtomakepeaceatoncewithRome.SoheimmediatelysentmessengerstotheSenate,andtermsofpeacewerequicklyagreedupon.
TheSenaterewardedMuciusbygivinghimatractoflandonthebanksoftheTiber.ThislandwasafterwardscalledtheMucianMeadows.MuciushimselfgotthenameofSçæv’o-la,aLatinwordwhichmeansleft-handed.Hehadlosttheuseofhisrighthandbyburningitinthefire.
CORIOLANUS
IOneofthegreatmenofRomenotlongafterthebanishmentoftheTarquinswasCaiusMarcius.Hewasamemberofanoblefamily,andfromhisyouthhehadbeennotedforhisbravery.
InhistimetherewasawarbetweentheRomansandtheVol’sci-ans,apeopleofadistrictinLatium.TheRomansmadeanattackonCo-ri’o-li,thecapitalcityoftheVolscians,butweredefeatedanddrivenback.CaiusMarciusreproachedtheRomansoldiersforrunningfromtheenemy.Hiswordsmadethemashamedandtheyturnedagaintothefight.WithCaiusattheirheadtheysenttheVolsciansflyingbackintothecity.Caiusfollowedtheenemytothegates,whichwerepartlyopen.WhenhesawthisheshoutedtotheRomans:
“Thegatesareopenforus;letusnotbeafraidtoenter!”
CaiushimselfspranginandkeptthegatesopenfortheRomans.Afterashortfightthecitywastaken.
TheneverybodysaidthatitwasCaiuswhohadtakenCorioli,andthatheshouldbecalledafterthenameofthecityhehadwon.SoeverafterwardshewasknownasCo’ri-o-la’nus.
IIButthoughCoriolanuswasabravesoldierandalwaysreadytofightforRome,hehadsomequalitiesthatwerenotsogood.Hehadgreatcontemptforthecommonpeople,andhetookpartwiththosewhotriedtooppressthem.
OnlyalittlewhilebeforethetakingofCorioli,therewasaserioustroublebetweenthepeopleandthepatricians.Agreatmanyofthepeopleearnedtheirlivingbyfarming.Butwhentherewasawarthestrongmenhadtobecomesoldiers,andasRomewasalmostconstantlyatwarthemenwerenearlyalwaysawayfromtheirfarms.Veryoften,therefore,theyhadtoborrowmoneytosupporttheirfamilieswhiletheythemselveswereawayfighting,foratthistime
Romansoldiersgotnoregularpay.
Nowitwastherichpatricianswholoanedthemoney,andifitwasnotpaidbackatthetimeagreedupontheycouldputthepeoplewhooweditinjail,ortheycouldselltheirwivesandchildrenasslaves.
Inthiswaytheplebeiansoftensufferedmuchhardship.AtlastagreatnumberofthemresolvedtoleaveRomeandmakeasettlementforthemselvessomewhereelseinItaly.Thepatriciansdidnotlikethisverymuch,forifthecommonpeoplewentawaytherewouldbeascarcityofsoldiersforthearmy.SotheSenate,afterthinkingthematterover,proposedthattheplebeiansshouldelectofficersoftheirown,tobecalledtrib’unes,whoshouldhavepowertovetolawstheydidnotlike,thatis,preventthemfrombeingpassed.Thewordveto,whichisLatinforIforbid,isusedinthesamewayinourowncountry.ThePresidentoftheUnitedStatesandthegovernorsofsomestateshave,withincertainlimits,powertopreventthepassingoflawstheydonotapprove.Thisiscalledthevetopower.
Theplebeianswerepleasedwiththeproposalthattheyweretohavetribunes,sotheyreturnedtoRome,andforatimetherewaspeacebetweenthemandthepatricians.
ButCoriolanusandotherpatricianswereopposedtotheelectionoftribunes,becausetheythoughtitgavethecommonpeopletoomuchpower.OncewhentherewasafamineinRome,andthepoorweresufferinggreatlyfromwantoffood,theGreekslivinginSicilysentseveralshipsladenwithcorntoRometorelievethepeopleindistress.WhenthecornarrivedtheSenatewasabouttoorderthatitshouldbedividedamongthepeoplewhoneededit,butCoriolanusinterfered.
“No,no,”hesaid,“ifthepeoplewantcornletthemfirstgiveuptheirtribunes.Itmustbeeithernocornornotribunes.”
ThepeopleweresoangrywhentheyheardofthisspeechthattheytalkedaboutkillingCoriolanus.Andtheywouldhavedonesobutforthewiseadviceofthetribunes.
“No,no,”saidthetribunes,“youmustnotkillhim;thatwouldbeagainstthelaw.Butyoucanhavehimtriedfortreasonagainstthepeopleandwewillbehisaccusers.”
Coriolanuswasthenorderedtoappearbeforetheassemblyofthepeopletobetried,forthepeoplehadpowertotryintheirassembliespersonschargedwith
suchoffences.ButCoriolanuswasafraidtheassemblywouldcondemnhim,sohesecretlyfledfromthecity,leavinghisfamilybehind,andwenttoatownoftheVolscians.
ThechiefoftheVolsciansreceivedCoriolanusinafriendlymanner.CoriolanusthentoldhimwhyhehadleftRome.TheVolscianchiefwasgladtohearit.HehadlongwantedtofighttheRomans,buthadbeenafraidtomaketheattempt.WiththeaidofsuchasoldierasCoriolanus,however,hewassurethatRomemightbetaken.SoheraisedalargearmyandputitunderthecommandofthegreatRoman.
IIITheVolscianarmy,ledbyCoriolanus,capturedmanycitiesbelongingtotheRomanRepublic.AtlastCoriolanusresolvedtoattackRomeitself,andhemarchedhisarmytowardsthecity.TheRomansjustthenwerenotverywellpreparedforabattle,sotheSenatedecidedtosendmessengerstoCoriolanustobeghimtosparehisnativecityandmaketermsofpeace.
Themessengerschosenwerefiveoftheleadingnobles,andtheyatoncesetoutfortheVolsciancamp.Coriolanusreceivedthemcordially,fortheywereoldfriends;buthesaidthathewouldnotspareRomeunlesstheRomanswouldgiveupallthelandsandcitieswhichtheyhadtakenfromtheVolsciansinformerwars.
TothistheSenatewouldnotagree,andCoriolanusrefusedtolistentoanyotherterms.TheRomansthenbegantoprepareforbattle,thoughtheyfearedverymuchthattheywouldbedefeated.
Butwhilethemenwerethusinfearanddoubt,thewomenofRomesavedthecity!Va-le’ri-a,anobleRomanlady,rememberedthatCoriolanushadalwaysdearlylovedhismother.
“Perhaps,”thoughtshe,“hemaylistentoherthoughhewillhearnooneelse.”
SoValeria,withalargenumberofnobleladies,wenttothehouseofVe-tu’ri-a,themotherofCoriolanus,andsaidtoher:
“Thegodshaveputitintoourheartstocomeandaskyoutojoinwithustosaveourcountryfromruin.Comethenwithustothecampofyoursonandprayhimtoshowmercy.”
Theagedmotheratonceagreedtogo,soshegotreadyimmediatelyandsetoutforthecampoftheVolscians,accompaniedbyagreatnumberofladiesand
herson’swifeandlittlechildren.Itwasastrangesight,thislonglineofRomanladies,alldressedinmourning,andeventheVolsciansoldiersshowedthemrespectastheypassedalong.CoriolanushappenedtobesittinginfrontofhistentintheVolsciancamp
withanumberofofficersaroundhimastheprocessioncameinview.“Whoarethesewomen?”heasked.Beforeananswercouldbegivenhesawthatamongthemwerehismotherandwifeandchildren,andhestoodupandhastenedforwardtomeetthem.Theyfellontheirkneesandbeggedhimtosparehisnativecity.
Coriolanusseemeddeeplydistressed.Hemadenoanswer,butbenthishead,pressedhishandtohisbreastandgazeddownuponthedearoneswhokneltathisfeet.Thenhismothersaid:
“IfIhadnosonRomewouldnotbeinthisdanger.Iamtoooldtobearmuchlongeryourshameandmyownmisery.Looktoyourwifeandchildren;ifyoucontinueinyourpresentcourseyouwillsendthemtoanearlydeath.”
Coriolanuswassogrievedthatforsomeminuteshecouldnotspeak.Atlasthecriedout:
“Oh,mother,whathaveyoudonetome?YouhavesavedRome,butyouhaveruinedyourson.”
Thenheembracedhismotherandlookedathersadlyforamoment.HealsoembracedandkissedhiswifeandchildrenandtoldthemtogobacktoRome,fortheywouldbesafethere.ThewomenthenreturnedtothecityandCoriolanusmarchedawaywiththeVolscianarmy.Romewassaved!
CoriolanuslivedtherestofhislifewiththeVolscians,butheneveragainmadewaragainsthisnativecity.ItissupposedthathediedaboutthemiddleofthefifthcenturybeforeChrist.
THEFABII
AtaboutthetimeinwhichCoriolanuslivedthefamilyoftheFa’bi-iwereverypowerfulinRome.AmongtheleadersorchiefmenofthefamilyatthatperiodwereQuin’tusFa’bi-us,MarcusFabius,andCæ’soFabius.
InthosetimestheRomannobleswereveryrichandpowerful.Theyheldallthehighofficesofgovernmentandcaredverylittleaboutthewelfareoftheplebeians.Oftentheytreatedthemveryharshly.
TheFabiialsotreatedtheplebeiansharshly.OncewhenQuintusFabiusdefeatedtheVolsciansinabattle,hesoldallthevaluablethingshetookfromtheenemyandputthemoneyintothepublictreasury.Suchthingswerecalledspoils.TheRomangeneralsusuallydividedthespoilsamongthesoldiers.Thiswasthewaythesoldierswerepaidinthosedays.ButQuintusFabiuswouldnotdividethespoils.Sothesoldierswereverybitteragainsthim.
ButsometimeafterwardsMarcusFabiuswaselectedconsul,andonceafteragreatbattlewiththeVe’i-en-ti-ans,apeopleofEtruria,hetooktheentirecareofthepoorwoundedsoldiersandsuppliedalltheirwantsathisownexpense.
ThenextyearhisbrotherCæsoFabiuswasconsul,andhetriedtogettheSenatetodivideamongthepoorcitizensthelandsthathadbeentakenfromtheVeientiansandotherpeoplewhomtheRomanshaddefeatedinwar.OftenafterwardsintheSenatethevoiceofaFabiuswasheardspeakingforjusticetotheplebeians.Thecommonpeople,therefore,soonlovedthewholefamilyoftheFabiiinsteadofhatingthemastheyhadbefore.
ThenobleswereveryangrybecausetheFabiitookthesideoftheplebeians,andtheythreatenedtodoalltheycouldagainstthem.NowtheFabiisawclearlythatitwouldbeuselesstoattempttofightthenobles,becausethenobleshadagreatdealofpowerandcoulddoalmostwhatevertheypleasedinRome.Therefore,theFabiithoughtthatitwouldbebetterforthemtoremovefromthecityandmakeanewhomeforthemselvessomewhereelse.Sotheyresolvedtodothis,andtheplacetheyselectedwasonthebanksoftheRiverCrem’e-ra,afewmilesfromRome.
AtthistimetheRomanswereagainatwarwiththeVeientians.ThesepeoplelivedinVe’i-i,acityontheCremeraRiver.Oneday,whentherewasadiscussionintheRomanSenateaboutthiswar,CæsoFabiussaid:
“Asyouknow,weofthehouseoftheFabiiaregoingtoleaveRomeandsettleonthebordersofthecountryoftheVeientians.IfyougiveuspermissionwewillfightthosepeopleandtrytodefeatthemforthehonorofRomeandthegloryofourhouse.WewillaskneithermoneynormenfromtheSenate.Wewillcarryonthewarwithourownmenandatourowncost.”
ThesenatorsweregladofthechancetogetridoftheFabii,andsotheyatoncegavethemthepermissiontheyaskedfor.TheFabiithenbegantomakepreparationsfortheirdeparture.Therewereoverthreehundredmeninadditiontowomen-folk,children,andservants,andwhenallwerereadytheymarchedoutofthecitytotheirnewhomewithCæsoFabiusattheirhead.
AtfirsttheFabiihadonlyacampontheCremeraRiver,butafterwardstheybuiltasmallcity,withastrongfortress.ManygoodRomansoldierscameandjoinedthem,andsoontheyhadafinearmyofearnest,devotedmen.
TheVeientiansweresoonconquered.Fabiusandhisbravemendefeatedtheminseveralbattles,andatlasttheVeientiansmadeuptheirmindsthattheyhadgotenoughofwar.ThentheyreturnedtotheirowncityofVeiiandremainedquietforalongtime.ButtheydeclaredthattheywoulddestroytheFabiiwhenevertheycouldgetthechance.
NowitwasanoldcustomoftheFabiitohaveaspecialworshipofthegodsonacertaindayofeveryyear.EarlyinthemorningofthatdayallthemenofthefamilywouldgoinabodytoafamoustempleonahillnearRomeandhavereligiousservicesforseveralhours.Thementooknoarmswiththem,asitwasthoughtimpropertogoarmedtoreligiousworship.
TheVeientiansheardofthisannualreligiousserviceoftheFabiiandsawinitachanceforrevenge.SotheyresolvedtokilltheFabiithenexttimetheywenttothetemplefortheirspecialservice.WhenthedaycametheFabiisetoutasusual.Ontheirwaytothetempletheyhadtogooveraroadwhichhadhigh,steeprocksoneachside.TherealargenumberofVeientiansoldiershidthemselves,andwhentheunsuspectingFabiicamealongafuriousattackwasmadeonthemfromfrontandrear.Withoutarmstheycouldnotfightverywell.Theymadethebestdefencetheycould,butitwasuseless.TheywereallkilledexceptoneyoungmanwhoescapedtoRome.ThusthecowardlyVeientianshadtheirrevenge.
CINCINNATUS
IInthemountainseastofLatiumtherelivedaratherwildpeoplecalledÆ’qui-ans,whowereveryoftenatwarwithRome.AftersometimeofpeaceandgoodconductthesepeoplesuddenlybegantoplundertherichfarmsoftheRomans.ThiswasaboutfourhundredandfiftyyearsbeforethebirthofChristandnotlongaftertheVeientianshaddestroyedtheFabianfamily.AssoonastheRomanSenateheardwhattheÆquiansweredoingitsentmessengerstotheÆquiankingtocomplainofthewrong.Themessengersfoundthekinginhiscamp,sittingnearahugeoaktree.Butwhentheyspoketohimheansweredthemrudely,saying:
“Iamtoobusynowwithothermatters.Gotellyourmessagetotheoakyonder!”
Thismadethemessengersveryangry,andoneofthethemsaid:
“Weshalltellittotheoak,butweshalltellitalsotothegodsandcallthemtowitnesshowyouhavebrokenthepeace!Andtheyshallbeonoursidewhenwecometopunishyouandyourpeopleforthecrimesyouhavecommittedagainstus.”
Anditissaidthattheangrymessengersdidtellthemessagetotheoak,andtoalltheothertreesaround,andboldlyshoutedthatwarwouldcomefromthisinsulttoRome.
ThenthemessengersreturnedtoRomeandtoldtheSenatehowtheyhadbeeninsultedbytheÆquianking.TheSenateatoncedeclaredwaragainsttheÆquiansandorderedtheConsulMinu’ci-ustoleadanarmyagainstthem.
TheRomanseasilywonafewbattlesatfirst.ThentheÆquiansbegantoretreatasiftheydidnotmeantofightanymore.TheRomansfollowedswiftly,untiltheyweredrawnintoanarrowvalleyoneachsideofwhichwerehigh,rockyhills.Itwasatrap,andtheRomansknewitbeforetheyhadmarchedveryfarfromtheentrance.
TheÆquiankingthenclosedupthevalleywithstrongbarricadesandplacedhistroopsattheentranceandalongthehills,sothattheRomanscouldnotgetout.
Inthevalleytherewasverylittlegrassforthehorsesandnofoodforthemen,sothatiftheRomanswerenotsoonrelievedboththeyandtheirhorseswoulddieofhunger.
IIButluckilyfortheRomansafewoftheirhorsemenhadmanagedtogetoutofthevalleybeforetheÆquiansclosedit.ThesehorsemenrodeasfastastheycouldtoRomeandtoldtheSenatehowMinuciusandhissoldierswereplaced.Whatwastobedone?Nooneseemedtoknowatfirst,butafteragooddealofdiscussion,asenatorsaid:
“LetusmakeLuciusQuinc’ti-usdictator.Heistheonlymanwhocansaveus.”
TheSenateagreedtothis,andsoLuciusQuinctiuswaschosendictator.AdictatorhadmorepowerthantheSenateortheconsuls.Allhiscommandshadtobeobeyedjustasifhewereaking.Buttherewasnotadictatoralways.Adictatorwasappointedonlywhentherewassomegreatdanger,andheheldofficeonlyforsixmonths.
LuciusQuinctiusbelongedtoanoblefamily.Hewasagreatsoldierandhadwonmanybattlesforhiscountry.Hehadsuchbeautiful,long,curlyhairthatthepeoplecalledhimCin’cin-na’tus,whichmeanscurly-haired,andthisisthenamebywhichheisknowninhistory.
AtthetimeCincinnatuswasappointeddictatorhelivedonasmallfarmoutsideofRome.Heworkedonthefarmhimself,andwhenthemessengersfromtheSenatecametotellhimthathehadbeenchosendictatortheyfoundhimploughinginoneofhisfields.HelefthisploughwhereitstoodandhastenedtoRome,wherehewaswelcomedbyallthepeople.
Thefirstthinghedidwastoraiseanewarmy.HegaveordersthateverymanofsuitableageshouldbuckleonhisswordandbereadyinafewhourstomarchtothehelpofMinuciusandhissoldiers.
BeforeeveningCincinnatusandhisarmymarchedoutofthecityfortheAlbanHills,wheretheRomanswereshutup.Theyreachedtheplaceintheearlymorningandformedinalineallaroundthehills.TheÆquiansthenfound
themselveshemmedinoneverysidebetweentwoRomanarmies—thearmyofMinuciusandthearmyofCincinnatus.Theyfoughtaswellastheycould,buttheywerequicklyoverpowered,sothattheycoulddonothingbutcrytotheRomancommandertosparetheirlives.Cincinnatussparedtheirlives,buthemadethempassundertheyoke.The
yokewasformedoftwospears,fixeduprightintheground,andathirdfastenedacrossnearthetopfromonetotheother.CincinnatusmadetheÆquianslaydowntheirarmsandpassout,everymanofthem,undertheyokeofspears.Theyhadtobendtheirheadsastheydidso,forthespearswerenotverylong,andtheoneonthetopwasonlyafewfeetfromtheground.TheyokewassetupbetweentwolinesofRomansoldiers,andastheÆquianspassedunderittheRomansjeeredatthemandtauntedthem.
Havingtopassundertheyokewasregardedasthegreatestdisgracethatcouldhappentosoldiers.Manymuchpreferredtosufferdeath.Thepracticehasgiventoourlanguagethewordsubjugate,meaningtosubdueorconquer,fromtheLatinwordssub,under,andjugum,ayoke.
WhenthesoldiersofConsulMinuciuscameoutofthevalleytheyshoutedforjoyandcrowdedaroundCincinnatus,thankinghimastheirdelivererandprotector.“LetusgiveCincinnatusagoldencrown!”theycried;butthegreatgeneralonlysmiled,shookhishead,andgavetheorderforthehomewardmarch.
GreatwastherejoicinginRomewhenthenewsofthevictorywasreceived.TheSenateorderedthatthereshouldbeageneralholidayandagrandparadethroughthecity.AndsothevictoriousarmymarchedintoRomeamidtheshoutsandcheersofthepeople.
Cincinnatusrodeinasplendidchariotdrawnbysixhandsomeblackhorses.HeworethedressofdictatorofRome,andonhisheadwasalaurelwreath.BehindhischariottheÆquiankingandhischiefswalked,lookingveryhumbleandforlorn.Followingthemwereslavesladenwiththearmsandothervaluablethingstakenfromtheenemy’scamp.Withbuglesandtrumpetsgaylysounding,theparadewentthroughthecity.ThechariotofCincinnatuswasfollowedbyathrongofpeoplecheeringandcrying,“HailtotheDictator!HailtotheConqueror!”Flowerswereshowereduponhimandthrownbeforehischariotwheels.
AfewdaysafterwardCincinnatusgaveuptheofficeofdictatorandwentbacktohislittlefarm.
CAMILLUS
IAboutthreehundredandeightyyearsbeforethebirthofChristtheRomanshadanotherwarwiththeVeientians.DuringthiswartheytriedtotaketherichcityofVeii,whichwasabouttwelvemilesfromRome.Buttherewasagreatwallofstoneallaroundthecity,andthegates,whichwereofbrass,wereveryhighandverystrong.SotheRomans,thoughtheytriedashardastheycouldforsevenyears,werenotabletotakeVeii.
AndtomakemattersworseforthemitwasreportedthattwelveEtruscancitiesweregoingtosendarmiestohelptheVeientians.ItwasalsosaidthatassoonasthetwelvearmieshaddriventheRomansawayfromthewallsofVeii,theywouldmarchtoRomeanddestroythecity.
TheRomansweremuchalarmedbythesereports,andtheyresolvedthatthereshouldbeadictator.SotheSenateappointedadictator,andthemanappointedwasMarcusFu’ri-usCa-mil’lus.
CamilluswasoneofthegreatestmenofRome.Hebelongedtoaveryrichandpowerfulfamily,andhewasagreatsoldier.WhenhewasmadedictatorheraisedalargearmyandmarchedatoncetoVeii.Hetriedalongtimetobreakdownthewallsorgates,buthecouldnotdoit.Thenhethoughtoftheplanofdiggingatunnelunderthewalls.
Thisseemedagoodidea,soCamillussetagreatnumberofhismentowork.SoontheyhadatunneldugunderthewallsandsofarunderthecitythattheythoughttheywereasfarasthegreattempleofJuno,whichwasinthefortorstrongestpartofVeii.Heretheystoppedtoconsiderwhatnexttodo.Suddenlythesoundofvoices,asofpeopletalkinginthetempleabovethem,reachedtheirears.SotheysentforCamillus,andwhenhecamehelistenedtothevoices.
NowithappenedthatatthatmomentthekingofVeiiwasinthetemplepreparingtoofferanoxasasacrificetoJunoandprayingtothegoddesstosavethecityfromtheRomans.Theoxwaskilledanditscarcasswasreadytobelaidonthealtar.Afterthekinghadprayedoneofthepriests,pretendingthathehad
receivedananswerfromJuno,criedout:
“Thegoddessdeclaresshewillgivevictorytohimwhooffersthisasasacrificeuponthealtar.”
AssoonasCamillus,whowaslisteningallthetime,heardthesewordsofthepriest,heorderedhismentobreakanopeningintheearthovertheirheads.Thiswasquicklydone,andtheRomanssprangthroughintothemidstoftheworshipers.Theyatonceseizedthecarcassoftheox,andCamillushimselfofferedituponthealtartoJuno.Thenheandhiscompanionsrushedoutofthetempleandopenedthegatesofthecitybeforetheastonishedandfrightenedpeopleknewwhatwasbeingdone.
AssoonasthegateswereopenedtheRomansoldierspouredinbythousands.TheVeientiansfoughtbravely,buttheywerequicklydefeated,andtheirgreatandrichcitywasatlastinthehandsoftheRomans.
Inthosetimes,ashasalreadybeensaid,itwasthecustomtodivideamongthevictorioussoldiersthevaluablethingstakenfromadefeatedenemy.TherichesofVeiiwere,therefore,dividedamongtheRomansoldiers,andthereweresomanypreciousthings—goldandsilverandjewelry—thatthemenwerequiterichwheneachgothisshare.
IISometimeafterthetakingofVeiitheRomanswereatwarwiththeFa-lis’ci-ans,anotherpeopleofEtruria,andCamilluswentwithanarmytobesiegetheirchieftown,whichwascalledFa-le’ri-i.Hemadehiscampinfrontofthewalls,stationedsoldiersallroundandtriedhardtotakethetown.ButtheFaliscianswereverystrongandbrave,andtheydefendedtheirtownsowellthatCamillusbegantobeafraidhewouldnotbeabletotakeitatall.
NowtherewasatthattimeinFaleriiaschoolmasterwhotaughtthesonsofthechiefcitizensofthetown.Thisschoolmasterusedtotakehisboyseverydayforawalkoutsidethewalls.OnedayheledthemwithinthelinesoftheRomanarmyandbroughtthemintothecampofCamillus.
Camilluswassurprisedatseeingtheboys.Heaskedtheschoolmasterwhotheywereandwhyhehadbroughtthemthere.Theschoolmastertoldwhotheboyswereandthensaid:
“Ibringthemheretogivethemuptoyou.IndoingthisIgiveyouupthecity,fortheirfatherswillsurrenderthecitytoyouinordertogetbacktheirchildren.”
Camillusstoodforamomentinsilence,gazingatthetraitorwithalookofdisgust.Theninanangryvoicehecriedout:
“Villain,weRomansarenotsobaseasyouare.Wedonotmakewaruponchildren,butuponmenwhodouswrong.”
Hethenorderedsomeofhissoldierstotietheschoolmaster’shandsbehindhisbackandtogiveeachoftheboysarod,tellingthemtoscourgethetraitorbeforethemintothecity.Thistheboysdidwithaheartygood-will.TheywhippedtheunworthyschoolmasterintoFalerii,andwhenthepeoplesawthesightandheardofthenobleconductofCamillus,theyresolvednottofightanymoreagainstsogoodaman.SotheysentambassadorstoRometomakepeace,andtheRomansandFalisciansbecamegoodfriends.
IIINotlongafterthistimeoneofthetribunesbroughtachargeagainstCamillusthathehadkeptforhisownusemorethanhisfairshareofthespoilsofVeii.Somevaluablethingswerenoticedinhishouse,anditwassaidthathehadnotgotthemaspartofhisshare.Itwasbelieved,therefore,thathehadtakenthemsecretlyfromVeii.
TheRomanswereveryparticularuponthispoint.Theyhadstrictlawsforthedivisionofspoilsobtainedinwar,andnoonewaspermittedtotakemorethanhewasentitledto,accordingtohisrankinthearmy.
Camilluswassummonedtoappearinthepeople’scourttoanswerthechargemadeagainsthim.Buthewouldnothumblehimselfsomuchastogobeforetheplebeianstobetried.HepreferredrathertoleaveRomeforever.SothegreatCamillusdepartedfromhisnativecity,intendingnevertoreturn.AshepassedoutofthegatesheprayedtothegodsthatsomedreadfulthingmighthappentotheRomans,sothattheywouldbeforcedtocallhimbackagaintoRometosavethecity.
AndverysoonsomethingdidhappenwhichcompelledtheRomanstoaskforthehelpofCamillus.ForalongtimeapeoplecalledtheGaulshadbeendoingagreatdealofmischiefinsomepartsofItaly.ThesepeoplecamefromthecountrynowknownasFrance,whichinancienttimeswascalledGaul.ThousandsofthemmadetheirwayacrossthehighmountainscalledtheAlpsandsettledontheplainsofnorthernItaly.Formanyyearstheylivedinthisregion.Thentheyheardthatfurthersouththecountrywasverybeautifulandwasrichincornandcattle,sotheystartedoutingreatnumberstoconquerit.
Theywereastrange,savagepeople,verydifferentfromtheRomansortheEtruscans.Theywereverytallandstrongandhadlong,shaggyblackhairanddark,fiercefaces,sothattheyappearedveryterribletotheItalians.Inbattletheyshowedalltheirsavagenature.Theyrushedfuriouslyattheirenemies,yellingatthetopoftheirvoices,flourishingenormousswords,andblowingtrumpets.
ThechieforkingoftheGaulsatthistimewascalledBren’nus.Hewasamanofgreatstrengthandsize.Heworeagoldencollararoundhisneck,andonhisarms,whichwerebare,hesometimesworebraceletsofgold.
TheGaulsfoundthesouthernlandsverymuchtotheirliking.Theyrobbedfarms,attackedsomeoftheEtruscancities,andthen,afterashorttime,theymarchedforRome.AgreatRomanarmywentouttofightthem,andthetwoarmiesmetonthebanksofarivercalledtheAl’li-a.
TheRomansoldiershadneverbeforeseenthedreadfulGauls.Theywere,therefore,greatlyterrifiedwhenthetall,fierce-lookingsavagescamerunningovertheplainsinvastnumbers,shoutingfuriouslyandblowingtheirtrumpets.AndthoughtheRomangeneral,MarcusMan’lius,triedtomakehismengoforwardbravelytomeettheGaulsitwasuseless.Theyfoughtbadlyandwerekilledbythousands.AtlasttheyranfromthefieldandfledtowardRome.
IVWhenthedefeatedsoldiersreachedRomeandtoldwhathadhappened,therewasgreatterrorinthecity.Mostofthepeoplebundleduptheirhouseholdgoodsandfledtohiding-placesinthemountainscloseby,wheretheythoughttheywouldbesafefromtheGauls.
Butmanyofthesenatorsandotherbravemen,bothnoblesandplebeians,insteadofrunningawayfromthecitywentuptotheCapitol,fastenedthegates,andmadereadyforasiege.TheCapitolwasthemostsacredpartofthecity.ItcontainedsplendidstatuesofJupiter,Juno,andMinerva,and,asyouknow,thefamousSibyllineBooks.
SomeoldmenwhohadbeenconsulsresolvedtoremaininthecityandwaitfortheGaulstocome.TheythoughtthatiftheGaulsshouldkillthemtheywouldthenbesatisfiedandwouldsparethecity.SothepatrioticoldmendressedthemselvesintheirfinestrobesandsatinchairsintheForum,eachwithanivorystaffinhisrighthand.
WhentheGaulsreachedthecitytherewasnoonetoopposethem.They
marchedontotheForumandfoundtheoldmen,withlongwhitebeards,sittingintheirchairs,sostillthattheylookedlikestatues.AGaulwentuptooneofthemandpulledhisbeardtoseeifhewerealivingperson.Instantlytheoldmanraisedhisstaffandstruckthebarbarianintheface.TheGaulsthenfelluponthepatriotsandkilledthem.Thentheybegantoplunder.AfterdestroyingthegreaterpartofthecitytheGaulsturnedtheirattentionto
theCapitol.Therockonwhichitwasbuiltwashighandsteep.
Brennusledhissoldiersupthehill,buttheRomansintheCapitolrusheddownthenarrowroadandafterafewminutesofbravefightingdrovethemback.TheGaulsmadeanotherattempt,butitwasnomoresuccessfulthanthefirst.
BrennussawthattheRomanscouldnotbedrivenfromtheCapitol.Hethereforedecidedtostarvethemout.Heputastrongguardattheentrance,sothattheRomanscouldnotcomeouttogetfood.ForweekstheCapitolwasthusbesieged,butitsfaithfuldefendersheldoutmanfully.
MeanwhilethepeoplewhohadfledfromRometookcourageagain.TheygatheredatthecityofVeiiandorganizedastrongarmytofighttheGauls.Buttheywantedacommander,andthentheythoughtofCamillus.Allagreedthathewouldbetherightmantobetheirgeneral.Sotheyresolvedtosendforhim,butfirsttheythoughttheymusthavetheapprovaloftheSenate.Herewasadifficulty.HowcouldamessengergettotheSenatewhiletheGaulswerearoundtheCapitol?Thispuzzledthemforagoodwhile,butatlastayoungmannamedPon’ti-usCom-in’i-usvolunteeredtocarryamessagetotheCapitol.
SoonaverydarknightPontiusleftVeiiandswamdowntheTiberuntilhereachedtheCapitolineHill.Thenhewentonshoreandcreptupthehillasfarasthegreatrock.TheGaulshadputnoguardthere,fortheythoughtnoonecouldclimbtherockbecauseitwassosteep.
BygreateffortsPontiusmanagedtoclimbup.Severaltimeshewasnearfalling.Butbyclingingtothevinesandbushesthatgrewontherockhecametothetopatlast.HiscountrymenintheCapitolweredelightedtoseehim.TheywerealsoverygladwhentheyheardaboutthearmyatVeii,andtheSenateatonceapprovedoftheproposalaboutCamillus.Itwasagreednotonlytomakehimgeneral,buttomakehimdictator.ThenCominiuswentdowntherockandthehillbythewayhehadcomeupandhastenedofftoVeii.
V
ThenextdaysomeoftheGauls,whilewalkingalongthissideofthehill,noticedfootmarksinthesoil.Theyalsonoticedthatbushes,growinghighupontherock,werecrushedandtorn.Thentheyknewthatsomeonehadgoneuporcomedownthecliff,andtheyresolvedtotrytogoupthemselvesthatnight.
Soshortlyaftermidnight,whentheythoughtthattheRomanswouldbefastasleep,apartyofGaulsbegancautiouslyandsilentlytoclamberupthesteeprock.Someplacedtheirshieldsacrosstheirshouldersforotherstostandupon,andinthiswaytheysupportedoneanother,untilatlastsomeofthemmadetheirwayveryneartothetopandonegotjusttotheedgeofabalconyoftheCapitol.Noonewithinthebuildingheardthem,noteventhewatch-dogs.
Butatthatmomenttherewasaloudcacklingofgeese.ThesebirdswerethoughttobefavoritebirdsofthegoddessJuno.ManywerekeptintheCapitol,andsomeofthemhappenedjustthentobeatthesidetheGaulswereclimbingup.Themovementsoftheclimbers,quietthoughtheywere,disturbedthegeeseandtheybegantocackleandflaptheirwings.
ThenoisearousedMarcusManliusfromhissleep.Hesprangfromhisbed,seizedhisswordandshield,andrantothebalcony.TherehesawaGaulclimbingontotheparapetandothersscramblingupbehind.Marcusrusheduponhim,struckhiminthefacewithhisshield,andtumbledhimheadlongdowntherock.
AstheGaulfellheknockeddownsomeofhiscompanionswhowereclimbingbehindhim.Thegeesestillkeptuptheirloudcackling,andsoonalltheRomanswereawakenedandcamequicklytotheassistanceofMarcus.TheGaulswerehurledbackastheymountedtherock,andinafewminutesallwhohadcomeupweredasheddownthesteepcliffandkilled.ThustheCapitolwassavedbythecacklingofgeese.ForhisbraveactiononthisoccasionMarcusManliuswashonoredbybeingcalledMarcusCap’i-to-li’nus.
VIBrennusnowsawthathecouldnottaketheCapitol,sohethoughtitwouldbeuselesstoremainanylongerinRome.HethereforeofferedtogoawayiftheSenatewouldgivehimathousandpoundsofgold.TheSenatethoughtitbettertodothis.FoodwasveryscarceintheCapitolandinafewdaysthebravementherewouldhavenoneatall.TheyhadheardnothingfurtherfromthearmyatVeiiandtheywerenotsurethathelpcouldcomeintimetosavethem.
SotheSenateresolvedtogivethethousandpoundsofgoldtotheGauls,and
anofficernamedQuin’tusSul-pit’i-uswassentwithsomelictorstodeliverittoBrennus.ButthegoldhadtobeweighedandtheGaulsattemptedtocheattheRomansbyusingfalseweights.WhenSulpitiuscomplainedofthis,Brennustookoffhisswordandthrewit,beltandall,intooneofthescales,andwhenSulpitiusaskedwhatthatmeantBrennusanswered:“Whatshoulditmeanbutwoetotheconquered?”
AtthatmomentCamillusappearedatthegateswithhisarmy.Hesoonlearnedwhatwasgoingon.QuicklyhemarchedtothespotandorderedthelictorstotakethegoldoutofthescaleandcarryitbacktotheRomantreasury.ThenheturnedtoBrennusandaddressinghiminasternvoicesaid:
“WeRomansdefendourcountry,notwithgold,butwithsteel.”
Immediatelytherewasabattle,andtheGaulsweredefeatedanddrivenoutofthecity.NextdaytherewasanotherbattleafewmilesfromRome,andtheGaulswereagaindefeatedandthousandsofthemslain.
CamillusthenreturnedtoRomeattheheadofhisvictoriousarmy.Thepeoplereceivedhimwithshoutsofjoyandforseveraldaystheyhadcelebrationsinhishonor.TheycalledhimthesecondRomulus,meaningthathewasthesecondfounderofthecity.TheyalsocalledhimtheFATHEROFHISCOUNTRY.
VIIItwasinthetimeofCamillusthatagreatholeorchasm,causedperhapsbyanearthquake,suddenlyappearedinthegroundinthemiddleoftheForum.Workmenweresenttofillitup,butnomatterhowmuchearththeythrewintoittheholeseemedtobeaslargeanddeepasbefore.TheSenatethenconsultedtheaugursandtheysaidtheholecouldnotbefilledupuntilwhatwasmostvaluableinRomewascastintoit.Thenthepeoplebegantothrowingoldandsilverandjewelry,butstilltheholewasasdeepasever.AtlastayoungmannamedCurtiussaidthatthemostvaluablethingstheRomanshadweretheirarmsandtheircourage.ThenheputonhisarmorandhisswordandmountinghishorserodeintotheForumandleapedintothegreathole.Immediatelyitclosedupbehindhim,andneitherhenorhishorsewaseverseenagain.
IntheoldRomanstoriesCurtiusismuchpraisedasapatriotandhero.Thepeoplethoughthehadsavedhiscountryfromsomegreatevil,whichtheybelievedwouldhavehappenedtoitiftheholeintheForumhadnotbeenclosedup.
MANLIUSTORQUATUS
MarcusManlius,whocommandedtheRomanarmyatthebattleofAlliaandwhosowelldefendedtheCapitolagainsttheGauls,belongedtoafamilyknownastheMan’li-i.ThisfamilygavemanybravegeneralstotheRepublic.OneofthemwasnamedTitusManlius.
SomeyearsafterthesiegeoftheCapitolTitushadaremarkablefightwithahugeGaul.TheGaulshadcomebacktomakewaragainuponRome.TheirarmywasencampednearabridgeontheA’ni-o,asmallriverafewmilesfromthecity,andtheRomanarmysenttoopposethemwasontheothersideoftheriver,waitingforagoodopportunityforbattle.
EverydayaGaulofgiganticsize,whoworeroundhisneckacollarorchainoftwistedgoldthreads,usedtocometothebridgetoinsulttheRomans.Hewouldcallthemcowardswhowereafraidtofight.Onedayhedaredthemtosendsomeoneouttofightwithhim.Manliusatonceacceptedthechallenge,andthetwoimmediatelytooktheirplacesinanopenspacewithinsightofbotharmies.
TheGaulwassotallandstrongthattheRomanappearedlikeaboybesidehim,andeverybodythoughtthebigwarriorwouldhaveaneasyvictory.ButTituswasveryquickinhismovements.Forafewmomentsafterthefightbeganheskillfullydodgedthefuriousblowsofhisopponent.Thenhesuddenlyrancloseuptohim,sprangunderhisgreatshieldandplungedhissworddeepintotheGaul’sbody.
TheGaulfelltothegrounddead.ThenTitustookthegoldencollarfromthedeadman’sneckandputitonhisown.SoafterwardshewascalledManliusTor-qua’tus,fromthewordtorques,whichisLatinforatwistedcollar.
ManliusTorquatusbecameconsul,buthewasnotmuchlikedbythepeople,forhewasaverysternandsevereruler.DuringawarwhichtheRomanshadwiththeLatinsandsometribesofSouthItaly,ManliuswasincommandoftheRomanarmy.Hemarchedtomeettheenemy,whowereassembledinforceatthefootofMountVesuvius.
Whilethetwoarmieswereencampedoppositetoeachother,ManliusorderedthatnoneofhismenshouldfightwithanyoftheLatinsuntilthewordforbattlewasgiven.SoonafteraLatinofficermetyoungManlius,theconsul’sson,ridinginfrontofthelineswithatroopofhiscomrades.Theyenteredintoconversationaboutthecomingbattle,andeachboastedofthevalorofthesoldiersonhisownside.AtlasttheLatinofficerchallengedtheyoungRomantosinglecombat.
“Wiltthou,”hecried,“measurethystrengthwithmine?ItwillthenbeseenhowmuchtheLatinhorsemanexcelstheRoman.”
Manliusacceptedthechallenge,andinthefightwhichimmediatelytookplacehewasthevictor.HekilledtheLatinand,accordingtothecustomofthosetimes,strippedhimofhisarmorandcarriedittotheRomancamp.Thenhewenttotellhisfatherwhathehaddone.
“Father,”saidhe,“Ipresentyouthisarmor,whichIhavetakenfromtheenemy.IhopeyouwillacceptitasaproofthatIamreadyandabletodomydutyasaRomansoldier.”
Torquatuslookedathissonsadlyandthensaid:
“Myson,yousayyouarewillingtodoyourdutyasasoldier.Butthefirstdutyofasoldierisobedience.Thisdutyyouhavenotperformed,foryouhavejustnowdisobeyedme,yourcommander.Youhavefoughtwiththeenemywithoutreceivingorderstodoso.Butyoushallnotescapepunishmentbecauseyouaremyson.”
Thenturningtohislictorshesaid:
“Go,bindhimtoastakeandcutoffhishead.”
Atthiscruelorderloudcriesofhorrorcamefromthesoldiers.YoungManliusthrewhimselfathisfather’sfeetandbeggedformercy.Butthesternconsulturnedawayfromhimandorderedthelictorstoperformtheirduty.SothebraveyoungManliuswasledtoastakeandbound,andwithonestrokeofthelictor’saxehisheadwascutfromhisbody.
Soonafterwardstherewasabattlebetweenthetwoarmies,andtheRomansgainedagreatvictory.Butthewarcontinuedforsometimelonger.Itended,however,inthedefeatoftheLatins.Manliustookpossessionofoneoftheirtowns—thetownofAn’ti-um,ontheMediterraneancoast—andcompelledtheinhabitantstogiveuptheirwarships.
Warvesselsandgalleysinthosetimeshadsharpprowsmadeforthepurpose
ofrunningintoandbreakingthroughthesidesofothervessels.Theprowwasabeam,withpointedironsfastenedtoit,andametalfigureresemblingthebeakorheadofabirdorotheranimal.Thisbeakwascalledarostrum.
WhentheRomanscapturedthewarshipsofAntiumtheybrokeoffthebeaksandcarriedthemtoRome.TheretheyfastenedthemasornamentstotheplatformintheForum,fromwhichoratorsaddressedthepeople.Hencethewordrostrumcametomeanaplatformorpulpitforpublicspeaking,andinthissenseitisnowusedinourownlanguage.
APPIUSCLAUDIUSCÆCUS
ISoonafterthedefeatoftheGaulstherelivedinRomeagreatmannamedAp’pi-usClau’di-us.Hebelongedtooneofthehighestfamiliesofthecity.Hewasconsulfortwoyears,andforseveralyearsheheldtheofficeofcensor(312–308B.C.).
Thecensorwasaveryhighandimportantofficer.Hewasnotonlyheadofthedepartmentfortakingthecensus,buthehadchargeofthecollectingofthetaxes,theerectingofpublicbuildings,andthemakingofroadsandstreets.
AppiusClaudiuswasagreatsoldier.EveryRomancitizenhadtobeasoldier,andeverymanwhowasconsulhadtobeabletoleadarmiesandtofightandwinbattles.ButAppiusClaudiuswaschieflyfamousforthegreatpublicworksheplannedanddirectedinRome,whichatthattimewasacitywithapopulationofaboutthreehundredthousand.Oneoftheseworkswasanaqueductwhichbroughtwatertothecityfromalakeeightmilesdistant.TheRomanaqueductswerethebestintheworld.Someofthemthatwerebuiltovertwothousandyearsagoarestillinuse.
ButthegreatestworkofAppiusClaudiuswasthemakingofaroadfromRometoCap’u-a,adistanceofonehundredandtwentymiles.ThisroadwascalledtheAppianWayinhonorofAppius.Itwasalsocalledthe“queenofroads”becauseitwassowellbuilt.Partsofitarestillinexistence.TheRomanshadgoodroadsaswellasgoodaqueducts.Theywerethebestroad-buildersintheworld.
WhilehewascensorAppiusClaudiusverymuchimprovedRome.Hewascalled“thegreatestofhiscountrymenintheworksofpeace.”Evenafterheretiredfromofficehehadgreatinfluenceinpublicaffairs.Hisadvicewasaskedbybothplebeiansandnobles.
OnceduringthefirstwarwhichtheRomanshadwiththeGreekstheadviceofAppiuswasofgreatbenefittoRome.AtthattimethereweremanyGreeksettlementsinthesouthofItaly.OneoftheGreektownswascalledTaren’tum.It
wasbuiltclosetotheseaandhadaverygoodharbor.
Manyofthepeopleofthistownwerewelleducated.InthosedaystheGreeksweremostlyaneducatedpeople.Theywerefondoflearningandofart.TheycalledtheRomansbarbariansandwerenotfriendlytothem.
OncewhenaRomanfleetenteredthebayofTarentum,thepeopleofthetownattackeditandaftertakingfiveoftheshipsputthecrewstodeath.WhenthenewsofthisoutragereachedRometheSenatesentambassadorstodemandsatisfaction.OneoftheambassadorswasamannamedLu’ci-usPos-thu’mi-us.WhentheyarrivedatTarentumtheyweremetbyanoisycrowdofpeopleofthetown,whomadefunoftheirdress.
TheRomansworeanouterdresscalledatoga.Itwasalargewhitewoollencloth,intheshapeofahalfcircle,fourorfiveyardslongandofnearlythesamewidth.Inputtingonthisgarmenttheydoubleditlengthwise,thenpassedoneendovertheleftshoulderandundertheoppositearmandagainovertheleftshoulder,theotherendreachingnearlytothegroundinfront.TheTarentineslaughedatthetogaoftheRomanambassadors.Theysaiditwasadressfitonlyforsavages.
Inashorttimetheambassadorsweretakentothepublictheatre,wherethepeoplehadassembledtohearthemessagefromRome.PosthumiusspoketotheminGreek,butasthiswasnothisownlanguagehepronouncedmanyofthewordsinapeculiarway,andtheTarentineslaughed.TheRomanwenton,however,inadignifiedmannerandfinishedhisspeechasifhehadnotnoticedtheinsult.
JustthenaTarentinemovedforwardtotheplacewherePosthumiusstoodandthrewsomedirtonhiswhitetoga.TheambassadorheldupthesoiledgarmentwithhishandandsaidthatTarentumwouldbemadetosufferfortheoutrage.Thenthetheatrerangwithlaughterandoffensivecries.
“Laughon,”saidPosthumius,“youmaylaughnowbutyoushallweephereafter.Thestainonthistogashallbewashedoutinyourblood!”
ThentheambassadorsleftthetheatreandatoncesetoutforRome.WhentheyappearedbeforetheSenatePosthumiusshowedthestainonhistogaasproofoftheinsultofferedtoRomebytheTarentines.TheSenateatoncedeclaredwaronTarentumandsentapowerfularmytoattackit.
II
AtthistimetheTarentineshadnogeneraltheythoughtwouldbeabletofighttheRomans.SotheysentacrosstheseatoE-pi’rus,inGreece,forthekingofthatcountrytocomeandhelpthem.ThenameofthiskingwasPyr’rhus.Hewasagreatsoldierandcommanderandwasnearlyalwaysengagedinwar.HeconsentedtohelptheTarentinesandcrossedovertoItalywithagreatarmyinwhichtherewasanumberoffightingelephants.
WhenPyrrhusenteredTarentumhemadehimselfmasterofthecity.TheTarentineswereveryfondofplaysandamusementsofallkinds.Pyrrhusclosedthetheatres,stoppedalltheamusementsandmadethepeopledrillassoldiersalldaylong.
AssoonashewasreadytofighthemarchedoutwithhisarmyofGreeksandTarentinesagainsttheRomans,andtherewasagreatbattlenearthecityofHer’a-cle’a.Bothsidesfoughtwellforhours,buttheGreeksatlastbegantofallback.Theycouldnotstandagainstthesteady,fierceattacksmadebytheRomans.
ThenPyrrhusbroughthiselephantsuponthefield.Hehadseventyofthem,andtheywerethoroughlytrainedtofight.Theywouldrunintotheranksoftheenemy,knockthesoldiersdownandtramplethemtodeath,orlayholdofthemwiththeirtrunksandthrowthemhighintotheair.
Astheelephantsstoodinlinewaitingfortheordertocharge,theRomanslookedatthemwithwonderandfear.Theyknewnothingaboutelephants,fortheyhadneverseenanybefore.Andwhenthehugebeastscamechargingfuriouslyacrossthefield,makingstrangenoises,manyoftheRomansoldierswereterriblyfrightenedandbegantorunaway.Theelephantskilledhundredsofthem,andinafewminutestheRomanarmywasputtoflight.
Itwassavedfromentiredestructionbyonlyonething.ARomansoldierwasbraveenoughtorushatanelephantwhileitwaschargingandcutoffapartofitstrunkwithhissword.Theanimal,wildwithpain,turnedandranbacktotheGreeklines,tramplingdownthesoldiersandcausingagreatdealofconfusion.IntheexcitementtheRomansmanagedtoescapeacrossarivertoafriendlycitywheretheyweresafe.
Pyrrhuswonthevictory,buthelostthousandsofmen.Whenhesawthegreatnumberofhissoldiersthatlaydeadonthefield,heexclaimed:
“AfewmoresuchvictoriesandImustreturntoEpirusalone!”
IIIShortlyafterthebattlePyrrhussenthisfriendandfavoriteminister,Cin’e-as,toRometooffertermsofpeacetotheSenate.Cineaswasaveryeloquentman.OftenwhenPyrrhuscouldnotconquerpeopleinbattle,Cineasbyhiscleverspeechesinducedthemtosubmittothekingandbehisfriends.ThiswaswhytheGreeksusedtosay,“ThetongueofCineaswinsmorecitiesthantheswordofPyrrhus.”
CineasproposedtotheRomanSenatethattheRomansshouldnotmakewaranylongerontheTarentines,noronanyoftheItaliantribesthathadhelpedthem,andthatallthelandsRomehadtakenfromthesetribesinpastyearsshouldbegivenback.IftheRomanswouldagreetotheseterms,thenPyrrhuswouldbetheirtruefriend.
ThetermswerenotgoodforRome,butCineaswassosmooth-spokenandsopleasantinproposingthemthatmanyofthesenatorswereinclinedtoacceptthem.OnedaywhiletheywerediscussingthematterintheSenateathrillingsceneoccurred.
AppiusClaudiuswasstilllivinginRome.Hewasveryoldandhadbecomeblind.ForthisreasonhegotthenameCœ’cus,awordwhichisLatinforblind.Buthismindwasremarkablyclear,andhehadnotlostinterestinpublicaffairs.WhenheheardthattheSenatewasgoingtoacceptthetermsofferedbyPyrrhusherosefromhisbeddeclaringthathewouldgoandspeakagainsttheproposal.
SohewascarriedbyhisslavestotheSenatehouse,andhissonsledtheagedmantohisseat.Hebeganhisspeechamidstthedeepestsilence.Hisyouthseemedtocomebacktohim.Oncemorehewastheboldcensorofthirtyyearsbefore.Infierywordshespokeagainsttheplanforpeace,sayingitwouldbebaseandcowardlytoyieldtotheGreekking.
“Letusfighton,”hesaid,“aslongaswehavesoldiers.ShallwesubmittothisGreekinvadermerelybecausewehavelostonebattle?Never!Never!Isay.Bettertoloseallthatwehavethantodisgraceourselvesbysubmitting!”
Thepatrioticoldmanwentonspeakinginthiswayuntilhisstrengthfailedhimandhesankexhaustedintohisseat.HisspeechhadsomucheffectonthesenatorsthattheyimmediatelyvotedagainsttheproposalofPyrrhusandorderedCineastodepartfromRome.
Thenthewarwascarriedonvigorously.AgreatbattlewasfoughtatAs’cu-lum,andagaintheRomansweredefeatedbytheGreeks.Buttheywerenot
discouraged.TheConsulCu’ri-usDen-ta’tusfoughtanotherbattleagainstPyrrhusatBen’e-ven’tum,andwonagloriousvictory.TheGreekswereutterlydefeated,andPyrrhussoonafterwardsleftItalyandreturnedtohisowncountry.
ThentheRomansspeedilytookpossessionofTarentumandmadeitspeoplepaywellfortheirinsulttotheRomanambassadors.
REGULUS
IThenextgreatwartheRomansengagedinwaswithCarthage.ItwasaboutthepossessionoftheislandofSicily,intheMediterraneanSea.ItbegannotlongafterPyrrhusleftItalyandwasthefirstofthreewarscalledthePu’nicWars.PunicmeansPhœ-ni’ci-anandthepeoplewhofoundedCarthagecamefromPhœ-ni’ci-a,soCarthagewascalledaPunicorPhœniciancolony.
WhenthefirstPunicWarbeganbothRomeandCarthagewereveryrichandpowerful.Romehadgreatarmiesandgreatgenerals.Itscommonsoldiers,too,wereremarkablybraveandpatriotic.Itwasverysuccessfulinitswars.BeforeitbegantofightCarthageithadconquerednearlyallItaly.
Carthage,also,hadfinearmies,butitsgreateststrengthwasinitsnavy.Noothercountryintheworldatthattimehadsomanyshipsofwarandtradingships.TheshipsoftheCarthaginianswenteverywhereintheMediterranean.SomeofthemevenwentpastthePillarsofHercules,astherockycapesattheStraitofGibraltarwerethencalled,andsailedforsomedistanceontheAtlanticOcean.
TheCarthaginianshipsweresmall,buttheywereverystrong.Thewarshipswerebuilttocarryagoodmanysoldiers,aswellassailorsandoarsmen.Theyhadgreatroundedironprows,whichcoulddomuchdamagetoanenemy’sshipswhenrunupagainstthem.Eachshiphadamastandlargesail,butitwasalsorowedwithoarsbymanyoarsmenwhosatonlongbenches,placedoneabovetheother.Withthesailandtheoarstheshipcouldbemadetogoveryfastthroughthewater.
CarthagewasinNorthAfrica,inthecountrynowcalledTunisia.ItstoodattheheadofabeautifulbayoftheMediterranean.Itwasalargeandhandsomecityandhadagreatcommerce.
II
ManyyearsbeforethebeginningofthefirstPunicWarCathageconqueredagreatpartofSicilyandmadeitaCarthaginiancolony.ButtheRomanswantedtheisland,andsounderthepretenceofprotectinganItaliantribethathadsettledtheretheysentanarmyintoSicily.ThiswashowthefirstPunicWarbegan.
BothRomeandCarthagefoughtfiercely,andforalongtimeneitherhadmuchadvantageovertheother.AtfirsttheRomanshadnowarships.Uptothattimetheydidnotneedany,foralltheirfightingwasonland.ButwhentheybeganwarwiththeCarthaginianstheyfoundthattheymusthaveshipstocarrytheirsoldierstoSicilyandtofighttheCarthaginiansatsea.SotheRomanssettoworktobuildshipsandtotrainmentorowthem,andinashorttimetheyhadagreatnavy.
IntheninthyearofthewarthearmiesandfleetsofRomewereputunderthecommandofageneralnamedMarcusA-til’i-usReg’u-lus.Hewasagreatheroandpatriot.HehadbeenageneralbeforethePunicWarandhadoftenledtheRomanstovictory.Afteryearsofgoodservice,fightingandwinningbattlesforhiscountry,hewenttoliveonhislittlefarmand,likeCincinnatus,hecultivateditwithhisownhands.AstoryistoldofhimwhichwellillustratesancientRomanhonorandpatriotism.
UntilRegulustookcommandthePunicWarwascarriedononlyinSicilyandontheMediterranean.ButhethoughtthatRomeshouldfighttheCarthaginiansintheirowncountry,andsoheorganizedanimmensearmyandnavytoinvadeCarthage.Hehadthreehundredandthirtywarshipsofthelargestsizeandaboutsixtythousandsoldiers.
Inthosetimes,infightsatsea,theyhadanenginecalledaboardingbridge.Oneendofitwasfixedtothedeckoftheship.Theotherend,whichwasfree,couldbeswungroundandontoanenemy’sship,andithadaheavyironspikeunderneath,sothatwhenitfellonthedeckitwouldsinkintoitandthusholdtheenemy’svesselfortheattackingpartytoboardit.
WheneverythingwasreadyRegulussetsailforAfrica.SoonafterstartinghemetalargeCarthaginianfleet,andinashortbattlehedestroyedit.ThenhesailedonandafterlandinginAfricabeganamarchtowardsCarthage.Onhiswayhecapturedseveraltowns,andhemetanddefeatedaCarthaginianarmy.HethencontinuedhismarchuntilhemetanotherarmyofCarthaginians.ThisarmywascommandedbyXan-thip’pus,afamousgeneralofSparta,inGreece,whohappenedtobeinCarthageatthattime.InthebattlethatfollowedtheRomansweredefeated,andReguluswasmadeprisonerandtakenofftoCarthage.
IIIButtheRomanshadothergeneralsandotherarmies,andtheycarriedonthewaranddefeatedtheCarthaginiansinmanybattles.
AtlasttheCarthaginiansthoughtitbettertotrytomakepeace,andsotheysentambassadorstoRometoproposethatthewarshouldbestoppedoncertainterms,whichtheywerereadytooffer.TheysentReguluswiththeambassadors,buttheymadehimswearthathewouldreturntoCarthageiftheRomanSenateshouldrefusetoagreetotheirterms.TheythoughtthatinordertogainhisownfreedomReguluswouldtrytogettheSenatetoaccepttheirproposals.Regulusagreedtogoandmadethepromiserequired.
“Igiveyoumywordofhonor,”saidhe,“thatIwillreturnifyourtermsarenotaccepted.”
ThenhesetoutforRomewiththeambassadors.Asheapproachedthegatesofthecity,thousandsofpeoplecameforthtowelcomehimandtoescorthimthroughthestreets.Butherefusedtoenter.
“IcannotenterRome,”saidhe.“IamnolongeraRomanofficer,butaprisonerofCarthage.Donoturgemetoenterthegates.IamnotevenworthexchangingforaCarthaginianprisoner.”
Thepeople,however,insistedthatheshouldenterthecity,andsoamidshoutsandcheershewasescortedtotheSenatehouse.
InalittlewhiletheCarthaginianambassadorspresentedtheirproposals,andtheSenatebegantoconsiderthem.AftersomediscussionReguluswasaskedtogivehisopinionwhetherthetermsoughttobeacceptedornot.
RegulusatfirstwasunwillingtospeakintheSenate.Hesaidthatbybecomingaprisonerhehadlostthehonorofbeingasenator.
“IamnolongeraRomansenator,”saidhe.“IamaprisonerofCarthage.”
TheSenate,however,insistedthatheshouldspeak.ThenRegulussaidthattheSenateoughtnottoacceptthetermsofpeaceofferedbyCarthage.HethoughtthattheywerenotgoodtermsforRome,andheadvisedtheSenatenottoagreetothem.
ButtheSenatewasinclinedtoacceptthetermsforthesakeofRegulushimself.IfpeacewerenotmadehewouldhavetogobackandremainaprisonerinCarthage,orperhapshewouldbeputtodeath.ThereforetheSenatewasforagreeingtotheCarthaginianterms.ButRegulusagainspokestronglyagainst
them,andatlasttheSenatedecidedtorejecttheCarthaginianproposals.
IVRegulusnowpreparedtoreturntoCarthage,buthisfamilyandfriendsclungtohim,saying:
“Youmustnotgo!Youmustnotgo!”
Toalltheirappealshemadebutoneanswer:
“Ihavegivenmywordofhonortoreturn,andIcannotbreakit.”
SoRegulusreturnedtoCarthagewiththeambassadors.Whenthepeopleofthatcityheardthatbyhisadvicetheirtermshadbeenrejectedtheywereveryangry.TheyhadwishedverymuchtomakepeacewithRome,forthelongwarhadcostthemagreatmanylivesandagreatdealofmoney,andtheywantedtostopit.ThereforetheywereenragedagainstRegulusandtheyputhimtodeathinaverycruelway.
ThewarbetweenRomeandCarthagecontinuedforsomeyearsmore,butatlasttheCarthaginiansweredefeatedinagreatseabattlenearthecoastofSicily.TheywerethenobligedtogiveupSicilyandpayalargesumofmoneytotheRomansasafine.ThiswastheendofthefirstPunicWar(241B.C.).
SCIPIOAFRICANUS
IButpeacedidnotlastlongbetweenRomeandCarthage.SomeyearsaftertheendofthefirstPunicWartheCarthaginiansattackedandtookpossessionofatowninSpain,thepeopleofwhichwerefriendsandalliesofRome.ThiscausedthesecondPunicWar,whichbegan218B.C.
OneofthegreatsoldiersofthiswarwasPub’li-usCorneliusScip’i-o.InthelatterpartofhislifehewascalledScipioAf-ri-ca’nus,onaccountofthegreatvictorieswhichhewoninAfrica.
Scipiowasabravesoldierfromhisyouth.Whenonlyseventeenyearsoldhefoughtinabattleandsavedhisfather’slife.Hewasalwaysgallantandheroicinwar,sohesoonbecamenotedintheRomanarmyandrosetohighrank.Andalthoughhewasamemberofanoblefamily,hewaswelllikedbytheplebeiansandtheyelectedhim“ædile.”
Theædilesweremagistratesorjudges.TheywerealsosuperintendentsofpublicbuildingsandofthegamesandshowsofwhichtheRomanpeopleweresofond.
WhenScipiowasabouttwenty-sevenyearsofage,hewasappointedtocommandtheRomanarmythatwasfightingtheCarthaginiansinSpain.CarthagehadconqueredsomepartsofSpain,andRomehadconqueredotherparts,andthetwonationswereoftenatwaraboutplacesinthatcountry.
WhenScipiowenttoSpainmanyofthepeopletherewereagainsthim,buttheysoonbecamehisfriends.Wheneverhetookacityheallowedthechiefswhowerecapturedtogofree,andhegavepresentstomanyofthem.Healwaysshowedgreatrespecttowomenandchildrenwhoweretakenprisoners.Inthosetimesitwasthecruelcustomtomakeslavesofwomenwhowerefoundintownsthathadbeentakeninwar.ButScipioneverdidthisinSpain.Healwaysletthewomengofree.
OnedayabeautifulSpanishgirlwhohadbeentakenprisonerwasbrought
beforehim.Sheseemedverymuchfrightened,butScipiospokekindlytoherandtoldherthatnooneshouldharmher.WhilespeakingwithherhelearnedthatayoungmanwhowasherloverhadalsobeentakenprisonerbytheRomansoldiers.Hesentfortheyoungmanandsaidtohim:
“Takeyoursweetheartandgo.Isetyoubothfree.GoandbehappyandinfuturebefriendsofRome.”
AndsobymanyactsofkindnessScipiogainedthefriendshipoftheSpaniards.AfterawhiletheybegantojointheRomansandgavethemgreathelpintheirwaragainsttheCarthaginians.
IIWhenhisserviceswerenolongerneededinSpain,ScipioreturnedtoRome.Hegotagreatreceptioninthecity.Therewasagrandparadeinhishonor.Hebroughthomeanimmensequantityofsilver,whichheobtainedfromtherichSpanishminesandfromthecitieshehadtaken.ThesilverwasputintotheRomantreasurytopaytheexpensesofthewar.
SoonafterhereturnedfromSpainScipiowaselectedconsul.TheCarthaginiangeneral,Han’ni-bal,wastheninItalywithalargearmy.ThisHannibalwasoneofthegreatestgeneralsofancienttimes.Whenhewasbutnineyearsoldhisfather,whowasalsoagreatgeneral,madehimtakeanoaththathewouldhateRomeandtheRomansforever.ThenhetooktheboywithhimtoSpainandgavehimathoroughtrainingasasoldier.
WhenhisfatherdiedHannibalbecamecommanderoftheCarthaginianarmyinSpain.Hewasthenlittlemorethantwenty-oneyearsold.HefoughtwellinSpainforsometimeandwaswelllikedbyhissoldiers.SuddenlyheresolvedtomakewarontheRomansintheirowncountryandtogobylandtoItaly.Sohegotreadyanimmensearmyandsetoutonhismarch.InpassingthroughFrancehehadtocrossthebroadRiverRhone.Thiswasnoteasytodo,fortherewasnobridge.Hegothismenoverinboats,buthehadanumberofelephantsinhisarmyandtheyweretoobigandheavytobetakenacrossinthatway.Theboatsweresmallandtheelephantswereafraidtogointothem.Hannibalthereforegotraftsorfloats,madeoftrunksoftreestiedtogether,andinthesetheelephantswerecarriedover.
AftercrossingtheRhoneHannibalmarchedovertheAlpsintoItaly.Heandhisarmysufferedmanyhardshipsinmakingtheirwayoverthosesnow-coveredmountains.Hehadoftentofightfiercetribesthatcametoopposehim,buthe
defeatedthemall,andafterbeingdefeatedmanyofthemjoinedhisarmyandbroughthimprovisionsforhissoldiers.VerysoonRomanarmiesweresentagainstHannibal,buthedefeatedthemin
manybattles.Oncehisarmygotintoaplacenearhighhillswherehecouldnotmarchfurtherexceptthroughonenarrowpassbetweenthehills.TheRomangeneral,QuintusFabius,sentfourthousandofhistroopstotakepossessionofthispass,andhepostedtherestofhisarmyonthehillscloseby.
Hannibalsawthathewasinatrap,buthefoundawayofescaping.Hecausedvinebranchestobetiedtothehornsofalargenumberoftheoxenthatwerewithhisarmy.Thenheorderedhismentosetthebranchesonfireinthemiddleofthenightandtodrivetheoxenupthehills.
Assoonastheanimalsfeltthepaintheyrushedmadlyaboutandsetfiretotheshrubsandbushestheymetontheway.TheRomansatthepassthoughtthattheCarthaginianswereescapingbytorchlight.Sotheyhastilyquittheirpostsandhurriedtowardsthehillstohelptheircomrades.ThenHannibal,seeingthepassfree,marchedhisarmyoutandsoescapedfromthetrap.
QuintusFabiuswasveryslowandcautiousinhismovements.TheRomanshadbeendefeatedsooftenthathethoughtthebestplanwastoharassHannibalineverypossibleway,butnottoventuretofighthiminagreatbattleuntilheshouldbesureofwinning.ForthisreasontheRomansgaveFabiusthenameofCunc-ta’tor,whichmeansdelayer,andsotheplanofextremedelayorcautioninanyundertakingisoftencalledaFabianpolicy.
ButinspiteofthecautionofFabiusHannibalgainedmanygreatvictories.HisgreatestvictorywasatthebattleofCan’næ,inthesouthofItaly.HerehedefeatedanddestroyedaRomanarmyofseventythousandmen.AndforseveralyearsafterthisbattleHannibalremainedinItalydoingtheRomansalltheharmhecould.
AtlastScipiothoughtitwastimetofollowtheplanofRegulus.SohesaidtotheSenate:
“WehaveactedtoolongasifwewereafraidofHannibalandCarthage.Wedefendourselvesbravelywhenweareattacked,andsofarwehavesavedRomefromdestruction;butwedonotmakeanyattacksonourenemies.Wecertainlyoughttodothis,forourarmiesarestrongandfullyreadytomeettheCarthaginians.”
ScipiothenproposedthatanarmyledbyhimselfshouldgotoAfricaand
carryonwarthere.HebelievedthatifthisweredoneHannibalwouldhavetogotoAfricatodefendCarthage.
PerhapsonaccountofwhathadhappenedtoRegulus,theSenatedidnotlikeScipio’splan.Nevertheless,itgavehimpermissiontogotoAfrica,butwouldnotgivehimanarmy.ScipiothenraisedasplendidarmyofvolunteersandsailedacrosstheMediterraneanSeatoAfrica.
IIIScipiotriedforsometimetoobtaintheaidofSy’phax,apowerfulkingofNu-mid’i-a,inAfrica.ButSyphaxdecidedtojointheCarthaginians.SoScipiofoundtwogreatarmiesreadytofighthim.OnewasthearmyofCarthage,withthirty-threethousandmen,commandedbyHas’dru-balGis’co,andtheotherwasthearmyofNumidia,withsixtythousandmen,commandedbyKingSyphax.
ButScipiofoundinAfricaonestrongfriend,andthatwasaNumidianprincenamedMas’i-nis’sa.ThisprincehadahostofsupportersamonghiscountrymenandwasthereforeabletobringalargeforceofgoodsoldierstotheaidoftheRomans.HewasofgreatservicetoScipioinmanyways.
WheneverythingwasreadytheRomanarmy,withMasinissa’sforce,encampedaboutsixmilesfromthecampsoftheenemy.ScipiosentspiesamongtheCarthaginiansandthesoldiersofKingSyphax,andfromthemhelearnedthatbotharmieswerelodgedinhutsmadeofstakesandcoveredwithreedsanddriedleaves.Heresolvedtosetthosehutsonfire.
SooneverydarknighttheRomanarmyleftitscampandmarchedsilentlytotheplainoccupiedbytheenemy.ThenadivisionoftheRomanswenttotheencampmentoftheNumidiansandasoldiercreptcautiouslyfromtheRomanlinesandsetoneofthehutsonfire.Thefirespreadrapidly,andinafewminutesthewholecampwasinflames.
TheNumidiansoldiers,suddenlyawakenedbythefire,fledfromtheburninghutswithouttheirweaponsandmadefranticeffortstoescapefromthecamp.Hundredsofthemwereknockeddownandtrampledtodeathintherushandconfusion;hundredsmorelosttheirlivesinthefire.ThosewhogottotheopencountrywereattackedbytheRomansandkilled.Thegroundwascoveredwiththebodiesoftheslain.KingSyphaxandafewhorsemenmanagedtoescape,buttherestofthevastNumidianarmywasdestroyed.
InthemeantimetheCarthaginianshadbeenarousedbythenoiseinthecamp
oftheNumidians.Theythoughtthatthefirehadbeencausedbyanaccident,andsomeofthemranforwardtoassisttheNumidians.Butthegreaternumberstoodinaconfusedthrong,withouttheirarms,outsidetheircamp,lookingatthefirewithterror.WhiletheywereinthishelplessstatetheCarthaginiansweresuddenly
attackedbytheRomanswithScipioattheirhead.Manywerekilled,andtheothersweredrivenbackintotheircamp,whichwasimmediatelysetonfireinanumberofplaces.Thentherewasafrightfulscene.ThousandsofCarthaginians,strugglingtoescapethefire,wereslainbytheRomans,whilethousandsmoreperishedintheflames.HasdrubalGisco,thecommander,andsomeofhisofficersescaped,butonlyafewoftheothers.InlessthananhourtherewaslittleleftoftheCarthaginianarmy.
IVScipionowbegantomarchtowardsthegreat,richcityofCarthage.Hecapturedanumberoftownsandagreatdealoftreasure.Inafewweeks,however,theCarthaginianswereabletoformanotherarmyofthirtythousandmen,andthentheycameboldlyforthtomeetScipio.
Afiercebattlefollowed.TheRomansweredrivenbackforatime,butwithwonderfulcouragetheychargedtheCarthaginiansagainandagainandatlasttotallydefeatedthem.
TheCarthaginiansnowsentamessagetoItalyrequestingHannibaltocometothereliefofhiscountry.TherenownedgeneraldidnotwanttoleaveItaly,forhehopedtobeabletotakeRome;buthethoughtitbesttoobeythecallofCarthage,sohesailedforAfricawithhisarmy.
AfterarrivinginAfricaHanniballedhisarmytoawideplainnearZa’ma,atownnotfarfromCarthage.HereheawaitedtheRomans.
HannibalhadgreatadmirationforScipio,andhedesiredtoseehimbeforeengaginginbattle.SohesentamessengertoScipiorequestinganinterview.Therequestwasgranted,andthetwogeneralsmet.
Theygreetedeachothercordially,andeachcomplimentedtheotheronhisvictoriesandgreatnessasasoldier.ThenHannibalproposedtermsofpeacetoScipio.
“WewillgiveSpainandtheislandsofSicilyandSardiniatoRome.Thenwewilldividetheseawithyou.Whatmorewouldyouhave?RomeandCarthage
wouldthenbethetwogreatnationsoftheworld.”
Scipiothoughtitwastoolatetomaketerms.
“Wemustfightitout,”saidhe,“untilonesideortheotherisvanquished.”
Thegeneralsthenparted,andthenextdaythetwoarmiesweredrawnupinbattlearray.Oneachsidetherewereaboutthirtythousandmen,butHannibalhadaherdoffightingelephants.
Thebattlewaslongandsevere.Botharmiesfoughtheroically,andtherewasterribleslaughter.ButHannibal’selephantswereoflittleusetohim,astheRomansfrightenedthembyblowingtrumpetsandhurlingballsoffireatthem.AtamomentwhenthelinesoftheCarthaginianswerebreaking,astrongforceofRomanhorsemencameupsuddenlyintherearandoverpoweredallbeforeit.ThiswonthebattlefortheRomans.WhenHannibalsawthatthebattlewaslosthefledfromthefieldwithafewfriends(202B.C.).
ScipiowasnowmasterofCarthage.HecompelledtheCarthaginianstopayhimavastamountingoldandsilverandtogiveupsomeoftheirtownsandlands.HealsocompelledthemtodestroytheirgreatfleetofwarshipsandtopromisenottomakewarinfutureuponanypeoplewithoutthepermissionoftheRomans.
WhenScipioreturnedtoRomeheenteredthecityattheheadofagrandprocession.Thegreatesthonorswerepaidtohim,andhewascalledScipioAfricanus.
SomeyearsafterwardsScipiometHannibalatthecourtofthekingofSyria.ThetwogeneralshadafriendlyconversationandScipioaskedHannibalwhohethoughtwasthegreatestgeneralthateverlived.Hannibalanswered:
“AlexandertheGreat.”
“Whowasthesecond?”askedScipio.
“Pyrrhus,”repliedHannibal.
“Whothethird?”
“Myself,”answeredHannibal.
“Butwhatwouldyouhavesaid,”askedScipio,“ifyouhadconqueredme?”
“Ishouldthenhavesaid,”repliedHannibal,“thatIwasgreaterthanAlexander,greaterthanPyrrhus,andgreaterthanallothergenerals.”
CATOTHECENSOR
IOnafarmnearTusculum,alittletownaboutfifteenmilesfromRome,thereoncelivedaboynamedMar’cusPor’ci-usCa’to.Hisfatherandhisgrandfatherbeforehimhadbeenfarmersandhe,too,expectedtobeone.
WhenhewasaboutseventeenHannibal’sarmycrossedtheAlpsintoItaly,andyoungCatobecameaRomansoldier.Whenthewarendedthecountryboyhadbecomeaman,sternandforceful.Heattractedtheattentionofaneighbor,arichman,whopersuadedhimtogotoRomeandpracticelaw.
Intimehewaselectedtooffice,andhedidhisdutysowellthatherosehigherandhigher,untilhebecameoneoftheconsuls.ThatsameyeararebellionaroseinSpain,andCatoledanarmyagainsttheSpaniards.Itissaidthatinfourhundreddayshecapturedfourhundredvillages.OnhisreturntoRomehewashonoredwithatriumph.
ShortlyafterthishewassenttoGreece,whereAn-ti’o-chuswasattackingGreekcitiesthatwerefriendlytoRome.HedefeatedAntiochusinthePassofThermopylaeandwongreatfameasasoldier.
Catowasaveryhardman;hardonhimself,hardonhisfriends.Andalthoughhewasrichandheldofficeinagreatcity,helivedahardlife,takingnopleasuresandsavinghismoney.Heatetheplainestfoodanddrankthesamecheapwinethatheboughtforhisslaves.
HethoughtthattheluxuryandextravaganceoftherichweretakingawaythestrengthofRome.InordertoputastoptothesethingsCatoaskedthepeopleofRometoelecthimcensor.Thepatriciansopposedhimbitterly,buthewaselectedbyalargemajority.OneofthefirstthingshedidwastoexpelfromtheSenateseveralsenatorswhowereleadingimproperlives.Hehadaheavytaxputoncarriagessoastocompelpeopletowalk.Healsoplacedataxonjewels,handsomedresses,carpets,andfinefurniture.SowelldidhedohisworkthatheisalwaysknowninhistoryasCatotheCensor,justasifheweretheonlymanwhoeverheldtheoffice.Astatueerectedinhishonorsaysnothingabouthis
victoriesinSpainoratThermopylae,butonlythat,“WhentheRomanRepublicwasdegenerating,Catorestoreditbystrictdiscipline.”
IIInthelateryearsofhislifeCatowassenttoCarthagetolookintoacertainmatterforRome.Thetroublewasthis:YouwillrememberthatCarthagehadagreedtomakewaruponnonationwithouttheconsentoftheRomanSenate.Afewyearslater,Masinissa,whowasafriendofRome,attackedtheCarthaginians,andtheyappealedtoRomeforprotection.Thiswasrefused,andthepeopleofCarthagetookuparmstodefendthemselvesagainstMasinissa.
CatowassenttoCarthagetofindoutwhowastoblame.Whenhearrivedinthecityhewassurprisedtofinditlargeandstrongandflourishing.Onlytwenty-sixyearshadpassedsinceScipioAfricanushadconqueredCarthage,andyetCatosawcrowdsofyoungmenonthestreet,stacksofarmsinthearsenals,andaforestofmastsintheharbor.Thecityitselfwasrichandprosperous.
CatoreturnedtoRomeandwarnedhiscountrymenthatCarthagemustbedestroyed.FromthattimeforwardwheneverhemadeaspeechintheSenate,nomatteruponwhatsubject,healwaysendeditbysaying,“AndmyopinionisthatCarthagemustbedestroyed.”Intime,thewordsofCatohadtheireffect,andwarwasdeclaredagainstCarthage.
ThetroopshadalreadyembarkedwhenenvoysfromCarthagereachedRomeandofferedtodowhatevermightbeasked.TheRomanSenatepromisedthatthelawsandlibertiesofCarthageshouldnotbetouched,butdemandedhostages.SothreehundredchildrenoftheleadingfamiliesofCarthageweresenttoRome.WhentheRomanarmyreachedCarthagetheconsulsinsistedthattheCarthaginiansshouldgiveuptheirarms.ThiswasdoneandtheCarthaginiansaskediftheRomansrequiredanythingmore.
Thenoneoftheconsulssaid,“Yourcitymustbedestroyed,andyoumustmovetenmilesinlandfromthesea.”TheCarthaginiansnowsawthattheyhadbeendeceived.Theyclosedtheirgatesanddeterminedtodefendthemselvestothelast.Theyaskedanarmisticeofthirtydays,sothatanembassymightgotoRome.Itwasgranted,andthusamonthoftimewasgained.Duringthistimemen,women,andchildrenwenttoworktomakearmstodefendtheirhomes.Thewomenevencutofftheirhairtofurnishstringsforthebowsofthewarmachineswithwhichstoneswerehurledattheenemy.
TheembassyfailedinitsmissiontoRomeandthesiegeofCarthagebegan.It
lastedthreeyears.
ThesonofPaulusÆ-mil’i-ushadbeenadoptedbythesonofScipioAfricanusandhadtakenthenameScipio.HewassenttoCarthageandaboutayearafterhisarrivalforcedanentranceintothecityandcapturedit(146B.C.).Thewallsweretorndownandthebuildingssetonfire.Catowhowassolargelyresponsibleforthewardidnotlivetoseeitsend.Hediedalmosttwoyearsbeforethecitywasdestroyed.
TheSenatehonoredScipiowiththetitleAfricanus,whichtheolderconquerorofCarthagehadborne.
TheyoungScipiowonfamenotonlyinAfricabutalsoinSpain,wherehewassentagainsttheNumantians.ThesebravepeoplehaddefeatedtwoRomanarmies,butScipiosoonsucceededinshuttingthemwithinthewallsofNumantia.Arounditswallshebuiltwallsofhisownbehindwhichhissoldiersweresafefromattack.FoodsoonbecamescarceinNumantia.Attheendoffifteenmonthsthecitizenswerestarving.Theywerewillingtolosetheirlives,butScipiostayedbehindhisownwallsandrefusedtofight.RatherthantrusttothemercyofRometheNumantianskilledthemselves.
IntimeallSpainwasforcedtosubmitandbecomeaRomanprovince.
THEGRACCHI
IBetweenthesecondandthirdPunicWarstherelivedinRometwobrothersnamedTi-be’ri-usandCaiusGrac’chus,commonlycalledtheGracchi.Theywereverygoodmenandgreatfriendsofthecommonpeople.
ThemotheroftheGracchiwasCor-ne’li-a,adaughterofScipioAfricanus.Shewasanexcellentwoman,andshewasveryproudofhertwosons.Shetaughtthemtobebraveandmanlyandalwaystostandupforthepeople.
Onedayarichlady,whileonavisittoCornelia,showedhersomemagnificentjewels.Whentheyhadlookedthemovertheladysaid:
“Thesearemyjewels;nowletmeseeyours.”
JustatthatmomentTiberiusandCaius,whowerethenboys,cameintotheroom.AssoonasshesawthemCorneliacalledthemtoherand,puttingherarmsaroundthem,said:
“Thesearemyjewels.”
WhenTiberiusandCaiusgrewuptobementheytookthesideofthepeopleinaquarrelthathadbeengoingonforalongtimebetweentheplebeiansandthenobles.Thequarrelwasaboutland.WhenevertheRomansconqueredacountryinwartheytookpossessionofaportionofthelandoftheconqueredcountry.Suchlandwascalledpublicland,andformanyyearsafterthefoundingofthecitythecustomofdividingpartsofthepubliclandsamongallthecitizenswasstrictlyobserved.
Butinlatertimesthiscustomwaschanged.Insteadofpartofthepubliclandsbeingdividedamongallthecitizens,itwasdividedamongonlythenobles,andtheplebeiansgotnoneatall.Thelandsweretilledbyslaves,andallthatwasraisedwenttothenobles.Sothepoorsoldierswhowonthelandsbyhardfightingwerewithoutfarmstotill,andsomeofthemevenwithouthomes.Theycontinuallydemandedthattheoldlaw,forafairdivisionofthelandsamongallthecitizens,shouldbecarriedout.Thenobleslaughedatthedemand.
ButTiberiusGracchuscameforwardboldlyasthechampionofthepoor.Hedeclaredthatthenoblesshouldgiveupthelandstheyhadunjustlytaken,andthatthepeopleshouldhavetheirfairshare.Hiswordsmadethenoblesveryangry,andtheybecamehisbitterenemies.
IIButthepeoplehonoredTiberiusandmadehimoneoftheirtribunes.Thetribunesweresupposedtolookafterthepeople’sinterests,butsometimestheywerenotfaithfultotheirduty.Aswehavealreadysaid,theyhadagreatdealofpower.TheycouldsitatthedooroftheRomanSenate,andwhenalawwasproposedthattheydidnotliketheycouldsay,“Wevetoit!”andthenthelawcouldnotbepassed.
WheneverthetribuneswantedalawpassedtheyproposeditatthemeetingofallthepeopleinwhatwascalledtheAssemblyofTribes.ThecommonpeoplehadagreatdealofpowerinthisAssembly,andanylawproposedbythetribunewasgenerallypassed.Thenthetribuneshadthepowertocompeltheconsulstocarryoutthelaw.
NotlongafterTiberiusGracchusbecametribuneheproposedalawthateachnoblemighthavefivehundredacresofthepubliclandforhisownuseandtwohundredandfiftymoreforeachson,andthattheremainderofthelandsshouldbeequallydividedamongthepoorcitizens.
Thislawwaspassed,andthenthenobleshadtogiveupalargepartofthelandstheyhadseized.Sothepoorcitizensgotgoodfarms.
AboutthistimeAt’ta-lus,thekingofPer’ga-mus,acountryofAsia,died,leavingallhismoneytotheRomans.Thenoblestriedtogetthismoneyforthemselves,butTiberiushaditdividedamongthepoorcitizens.
OfcoursethismadethenoblesstillmoreangrywithTiberius,andtheyresolvedtogetridofhimiftheycould.Soonelectionday,whenthepeoplewerevotingtomakeTiberiustribuneforasecondterm,somenobleswenttothevoting-placeandraisedadisturbance.ButthefriendsofTiberiusdrovethemaway.ThenthenoblesstartedareportthatTiberiuswastryingtoinducethepeopletomakehimking.
Afterwardstheygatheredtheirfriendsandslavesandbeganfightingwiththepeople.Noarmswereused,butstoneswerethrown,andsticks,brokenbenches,andotherthingshastilycaughtup,servedasweapons.Therewasadreadful
tumultforawhile,andmanypersonswerekilled.
Tiberiuswasinthemidstofhisfriendsbravelydefendinghimselfagainstanattackbyapartyofnobles,whensuddenlyhestumbledandfelltotheground.Inamomentthenoblesrusheduponhim.Oneofthemstruckhimontheheadwithapieceofwoodandkilledhim.ThentheytookhisbodyandthrewitintotheTiber.
IIITiberiuswasnowoutoftheway,andthenoblesbegantoseizethelandsthathadbeendividedamongthepeople.ButCaiusGracchussuddenlyappearedinRomeanddeclaredthathehadcometotakehisbrother’splaceasthefriendofthepeople.HehadbeenwithaRomanarmyinSpainwhenTiberiuswaskilled.
Thepeoplenowelectedhimtribuneandhebegantocarryouthisbrother’splans.Forthisreasonthenobleshatedhimasmuchastheyhadhatedhisbrother.Theysaidthathewasadangerousmanandwasplanningtomakehimselfking.OnedayashewaspassingthroughtheForumastrangemansaidtohim:
“IhopeyouwillsparetheRepublic!”
ThefriendsofCaiuswereangryatthesewords,andtheyfellonthemanandkilledhim.
Thenoblesandtheirfollowersthenarmedthemselves.Theplebeiansalsogatheredingreatnumbersreadyforafight.Caiuswasaskedtoleadthem,butrefused.Hedidnotwantthemtofightwiththenobles.Heknewthatthenobleswouldbesatisfiedwithhisowndeath,soheorderedaslavetostabhimtotheheart.Theorderwasobeyed,andthusperishedthelastoftheGracchi(121B.C.).
MARIUS
IAtthetimeofthedeathofCaiusGracchustherewasinRomeagreatmannamedCaiusMa’ri-us.Thismancameforwardandsaidtothepeoplethatiftheywouldelecthimtribunehewouldgetthemtheirrights.
Thepeopleelectedhimtribuneand,truetohisword,hedideverythinghecouldtoimprovetheircondition.Hewasafterwardselectedconsulseventimes,andforalongwhilehewasthegreatestmaninRome.
Mariuswasatallandverypowerfulmanandhadastrongwill.Whenhesaidhewoulddoanythinghewoulddoitinspiteofalldifficulties.Hewasaverygreatsoldier.ManypeoplethoughthimthebestoftheRomangenerals.
HesucceededinawaragainstJu-gur’tha,kingofNumidia,afterothergeneralshadfailed.HetookmanycitiesfromJugurthaandatlastcapturedthekinghimselfandallhistreasure.
JugurthawasbroughttoRomeandcompelledtowalkbehindthechariotofMariusinagrandtriumphalprocession.Hewasafterwardsputintoafouldungeonandlefttheretodie.
ThenoblesdidnotlikeMarius.Hewasthesonofplebeianparentsandhehadtakenthesideoftheplebeiansagainstthenobles.Thereforethenobleshatedhim,andtheywouldhavedoneeverythingtheycouldagainsthim,onlythattheyneededhishelptoprotectRomefromverydangerousenemies.
Ahostofbarbarianpeople,calledCim’bri,Teu’to-nes,andAm-bro’nes,hadlefttheirhomesontheshoresoftheBalticSeaandinvadedthesouthernlands.Theywerestrong,fiercemen,andtheylaidwasteeverycountrytheypassedthrough.TheydefeatedseveralRomanarmiesthatweresentagainstthem.SomeofthetribesofHelve’ti-a(thecountrynowcalledSwitzerland)joinedthemandoneofthosetribesdefeatedandkilledaRomanconsulandmadehisarmypassundertheyoke.
TheRomanswere,therefore,verymuchfrightened.Theythoughtthatthe
barbarianswouldsoonbeinItaly.SoMariuswasappointedtogoagainstthemwithagreatarmy.HecrossedtheMediterraneanintoGaulandmettheTeutonesandAmbronesnearthecityofArlesontheRiverRhone.TheCimbrihadalreadygonetoItaly.
Mariusfirstmadeastrongentrenchedcamp.Hewantedtogivehismentimetogetaccustomedtothemannersofthestrangeenemybeforeattemptingtofightthem.TheRomansoldiershadshownfearatsightofthebarbarians.Theyhadneverbeforeseensuchpeople.
TheTeutoneswerelikegiants.Theyhadlarge,wild,staringeyesandlonghair,andtheymadeterriblewar-cries.TheAmbronesandtheCimbriwereassavageinappearance.ThekingoftheTeutoneswasverytallandsoactivethathecouldleapoversixhorsesplacedabreast.
WhenthebarbarianssawthattheRomanswouldnotfight,theybegantotauntandinsultthem.TheywalkedupanddowninfrontoftheRomancampdayafterday,callingthesoldierscowards.
“Whydon’tyoucomeoutandfightuslikemen?”theycried.“Areyouafraid?Comeout,comeout;weareinahurry!WearegoingtoRomeafterwekillyou!”
Mariushadhardworktokeephismenfromrushingoutuponthebarbarians.Hedidnotyetwanttofight,buthesaidtohissoldiers:
“Whenthepropertimecomeswewillgivethesesavagesallthefightingtheywant.”
OnedayagiganticTeutonchief,withalongshieldandspear,cameuptotheveryentranceoftheRomancampandcalledloudlyforMariushimselftocomeoutandfight.Thegreatgenerallaughedheartilyattheimpudenceofthebarbarian,andhesentoutagladiatortofightwithhiminordertogivesporttotheRomans.
GladiatorsweremenwhofoughtoneanotherintheshowsatRomefortheamusementofthepeople.Theywereusuallyslavesandwereverystrong,active,andwell-trainedfighters.
ItdidnottakethegladiatorlongtodefeattheTeuton.Inafewminuteshelaidthesavagegiantlow,andtheRomansshoutedwithjoyatthesight.
AftertheTeutonwaskilledtheRomansstillremainedintheircamp.Mariuswasnotyetpreparedtofight.Atlastthebarbariansgottiredofwaitingandthey
startedofftomarchtoItaly.
IISogreatwasthenumberofthebarbariansthatittookthemsixwholedaystomarchpasttheRomancamp.WhenallhadpassedMariuslefthiscampandfollowedthembyslowmarches.BeforelongthetwoarmiesarrivedatthecityofAixonthesouthcoastofGaul.
Mariusthoughtitwasnowtimetofight,soheledouthisfinearmyagainsttheenemy.ThefirstbattlewasfoughtwiththeAmbrones.TheyastonishedtheRomanswiththeirwar-cry.Theyheldtheirshieldsuprightandatalittledistancefromtheirmouthsandshouted:“Ambrones!Ambrones!”asiftoterrifytheRomansbylettingthemknowwhotheywere.Thentheyrushedfuriouslyacrossthefield.
TheRomansmetthechargewithwonderfulcourage.Theirlineswerescarcelybroken.Threetimestheydrovebacktheenemy,andthentheythemselvesmovedsteadilyforwardwiththeirwholeforce.TheycutdowntheAmbronesbythousands,tookmanyprisoners,andsenttheothersfleeingawayinterror.
Nextdaytherewasanotherbattle.TheTeutonesandAmbronestogetherattackedtheRomans,buttheRomanswereagainvictorious.Whenthebattlewasoveritwasfoundthatmorethanahundredthousandbarbarianshadbeenkilledortakenprisoner.
MariusnowturnedhisattentiontotheCimbri,whohadgonetoItaly.Theyhadencampedonabeautiful,fertileplainneartheRiverPo,andwereenjoyingthewarmItaliansunandthesweetfruitsofthecountry.
ButMariuswasnotverylonginreachingthesameplacewithhisvictoriousarmy.WhentheCimbrisawtheRomansmarchingontotheplainwheretheywereencamped,theywereastonished.TogaintimetheysentamessengertoMariustoaskhimtogivethemlandstoliveoninItaly.
“Giveus,”saidthemessenger,“landsinItalyforourselvesandforourfriends,theTeutonesandAmbrones,andwewillallliveatpeace.”
“NevermindtheTeutonesandtheAmbrones,”saidMarius,“theyhavelandsalready.Wehavegiventhemsomewhichtheywillkeepforever.Wewillgiveyouthesame.”
Thenabattlebeganbetweenthetwogreatarmies.Thefootsoldiersofthe
Cimbriwereformedintoanimmensesquare,andthemeninthefrontrankswerechainedtooneanotherbyironchainssothattheycouldnotrunaway.Therewerefifteenthousandhorsemen,wearingontheirhelmetstheheadsofwildbeasts.Thebattlewasahardoneforawhile,butitdidnotcontinuelong.Timeafter
timetheCimbriweredrivenback,andatlasttheywereputtoflight.Thousandsofthemwerekilled,andthousandsmadeprisoners.
WhenMariusandhissoldiersreturnedtoRometheygotasplendidreception.Therewasaparadethroughthestreets,andagreatfeastwasgiventothepeople.Alargesumofmoneywasdividedamongthesoldierstorewardthemfortheirbraveconduct.
MariuswasnowinhighfavoratRome.Thenoblesdidnotdaretospeakawordagainsthim.Hewaselectedconsulseventimes,sothathewasmasteroftheRepublicforalongtime.
InthesixthyearthatMariuswasconsulthewarcalledtheSocialWarbrokeout.Itlastedforthreeyears.ItwasawarwithsomeofthenationsofItalywhichRomehadformerlyconquered.ThepeopleofthosenationsdidnotwanttoseparatefromRome,buttheywantedtohavetherightofvotingastheRomansthemselveshad.Romerefusedtogivethemthisright,andatlasttheyresolvedtogotowar.
AllthegreatestRomangeneralsofthetimetookpartinthiswar.OneofthemwasayoungnoblenamedSul’la.Hewasaverysuccessfulsoldierandwonanumberofgreatvictories.Thenationsweredefeatedinthewar,butRomesoongrantedthemmostoftherightstheyhadaskedfor.
ThenoblesgavegreatpraisetoSullaforhisvictoriesintheSocialWar.TheydeclaredthathewasabettergeneralthanMarius.SomanyfinethingsweresaidabouttheyoungnoblethatMariusbecamejealousanddidaveryfoolishthing.HesuddenlylefthisarmyinthefieldandcamebacktoRome.Hecomplainedthathewasnervousandheshuthimselfupinhishouseandrefusedtoseeanyofhisfriendsforweeks.
ThenoblesthenstartedastorythatMariuswasgettingsillyandweak-mindedfromoldage.Hewasaboutseventyatthistime,andthenoblessaidheoughttoretirefromthearmy.ThismadetheoldheroangryandhedeclaredhewasasstronginmindandbodyasanyoftheyoungRomans.
OnemorninghewenttotheplacewheretheyoungmenofRomeusedto
practiseathleticsports,andfortwoorthreehourshewrestledandranandleapedwithasmuchskillandstrengthasanyone.Someofthenobleswhohappenedtopassbysawhimandwereverymuchamused.
AboutthistimeSullawaselectedconsulonaccountofhisvictoriesintheSocialWar.ShortlyafterwardsRomedeclaredwaragainstMith’ri-da’tes,KingofPontusinAsiaMinor,whohadcruellyputtodeathanumberofthecitizensofaRomanprovinceinAsia.
TheSenateappointedSullatocommandtheRomanarmyinthiswar.ButassoonasheleftRomewithhisarmyoneofthetribunesproposedatanAssemblyofthepeoplethatthecommandshouldbetakenfromhimandgiventoMarius.TheAssemblyagreedtothisandMariusacceptedtheappointment.Hesentwordtothearmy,whichwasnotfarfromRome,thathewouldcomeinashorttimetotakecommand.
WhenSullaheardthishebecameveryangry.Hecalledhissoldiersaroundhim,toldthemwhathadbeendone,andaskedthemiftheywouldsubmittobetheslavesofMariusandhisparty.
“No,no!”criedthesoldiers,“wewillnotsubmit.Wewantyouforourgeneral.”
“ThenfollowmetoRome,”saidSulla,“wewillteachMariusandhisfriendsthattheymustnotinsultus.”
SothesoldiersmarchedquicklybacktoRomewithSullaattheirhead.Theydeclaredthattheywouldtakethecityoutofthehandsofrebels,astheycalledthefriendsofMarius.WhentheyenteredthecitytheyweremetbyMariusandhisfollowersandtherewasabattle,inwhichMariuswasdefeated.ThenalawwaspasseddeclaringMariusatraitorandthatheshouldbeputtodeath.
ButMariusfledfromRomewithsomefriendsandwentdowntheTiberinaboattotheMediterranean.Hesailedalongthecoastandthenheandhiscompanionswentashoretoseekforfood.Theywanderedthroughthecountryforsometimewithoutseeinganyone.Atlasttheymetafarmer,whogavethemsomethingtoeat.HetoldthemthathorsemenfromRomewereridingthroughtheplacesearchingforMarius.
Theywerefrightenedatthisandtheyranintoathickwoodwheretheystoppedallnight.ButwhilehiscompanionsweredowncastMariuswascheerfulandhopeful.
“Thisbadstateofthings,”hesaid,“willlastonlyashorttime.Iknowit,
becausethegodshaverevealedtomethatIshallbeoncemoreconsulofRome!”
ButnextdayMariuswastakenbythehorsemen.Hesawthemcomingandwadedfarintoagreatmarshandhidhimselfamongsomehigh,thickreeds.Thehorsemenrodeintothemarshandfoundhim,andtheyputaroperoundhisneckanddraggedhimtotheshore.Thentheyshuthimupinahutandbegantothinkwhattheyshoulddowithhim.
Atlasttheydecidedtoputhimtodeathatonce.TheythoughtthiswouldpleaseSulla,andthatperhapshewouldrewardthemforit.SotheygaveaswordtoaslaveandsenthimtokillMarius.Theslaveenteredthehutandstoodforafewmomentslookingatthegreatgeneral.Mariusglaredathimlikeawildbeastandsaidinasternvoice:
“Slave,willyoudaretokillCaiusMarius?”
Theslavestartedbackinterrorandranoutofthehut.ThenhethrewdownhisswordatthefeetofthesoldiersandcriedoutthathecouldneverhavethecouragetoslayMarius.
ItwasnowdecidedtosendMariusoutofthecountry.SohewastakentoashipandcarriedtoAfrica.AftergoingashorehewanderedthroughthecountryuntilhecametotheplacewhereCarthageoncestood.Nothingnowremainedofthefamouscitybutamassofgloomyruins,fortheRomanshadentirelydestroyeditafewyearsbeforeinthethirdPunicWar.IntheseruinsMariuslivedforashorttime.OnedayasoldiercametotellhimthatthegovernorofAfricawantedhimtoleavethecountry.
“Gotoyourgovernor,”answeredMarius,“andtellhimthatyousawCaiusMariussittingontheruinsofCarthage.”
Notlongafterwards,whenSullawasawayfightingKingMithridates,therewasgreattroubleatRome.OneoftheconsulsnamedCin’na,aidedbymanyoftheplebeians,attemptedtogetthecontrolofpublicaffairs,butwasdefeatedbythenobles.ThenCinnaandhisfollowerswereforcedtoleavethecity.TheyorganizedanarmyamongtheItalianswhohadbeencomplainingofnotgettingtheirrightsfromRome,andtheysenttoAfricaforMariustocomeandbetheircommander.
WhenMariusarrivedhemadeanattackonRomeandsooncapturedit.Thenhemarchedinthroughthegatesattheheadofhisarmyandtookpossessionofthecity.Atthenextelectionthepeopleelectedhimconsul.
MariusnowresolvedtohavevengeanceonthenobleswhohaddrivenhimfromRome.AndforseveraldaystheoldRoman,surroundedbyaguardoffreedslaves,wentthroughthecityseekingthenoblesintheirhouses,inthetemples,intheForum,andeverywherethattheycouldbefound,andkillingthemwithoutmercy.
Theseweredreadfuldays.SomeofthenoblestmenofRomewereputtodeath.NoneofSulla’sfriendswasspared.Evenhiswifeandchildrenwereharshlytreatedandforcedtoleavethecity.
Mariusdidnotstopthebloodyworkuntilhehadkilledallhisenemiesthathecouldfind.Buthistriumphwasshort.Hediedinalittlemorethantwoweeksafterhehadbecomeconsulfortheseventhtime.
SULLA
IWehavesaidsomethingofSulla,butthereismuchmoretobetoldabouthim,forhewasaveryremarkableman,andhedidremarkablethingsinRome.HisfullnamewasLu’ci-usCorneliusSulla.Hebelongedtoaverynoblefamily.Whenhewasayoungmanhewasveryfondofstudyandbecameanexcellentscholar.HewasalsoagoodspeakerandoftenmadeeloquentspeechesintheForumonpublicaffairs.
Hewasalarge,strongman,withredhairandaruddyface.HewasaverygreatsoldierandoneofthegreatestofRomangenerals.Theycalledhim“theLion,”hewassobraveinbattle,andhewassosuccessfulinwarthathealsogotthenameofFelix,aLatinwordwhichmeanshappyorfortunate.
IIOneofthegreatestwarsthatSullawasinwasawaragainsttheGreeks.RomehadconqueredGreecesometimebefore,andthegovernorsofmanyoftheGreekcitieswereRomans.ThesegovernorswereverycrueltotheGreeks;thereforethepeoplehatedthem.Mithridates,KingofPontus,knewthis,andheofferedtosendarmiestoGreecetohelptodrivetheRomansoutofthecountry.TheGreekswereverygladofthis,andtheypreparedforwaragainsttheRomans.
SullaarrivedinGreecewithastrongarmyandbeganamarchthroughthecountry.HecapturedseveralofthecitiesandcompelledthemtosubmittotheRomangovernors.ThenhemarchedontoAthens,thecapitalcityofGreece.ButhefoundthatitwasoccupiedbyAr-che-la’us,oneofthegeneralsofKingMithridates,whohadbroughtfromAsiaMinoranarmytohelptheGreeks.
Athensatthistimewasoneofthemoststronglyfortifiedcitiesintheworld.Itswallswereseventyfeethigh,andtheyweremadeofhuge,thickblocksofhard,smoothstone.Ittookthousandsofmenmanyyearstobuildthesemassivewalls.Thecitywasalsowellsuppliedwithfood,sothatitcouldholdoutagainst
asiegeforalongtime.
ForseveralweeksSullaattackedAthensfuriouslydaybyday,butitwasallinvain.Hecouldnottakethecity.Hissoldierstriedmanytimestomountthehighwalls,buttheycouldnotdoit.
AtlastSullahadbattering-ramsmade.Thesewereenginesforbreakingdownthewallsoftowns.Theywerelong,heavybeamsofwood,withironatoneend,formedliketheheadofaram.Thiswaswhytheywerecalledbattering-rams.Atfirsttheywereworkedbymenwiththeirhandsandbodilystrength.Inlatertimestheywerehungfromacrossbeam,soastoswingbackandforward,andtheironendwasmadetostrikeagainstthewallwithgreatforce.
Whenanumberofbattering-ramswereready,SullabegananotherattackonAthens.ButatdeadofnightapartyofAthenianscameoutofthecityandburnedallthebattering-rams.Sullaquicklyhadnewonesmade,andaftermonthsofhardlabortheRomansatlastsucceededinbreakingdownthewallsandtakingAthens.Theyplunderedthebeautifulcityanddestroyedmanyfineworksofart.Itissaidthattheycarriedoffmorethansixhundredpoundsofgoldandsilver.
SullaremainedinAthensonlylongenoughtoestablishRomanauthoritythereoncemore.ThenhedepartedwithhisarmyandmarchedtoChær’o-ne’a,anothertownofGreece,wheretherewasaforceofonehundredandtwentythousandmen,whichKingMithridateshadsenttohelptheGreeks.
TheRomansnumberedonlyaboutfortythousandmen,butSullawasnotafraidtofighttheimmensearmyofMithridates.Byplacinghistroopsingoodpositionsatthebeginningofthebattle,andafterwardsbymovingthemskillfullyfromonepointtoanother,hewasabletowinagreatvictory.
Thiswasaremarkablebattleinonerespect.Althoughtherewerefuriouschargesandhand-to-handcombats,inwhichthousandsuponthousandsofthesoldiersofMithridateswereslain,theRomanslostonlyafewmen.Wearetoldthatwhentheroll-calloftheRomanarmytookplaceafterthebattleonlytwelvemenfailedtoanswertotheirnames!ThearmyofMithridateshadlostonehundredandtenthousandmen;theRomansonlytwelvemen!
ButperhapsweoughtnottobelievethatsoveryfewRomanswerekilled,foritseemshardlypossiblethatitcouldhavebeenso.Itiscertain,however,thatSullagainedagreatvictory.HealsodefeatedanotherarmysentbyMithridatessoonafterwards.
ThenArchelaus,thegeneralofthearmyofMithridates,beggedforpeace.SullamadetermsthatwereverygoodforRome,andArchelausandMithridateshadtoacceptthem.MithridateshadtogivetheRomansalargesumofmoneyandseventyshipsofwarandtopromisetobethefriendofRomeinfuture.ThusthewarwithGreeceended.
IIISullanowpreparedtoreturntoItaly.HehadheardhowhisfriendsinRomeandhiswifeandchildrenhadbeentreatedbyMarius.Hewasgreatlyenraged,andinhislettertotheSenate,tellingthemofhisvictoriesinGreece,hesaid:
“Inreturnformyservices,whichhavebroughthonorandglorytoRome,mywifeandchildrenhavebeendrivenfromtheirhome,myhousehasbeenburned,andmyfriendshavebeenputtodeath.Iamnowgoingbacktopunishthosewhodidthesethings.”
Whentheletterwasreadtothesenators,theywereverymuchalarmed,fortheyknewthatifSulladidashethreateneditwouldcauseadreadfulcivilwarinRome.InreplytoSullatheybeggedhimnottomakewaronhisowncountrymen,andtheypromisedtodotheirbesttobringaboutafriendlyunderstandingbetweenhimandthefollowersofMarius.Sullaansweredthathedidnotwantanyunderstandingwiththem.
“Iwantnofriendshipwithmyenemies,”hesaid.“Iamabletotakecareofmyself.Itwillbewellforthemiftheycantakecareofthemselves.”
SoonafterwardshesetoutforItalywithhisarmy.RomewasthenunderthepoweroftheMarianparty.ThispartywasledbyCinnaandbyMariustheYounger,thesonofthegreatMarius.WhentheyheardthatSullawascomingtheyraisedanarmyandwentforthtodrivehimback.YoungMariussaid:
“NowitwillbedecidedwhoshallbethemasterofRome!”
Abattlewasfoughtbetweenthetwoarmies.Itwaslongandsevere,andforatimeitseemedasiftheMarianswouldwin.EvenSullahimselfhadnohopeofvictory.ButsoonverybadblundersmadebytheMariansturnedthetideofbattleinhisfavor,andhewasvictorious.Hetooksixthousandprisoners.
IVSullanowenteredRomeasitsmaster,andacruelmasterheprovedtobe.Hefirstgothimselfappointeddictatorforaslongatimeashewishedtoholdthe
office.ThenhecommandedthatallthefollowersofMariusshouldbeslain.Sotheywerehuntedoutoftheirhidingplacesandallputtodeathwithoutmercy.
WheneverypersonthatwasknowntohavebeenconnectedwiththeMarianpartywaskilled,thepeoplethoughtSullawouldceasehismurderouswork,buthedidnot.Hewentonkillingthisoneandthatone—nowapoormanandthenarichman—untilatlasttheRomansbecamedreadfullyfrightened.“Whenwillhestop?”theysaidtooneanotherintremblingtones.
OnedayasenatorhadthecouragetoaskSullaifhewouldpleasetosaywhomheintendedtosparefromdeath.Sullacoollyanswered:
“Ihavenotyetmadeupmymind,butifitisthewishoftheSenateIwillshortlymakeoutalistofpersonswhomustdie!”
AndSullareallydidmakeoutalistofpersonsheintendedtokill.ItwascalledaPROSCRIPTIONLISTandwashungupintheForum.Oh,howanxiouslythepoor,terror-strickenRomanswenttothatlisttoreadthenames!Andifamansawthathisnamewasnottherehewentawaywithjoyinhisheart.Butifhisnamewastherehecoveredhisfacewithhistogaandranofftohidehimself.
Thenextdayanotherandalongerlistofproscribedpersonswashungup,andthedayafterstillanotherlist.Anyonewhokilledaproscribedpersongotalargerewardinmoney,butifanybodyhelpedaproscribedpersontoescapehewaspunishedbydeath.ThisdreadfulworkwascontinueduntilmanythousandsofpeopleinRomeandthroughoutItalywereslain.
ThenSullahadhisTriumphinthestreetsofRome.Itwasthemostmagnificentprocessionthathadyetbeenseeninthecity.Therewerehundredsofbeautifulhorsesdrawingbright,goldenchariots;therewerelonglinesofsoldiersinglitteringarmor;therewerenumbersofslaves,andtherewerehugewagonscontaininggoldandsilverandotherpreciousthings,whichSullahadgotinGreeceafterhisvictoriesoverMithridates.Thedictatorhimselfrodeinthemostsplendidchariotofall.Heseemedlikeaking,andindeedwasakinginpower,thoughnotinname.ThiswaswhatwascalledaTriumph.
Sulla,forhisownprotection,hadabodyguardformedofslaveswhohadbelongedtothepeoplehehadproscribedandputtodeath.Thisbodyguardissaidtohavenumberedtenthousandmen,andtheywerecalledCornelii,afterSulla’sfamilyname.
UndertheruleofSullahisownwillwaslaw.Hecoulddowhateverhe
pleased.Buthedidnotremaindictatoralongtime.InaboutayearafterhisTriumphheseemedtohavegottiredofrulingandresignedtheoffice.ThenheleftRomeandwenttoresideinhiscountryhouseonthebeautifulBayofNaples.Herehespenttherestofhislife,passinghistimepartlyinfeastingandmerrimentandpartlyinstudy.Hedied78B.C.
POMPEYTHEGREAT
INotlongafterthedeathofSulla,anewenemytoRomeappearedupontheMediterraneanSea.AlargenumberofpeoplewholivedonthecoastsofAsiaMinorbuiltandarmedfleetsofships,sailedalongtheshoresofItaly,andattackedandplunderedRomanvessels.
Thesea-rovers,orpirates,astheRomanscalledthem,hadmorethanathousandwell-built,fast-sailingships.Manyofthemwereadornedwithrichlygildedbowsandsterns,purplesails,andsilver-mountedoars.Theyseizedtrading-vessels,robbedthem,andkilledeverypersononboard.
Often,too,thepiratescommittedrobberiesonland.Aboat’screwfromapirateshipwouldgoashore,puttodeathallthefarmersintheneighborhood,andlaywastetheirfarms.SoinashorttimethepiratesmadethemselvesmastersoftheItaliancoasts,andkeptthepeopleinconstantexcitementandterror.
ButatlasttheRomansresolvedtomakewarupontherobbers,andselectedaverypopularyoungmannamedCne’i-usPompeytobethegeneral.ThepeoplehadgreatconfidenceinPompey.TheysaidthathewastheonlyonewhocouldputdowntheMediterraneanpirates,anddemandedthatheshouldbesenttodothework.
Pompeywasafine-lookingman,withverypleasantmanners.HehadmadehimselffamousasasoldierbybravedeedsinwarsinSpainandAfrica,andwasgenerallycalledPompeytheGreat.Hisfatherhadbeenagreatcommander,andtheboyhadlivedincampsandtakenpartinwarsalmostfromchildhood.Hehadhadmanyadventuresduringhisarmylifeandhadalwaysshownthequalitiesofahero.HefoughtonthesideofSullainmanybattlesagainsttheMarians,andhewasthoughttobeoneofSulla’sgreatestgenerals.
TheRomanSenate,therefore,yieldedtothedemandofthepeopleandappointedPompeytogoforthagainstthepirates.Heacceptedthecommandandpromptlysettoworktocarryouttheimportantundertaking.
Hegatheredfourteenpowerfulfleets.Hekeptoneofthemforhimselfandputtheothersunderthecommandofgoodofficers.ThenhedividedtheMediterraneanintothirteendistricts,andsentafleettoeachdistricttohuntthepirates.
WithhisownfleethesailedasfarastheStraitofGibraltarandthenturnedbacktowardsItaly.Onthewayhechasedthepiratevesselsbeforehimashemetthem,untiltheywerestoppedandseizedbysomeofthethirteenfleetsstationedhereandthereallovertheMediterranean.Thepirateswerethuscaughtinatrap.Thousandsofthemwerekilledinbattleswiththedifferentfleets,andtheirvesselswereburned.TheremaindersoonsurrenderedtotheRomans,andinthreemonthstheseawasclearedofpirates.
Pompeywasmuchpraisedforthisgreatwork,andthepeoplesaidhewasjustthemantotakechargeofthewaragainstMithridates.ThiskinghadagainattackedaRomanprovinceinAsia,andtheRomansresolvedtopunishhim.ButMithridateswasaverypowerfulman.Hehadgreatarmies;hewasaskillfulgeneral,andhedefeatedtheRomansinmanybattles.TheRomanpeople,therefore,resolvedtosendPompeyagainsthim.Pompeywasmuchpleasedtobeplacedincommandofagreatarmy,andheproudlystartedoffwithhissoldiersfortheeasternlands.
IIPompeyremainedinAsiaseveralyearsandwonmanygreatvictories.HeconqueredanumberofcountriesandputRomangovernorsoverthem.ThenhecamebacktoRome,bringingkingsandprincesasprisoners,andanenormousamountofgoldandsilverandothervaluablethingstoenrichtheRepublicandhimself.HewaswelcomedinamagnificentmannerandhehadaTriumphsuchaswasgiventogreatandvictoriousgenerals.
ButPompeynowbegantothinkofmakinghimselfmasterofRomeduringhislife-time.Hehadgreatlypleasedthepeoplebyhisvictoriesinwar,andtheywerepraisinghimoneveryside.Howtokeeptheirfavor,andbyittogetpowerwaswhatnowoccupiedhismind.Hehadbeenconsulbefore,buthewasnowelectedagain,andthenhesetaboutprovidingvarioussortsofamusementsforthepeople.Hebelievedthatifthepeoplewereamusedtheywouldbelesslikelytoobjecttohistakingthepowersofthegovernmententirelyintohisownhands.
Hebuiltatheatrelargeenoughtoseatfortythousandpersons.ThiswasthefirstgreattheatreerectedinRome.Itwasofstoneandverystronglymade.Ithad
noroof,andtherowsofseatsroseoneaboveanotherinahalfcircle.Atoneendtherewasanimmensestageonwhichalltheperformancestookplace.InthisgrandtheatrePompeygavesomeverywonderfulexhibitionsfromtime
totime.Hehadlions,elephants,andotherwildanimalsbroughtfromAsiaandAfricaatagreatexpense.Theseanimalswereletlooseuponthestageandgladiatorsfoughttheminfullviewofthepeopleinthetheatre.
Therewerealsothrillingcombatsinthetheatresbetweenthegladiatorsthemselves.Theyfoughteachothersavagelyuntilonewaswoundedandfelluponthestage.Thenthevictorwouldturntowardstheaudiencetofindwhethertheywishedhimtokillthewoundedman.Ifthepeoplewantedthistheywouldstretchouttheirhandswiththethumbsdown;iftheydidnotwanthimkilledtheywouldholdtheirthumbsupward.Ifhehadshownskillandcourageandfoughtwelltheywouldgivethesigntolethimlive,butifhehadnotmadeabravefighttheywouldturndowntheirthumbsandtheunfortunatemanwouldbeinstantlykilled.
Slavesandprisonerstakeninwarweretaughttobegladiatorsinschoolsestablishedforthepurpose.Therewerehundredsofthesetrainedfightersalwaysreadyforthecombats.TheRomanswereveryfondofsuchamusements,andgreatcrowdsofmen,andwomentoo,attendedthetheatrewhenevertherewasafightofgladiators.
Bygivingthepeopleagreatdealofamusementofthiskindonagrandscale,PompeybecamethegreatpopularfavoriteinRome,andwhilethepeoplewereentertainedathistheatrehemanagedthegovernmenttosuithimself.
IIIAtthistimetheRomansruledavastterritory,whichincludednotonlyallItaly,butGreece,Spain,Syria,Egypt,Turkey,Switzerland,andpartsofFranceandGermany.Countryaftercountryhadbeenconqueredduringalongseriesofyears,andmillionsofpeopleofdifferentracesandlanguagesweresubjectsofRome.
Romeitselfwasacitywithapopulationofabouthalfamillion.Itcoveredaverylargearea,includingthefamoussevenhills.Itsstreetswerenarrowandcrooked,butwell-pavedandclean.Inthecentreofthecitywereanumberoflargesquaresinwhichtherewerehandsomebuildings.Thereweremagnificenttemplesandbaths,andthehousesofthenoblesandwealthyplebeianswereverylargeandsplendid.Manyofthefinehouseswerebuiltofmarble,withgreat
pillarsinfront.Elegantfurnitureandhandsomecarpetsandrugsfilledtherooms.ThereweremanyrichmeninRomeatthistime.Mostofthemhadobtained
thegreaterpartoftheirwealthbyplunderingtheconqueredcountries.Theylivedinaverymagnificentmanner,gavesplendiddinnersandentertainments,andhadhundredsofslavestoattenduponthem.
TheslaveswerealargeclasswhowerebroughttoRomefrommanynationsconqueredinwar.Manyofthembelongedtohighfamiliesintheirowncountry,andwerewelleducated.Someofthemwerephysicians,andothersweregoodscholarsandcouldreadandwritefortheirmasters.Thebestcooks,builders,tailors,andfarmerswereslaves.InfactitwasbyslavesthatnearlyalltheskilledworkinRomewasdone.
ThereweremarketsinRomewhereslavesweresold.Theslavestobesoldwereplacedonaplatform.Labelshungfromtheirnecks,showingtheirageandwhattheywereabletodo.
TheRomanchildrenweretaughttoreadandwriteLatin,whichwastheirownlanguage.Theywerealsotaughtarithmeticandhistory.Mostoftheteacherswerewell-educatedslaves.
Rome,then,wasveryrichandverypowerfulinthetimeofPompey,andformanyyearsPompeywasverypopular.AtonetimehebecamedangerouslyillwhilevisitingNaples.Thenthepeopleshowedtheirgreatloveforhiminmanyways,andwhenherecoveredtherewerepublicthanksgivingsthroughoutItaly.Onhisjourneyhomegreatcrowdscameouttogreethimashepassedthroughthetowns,andwhenhearrivedatRomehewasreceivedwithunboundedjoy.
Pompeyhadnowaverystrongholdontheaffectionsofthepeople,sohecaredlittlefortheeffortsmadebyaveryambitiousRomannamedJu’li-usCæ’sartowinpublicfavor.ButCæsarwasamanofstrongwillandgreatenergy.HehadresolvedtobetherulerofRome,andhesparednolabortoaccomplishhispurpose.PompeyatlastbecamealarmedatCæsar’sefforts,butitwasthentoolate.HewasdefeatedbyCæsarinagreatbattleandsoonafterlosthislife.Howthesethingscameaboutweshalllearninthenextstory.
JULIUSCÆSAR
IOfalltheRomanheroesthegreatestwasCaiusJuliusCæsar.Hewasaveryremarkablemaninmanyways.Hewasremarkableasasoldier,statesman,scholar,andasanorator.Hewroteahistoryofhisownwarswhichisoneofthebestancienthistoriesthathavecomedowntous.ItiscalledCœsar’sCommentaries,anditisusedasatextbookinallschoolswhereLatinistaught.
ThisfamousRomanwastall,handsome,agreeableinhismanners,andofagaydisposition.Helikedsongsandstories,andevenwhenhewasagreatgeneralheoftenwasasmerryandfrolicsomeasaboy.Sometimes,however,hewassternandcruelinsteadofkindandforgiving.
CæsarwasamemberoftheJulianfamily,whichwasoneofthefirstfamiliesinRome.FourCæsarsofthisfamilyhadbeenconsulsofRomeinonecentury.
TheauntofJuliusCæsarwasthewifeofthegreatleader,Marius.Naturally,SullawasCæsar’sbitterenemyanddidallhecouldagainsthim.“InthatyoungmanthereismanyaMarius,”Sullaisreportedtohavesaid.However,bykeepingoutofRome,CæsarwasabletoescapethetrapslaidforhimatSulla’sorders.AssoonasSulladiedCæsarreturnedtoRome.
Althoughhewasarichnoble,hebecameafriendoftheplebeiansandalwayssupportedtheircause.HespokeagreatdealintheForumuponpoliticalquestions,andthepeoplelookeduponhimastheirchampion.Theyelectedhimtoseveralpublicoffices,oneaftertheother,andthushisinfluenceandpowerweremuchincreased.AtlasthewasappointedgovernorofSpain,whichwasthenruledbytheRomans.
OnhiswaytoSpainhestoppedforanightatalittlevillageamongthemountains.Oneofhiscompanionsremarkedthatperhapsinthatsmallplacethepeoplehadtheircontestsandtheirjealousies,aswellaspeopleinlargecities.
“Poorasthisvillageis,IwouldratherbefirstherethansecondinRome!”saidCæsar.
CæsarwasverysuccessfulinSpain,andtheRomansweresopleasedwithhisconductthatwhenhecamehometheymadehimconsul.Duringhisconsulshiphehadmanygoodlawspassed.Whenaboutfortyyearsoldhewasgivencommandofanarmy,andforsomeyearsfollowedthelifeofasoldierwithwonderfulsuccess.
TheRomanarmieswereformedofregimentscalledlegions.Eachlegioncontainedoverthreethousandmen,whoweresometimescalledlegionaries.Theweaponsofthelegionarywereashortswordandalongspearcalledapilum.
BesidesspearsandswordstheRomansoldiersusedslingsforhurlingstonesagainsttheenemy.Theyalsohadamachinecalledaballistaforthrowingstonestooheavyforhandslings.
ThemilitarystandardoftheRomanswasafigureofaneagleborneonthetopofapole.Eachlegionhadoneoftheseandthesoldierwhocarrieditwascalledtheeagle-bearer.Otherstandardsalsowereusedbythecohortsorcompaniesintowhichthelegionsweredivided.
Cæsar’sfirstgreatbattleswereinGaul.TheRomanscalledalltheinhabitantsofthatcountryGauls,althoughtheywereofmanynationsandspokedifferentlanguages.TheGaulswerebrave,butCæsarprovedtobeagreatgeneral,andinafewyearsheconqueredallGaul.
TheRomansoldiershadgreatconfidenceinCæsar.Whenheledthemtheybelievedvictorywascertain.Hewasstrictinhisdiscipline,butveryfriendlyandpleasantwiththemen,andheoftengavethempraise.Hehimselfsharedintheirhardships.Dayafterdayhemarchedonfootattheirheadthroughheatandrainandsnow,andfoughtwiththeminthefrontranks.
OnoneoccasionCæsarbuiltaveryremarkablebridge.HewantedtogetacrosstheRiverRhinewithhisarmy,topunishsomeGermantribeswhowereinthehabitofattackingthefriendsofRomeinGaul.Therewasnobridge.TheGermansusedtogetoverinsmallpartiesbyswimming,orinsmallboats.Butalargearmycouldnotcrossinthiswaywithoutagreatdealoftroubleandlossoftime,soCæsarresolvedtobuildabridge.Hequicklysethismentoworkandtheyfinishedthebridgeintendays,thoughallthewoodhadtobecutdownintheforestsandcarriedtotheriverside.
OneofCæsar’sgreatestvictoriesinGaulwasthetakingofthetownofA-le’si-a.ThistownhadverystrongwallsallrounditanditwasdefendedbyagreatarmyofGaulscommandedbyabravechiefnamedVer-cin-get’o-rix.Cæsarsurroundedthetownwithhisarmyandpreventedfoodfrombeingsentin
totheinhabitants.HealsodefeatedanarmythatcamefromotherpartsofGaultohelptheAlesians.VercingetorixthenhadtocomeoutfromthetownandgivehimselfuptoCæsar.
AftermanyconquestsinGaulCæsarsailedoverwithanarmytotheislandofBritain,nowcalledGreatBritain.Thenativeswereawild,fiercepeople,andtheyfoughtbravelyagainstCæsarandhisarmy.ButtheRomanswerevictorious,andtheytookpossessionofBritain,andforoverfourhundredyearstheislandwasapartoftheRomanEmpire.
IICæsarwasengagedeightyearsinhiswarsinGaulandBritain.Itissaidthatduringtheseyearsheconqueredthreehundredtribesornations,tookeighthundredcities,foughtbattleswiththreemillionsofmenandmadeamillionprisoners.Heobtainedimmensequantitiesoftreasureintheconqueredlands,andhehimself,ascommanderofthevictoriousarmies,keptalargepartofitashisownshare,sothathebecameveryrich.
Cæsar’swonderfulvictoriesmadehimagreatmaninRome.Theplebeiansrejoicedatthesuccessoftheirleaderandfavoriteandwerereadytowelcomehimwiththehighesthonorswheneverheshouldreturntothecity.
ButCæsarhadnowmadeuphismindtobecomethemasterofRome.SohebegantoplanandtoworktodestroythepowerofPompey,whoatthattimeruledpublicaffairsinRomealmostcompletely.
InordertogainstillgreaterfavorCæsarsentanumberofhisfriendstoRometospendimmensesumsofmoneyinvariouswaystopleasethepeople.Theygotupsplendidgamesandfeasts;theydividedlargequantitiesofcornamongthepoor;andtheypaidthedebtsofhundredsofmenwhohadinfluenceamongtheplebeians.ThepeopleknewthatallthiswasdoneatCæsar’sexpense,andtheypraisedandlovedhimforhisgenerosity.
Pompey,withagreatshowofauthority,noworderedCæsartodisbandhisarmyandsendthesoldierstotheirhomes,forhesaidthatCæsarhadnoneedofanarmyanylonger,ashehadfinishedhisworkinGaul.ButPompey,too,hadanarmyatthistimeinSpain,andCæsarsaidtohim:
“Ifyouwilldisbandyourarmy,Iwilldisbandmine.”
ThismadePompeyveryangry,andhegottheSenatetopassalawdeclaringthatCæsarwasapublicenemyandmustbeputdown.Onesenatorasked
PompeywhatheshoulddoifCæsarshouldcometoRomewithhisarmy.
“WhatshouldIdo?”criedPompey,inatoneofcontempt.“Why,Ihaveonlytostampmyfootandthousandsofmenwillspringuptomarchundermyorders.”
AtthattimeCæsarwaswithhisarmyinthenorthernpartofItaly.WhenheheardwhattheSenatehaddonehecalledhissoldierstogetherandmadeaneloquentspeech.HetoldthemoftheinjusticethatPompeyandtheSenatehaddonetohim,andheconcludedbysaying:
“ThisismyrewardforallthatIhavedoneformycountry.ButIshallgotoRomeandestablishanhonestgovernmentofthepeople,ifyou,mybravesoldiers,willbefaithfultome.”
Thesoldiersansweredwithaloudshout,saying:
“Weshallbefaithfultoyou.Wewillstandbyyoutothelast.”
CæsarthanstartedwithhisarmyandmarchedrapidlythroughnorthernItalyuntilhecametothebanksofalittleriver,atthattimecalledtheRu’bi-con,andknownasthesouthernboundaryofGaul.Whatriverthiswasnoonecannowexactlytell,butitissupposedthatitwassomeoneofseveralsmallriverswhichflowintotheAdriaticSeasouthoftheRiverPo.
CæsarhaltedhisarmyattheRubiconandforbadeanyonetocrossituntilhegavetheorder.Hestoodforsometimeonthebanksindeepthought,asiftryingtodecidewhetherheshouldcrosstheriverandproceed,orgiveuphisdangerousundertaking.HewasstillwithinhisownterritoryascommanderofGaul;ifheshouldcrosstheRubiconhewouldbeonterritorydirectlyunderthegovernmentoftheofficersatRome.Bylawitwasmadeanactoftreason,tobepunishedwithdeath,foranyRomangeneraltoenterthisterritorywithanarmy,withoutpermissionoftheSenate.
“Wecanretreatnow,”saidCæsartosomeofhisofficerswhostoodnearhim,“butonceacrosstheRubiconitwillbetoolatetodrawback.”
WhileCæsarwastalkingashepherdcamealongfromafieldcloseby,playinglivelymusiconareedpipe.Thesoldiersgatheredaroundhimtolistentothemusic,andsomeofthembegantodance.OneofCæsar’strumpetersstoodamongthesoldiers,withhistrumpetinhishand.Theshepherdsawthetrumpet,suddenlyseizeditandwalkedtothebridgeovertheRubicon,whichwasbutafewstepsoff.Thenheputthetrumpettohislips,soundedthestirringnotesforanadvanceofthetroopsandbegantomarchacrossthebridge.
“Asignfromthegods!”shoutedCæsar.“Letusgowherewearethuscalled.Thedieiscast!”
Sosaying,heturnedhishorserightintothestreamandrodeacrosstheRubicon,followedbyhisarmy.ItwasadaringthingevenforCæsartodo,andthephrases,“hehascrossedtheRubicon,”“thedieiscast,”arenowoftenusedtomeanthataboldordangerousstephasbeentakenfromwhichthereisnodrawingback.
TherewasnoonetoopposeCæsarashemarchedthroughItaly.Onthecontrary,cityaftercitysurrenderedtohim.Therewasverylittlefighting.Inmostplacesthepeopleseemedgladtohavehimastheirruler,andgavehimawarmwelcomeandfeastedhissoldiers.Hehadonlywordsofkindnessforeveryone,evenforthosewhowereagainsthim,andhewonhostsoffriendsandsupportersallalonghisroute.
TherewasgreatalarmatRomewhenitwaslearnedthatCæsarwasadvancingtowardthecity.ThesupportersofPompeybecameterrified,andtherichnoblesgathereduptheirmoneyandothervaluablesandfled.PompeycoulddonothingtodefendthecityagainstCæsar,andatlasthetooranaway.HewenttoGreecetoraiseanarmytofightCæsar.
WhenCæsararrivedatRomehemetwithnoopposition.Heenteredthecityamidshoutsofwelcomefromthepeople.Heharmednoone,buthesetupanewgovernmentandorganizedanewSenate.HewasnowthemasterspiritoftheRepublic.
AfterarrangingeverythingtohissatisfactioninRome,hewenttoSpainanddefeatedPompey’sgeneralsthere.ThenhecamebackandturnedhisattentiontoPompeyhimself.
InthemeantimePompeyhadbeenverybusygatheringanarmyintheeasterncountriescontrolledbyRome.Inonewayandanotherhecollectedfiftythousandmen.TheywerestationedonthecoastsofMacedoniaandGreece.TheretheywaitedforCæsarandhisarmytocrosstheAdriaticSeatogivethembattle.
Cæsarhadagreatdealoftroubleingettingacrossthestormyseawithhisarmyoffortythousandsoldiers,butatlastalandingwasmadeinGreece.Thenthetwoarmieshadsomeskirmishing,butnogreatbattle.
Thiscontinuedformonths.Pompeyatonetimewouldgaintheadvantage,andCæsaratanothertime.Butitwasevidentthatneitherofthegreatrivalswasin
anyhurrytoriskthechanceofdefeatinageneralbattle.Theyknewwellthatsuchadefeatwouldentirelyruintheonethatwasdefeated.
ButatlastthetwoarmiesmetforbattleontheplainofPhar-sa’li-a,inThessaly,adistrictofGreece.Thesoldiersonbothsidesweremostlyarmedwithspearsandbroadswords.Somecarriedslingstohurllargestones,andothershadbowsandarrows.Thegreaterpartofthefighting,however,wasdonewithswords.
Eightythousandmenwereengagedinthebattle,aboutfortythousandoneachside.Itwasabrave,heroicstruggleandlastedforhours.Botharmiesfoughtsplendidly,butintheendPompey’sarmywasforcedbacktoitscamp,afterdreadfulslaughter.ForafewminutesthecampwasbravelydefendedagainsttheattacksofCæsar’ssoldiersandthenhadtobeabandoned.Thebattledidnotlastlongafterthis.Pompey’sgreatarmywasutterlybeaten.
Pompeyhimself,withafewfollowers,fledtotheseashoreandsailedacrosstheMediterraneantoEgypt.TherehewastreacherouslymurderedbyorderofPtolemy,theEgyptianking.
CæsargainedasplendidvictoryatPharsalia,buthewasnotyetmasteroftheRomanEmpire.TherichnoblesandsenatorsformedarmiestofighthiminAsiaMinor,Africa,andSpain.CæsarwentwithanarmytoAsiaMinor,attackedhisenemies,andwonagreatbattleataplacecalledZe’la.ThisvictorywassoquicklygainedthatinsendingnewsofittoRomeCæsarwrotethefamousdespatch,“Veni,vidi,vici,”whichis,inEnglish,“Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.”
HehadequalsuccessinAfricaandSpain.Inaveryshorttimehedestroyedthearmiesopposedtohim.ThenhereturnedtoRomeandhadthegrandestTriumpheverseeninthecity.
Thecelebrationlastedfourdays,andduringthattimeRomewasinahighstateofpleasantexcitement.Thousandsofpersonsfromthesurroundingcountrycametothecitytowitnessthemagnificentshow.
Oneachdaythereweresplendidprocessions,inwhichthereweregreatnumbersofgorgeouschariots,drawnbybeautifulhorsesandfilledwithCæsar’sprincipalofficers.BehindthemmarchedhundredsofsoldiersbearingbannersonwhichwerepicturedscenesfromCæsar’simportantbattles.HerdsofelephantsandcamelsfromAsiaandAfricaappearedintheprocession,andtherewerealsolonglinesofprisonerscarryingvaluablearticlesobtainedbyCæsarinthelandshehadconquered.
Inadditiontotheprocessionsmanykindsofentertainmentswereprovidedforthepeople,suchasplays,circusexhibitions,combatsbetweengladiators,wild-beasthunts,andchariotraces.Therewerealsofeastsservedtoallthepeopleofthecity.ItwasatimeofunboundedenjoymentanddelightedtheRomanssomuchthattheybecameverydevotedtoCæsar.
Therewasnownooppositiontohim.Boththenoblesandtheplebeianswerewilling,andevenglad,tohavehimastheirruler.HewaschosendictatorforlifeandputincommandofallthearmiesoftheEmpire.Hewascalledimperator,whichmeansemperor.
ThepeoplegavehimthetitleofFatherofhisCountry.Statuesofhimwereerectedinthepublicbuildingsandsquares.Agrandchair,madesomewhatlikeathrone,wasplacedintheSenatechamber,andwheneverhecametolistentothedebateshesatinthischair,asifhewereking.
Cæsarnowhadlawspassedmakingmanyimprovementsinthegovernment.HealsocarriedoutanumberofplanstomakeRomeofmoreimportanceasacommercialcity.Heerectedmagnificentbuildings,madeaqueductstobringplentyofwatertothecity,establishedagreatlibrary,anddidmanyotherthingswhichwereofmuchbenefittothepeople.
Oneofthemostusefulthingshedidwastomakeanewcalendar.BeforehistimetheRomanshadnotaveryclearknowledgeastothelengthofayear.Atonetimetheyhadonlytenmonthsintheiryear.Afterwardstheyhadtwelve,buttheycountedonly365daysineveryyear.Theydidnotknowortheydidnotgiveattentiontothefactthatthereallengthofayearis365days,5hours,48minutes,50seconds.Theydidnotreckontheextrahours,minutes,andseconds,andsotheircalendargotquitewronginthecourseofanumberofyears.Cæsarcorrectedtheerrorbymakingoneyearineveryfourhave366days,andthecalendarthuscorrectedwascalledtheJulianCalendar.
Cæsarnowpossessedallthegloryandpowerofaking,anditbegantobebelievedthathewantedtobeakinginreality.TheRomanshadnothadakingforfivehundredyearsandwouldnothaveone.TheirfeelingagainstkingswassostrongthatnoneofthemenwhohadruledRome,attimeswithalmostkinglypower,hadeverdaredtocallhimselfking.
OnedayanintimatefriendofCæsarsalutedhiminpublicasking.Cæsarreplied:
“Iamnotking,butonlyCæsar.”
Someofthenobles,however,feltcertainthathemeanttomakehimselfking,andtheyformedaplottokillhimintheSenatehouse,ontheIdesofMarch,thatis,onthefifteenthofMarch.TheRomanshadcertaindaysintheirmonthswhichtheycalledKalends,Nones,andIdes.
OneofthepersonswhomadetheplotagainstCæsarwasJuniusBrutus,ahighlyrespectedRoman.ItissaidthathewasadescendantoftheJuniusBrutuswho,fivecenturiesbefore,hadhelpedtooverthrowthetyrantKingTarquin.BrutuswasanintimatefriendofCæsar,buthethoughtthatCæsarintendedtodestroytheRepublicbymakinghimselfking,andthereforehejoinedtheplotagainsthim.
AstheIdesofMarchdrewneartheplanforputtingCæsartodeathwascarefullyarrangedandsettled.Anaugur,orfortune-teller,onedaystoppedCæsarinthestreetandsaidtohim,“BewaretheIdesofMarch!”butthegreatconquerorlaughedatthewarning.
OntheappointeddaytheplottersmetintheSenatechamber,readytodothewickeddeedtheyhadplanned.WhenCæsarenteredthechamber,allpresentrosetogreethim.Hebowedandsmiledpleasantlytothepeopleandtookhisusualseat.Nowwasthefatalmoment.
Ashadbeenarranged,oneoftheplotterswentuptohimwitharequestforthepardonofaprisoner.Thentherestcrowdedaroundhischair,asiftourgehimtogranttherequest.Cæsarseemedsomewhatalarmedatthecrowdandrosefromhischair.Atthismomenthewasstabbedinthesidewithasword.Thentherewereloudoutcriesinthechamber,andallwasexcitementandconfusion.
Cæsarusedhisstylustodefendhimself.Thestyluswasaninstrumentmadeofiron,withasharppointononeendforwritingonwaxtablets,andwiththeotherendsmooth,forrubbingoutawordwhennecessary.Forwritingonparchmentorpaperapenmadeofreedwasused.EducatedRomanscarriedtheirstylusandtabletintheirpockets.Fromthenameoftheinstrumentthewordstyleisnowusedtomeanaparticularmannerofwriting.
Cæsarhadnothingbuthisstylustodefendhimselfwith.Hefoughtbravely,untilhesawhisfriendBrutuscomingtostrikehim.Thenhecriedout,“You,too,Brutus!”andmadenofurtherresistance.
Theystabbedhimuntilhefelldead.ThentheywentoutoftheSenateandthroughthestreetsofRomewithBrutusattheirhead.Theytoldthepeoplewhattheyhaddoneandrejoicedatthedeed.TheysaidthedeathofCæsarsavedtheRomanRepublic.
ButthepeoplewereveryangryandthreatenedtoputtodeaththosewhohadkilledCæsar.TheywouldhavedonethisonlythatBrutusandhisfriendsfledfromthecity.
TherewasagrandfuneralserviceinhonorofCæsar.ThebodywaslaidintheForum,andafamousRomannamedMarkAntonymadeaneloquentfuneralspeechoverit.HepraisedCæsarandspokesobitterlyagainstBrutusandhispartythatthepeopleweremoreangrythanever.ThisMarkAntonywasafterwardsaverypowerfulmaninRome.
Cæsardiedforty-fouryearsbeforeChristwasborn.OfcoursehisdeathdidnotsavetheRomanRepublic.Ithad,indeed,alreadyceasedtoexistinallbutthename.Romewasnolongerarepublic,butanEmpireand,asweshallsee,thefamilyofCæsargaveititsfirstemperor.AlltheemperorsadoptedthenameofCæsaraspartoftheirtitle.
CICERO
IMarcusTul’li-usCic’e-rowasaprominentmanatRomeforsometimeinthelatteryearsoftheRepublic.Hewasagreatorator—oneofthegreatesttheworldhaseverknown.Hisprincipalspeecheshavebeenpreservedandarereadandstudiedatthepresentday.
HeoftenspokeintheForumbeforelargeaudiences,andbyhiswonderfuleloquencedelightedallwhoheardhim.Boththenoblesandplebeiansadmiredhimforhislearning,hisoratory,andhismanlyqualities.
Cicerowasatall,gracefulman,withanintellectualandratherhandsomeface,andverybright,blackeyes.Hewassogreatafavoritethathewaschosentofillseveralpublicofficesandatlastwaselectedconsul.
IntheearlypartofhisyearasconsultherewasamysteriousplotformedinRomebysomenoblesofbadcharacter,oldsoldiers,andothersreadyforanymischief.Whattheirrealobjectwasnooneseemedtoknow.Butitwassaidthattheconspiratorswantedtooverthrowthegovernmentandsetupanewoneoftheirown.
TherewasasenatornamedSer’gi-usCat’i-line,andmanybelievedthathewasattheheadoftheplot.Hehadabadreputation,andforsometimetheothersenatorshadlookeduponhimwithsuspicion.Therewasnoproof,however,thathewasengagedinanyunlawfulproceedings,sonochargecouldbemadeagainsthim.
Butonedayayoungwoman,namedFulvia,cametoCiceroandgavehimsomeimportantinformationabouttheplotandCatiline’spartinit.Shesaidthatshehadaloverwhowasoneoftheplotters,andthathehadtoldhersomeoftheirsecrets.Shewasgreatlyfrightened,forshethoughtthattheremightbebloodshedinRomeiftheplotwenton,andshefeltitherdutytotellCiceroaboutit.
CiceroimmediatelywenttotheSenateandmadeapowerfulspeech.He
chargedCatilinewithbeingtheleadingpersoninaplottooverthrowthegovernment.Therewasgreatexcitementathiswords.Catilinewaspresent,andheboldlydeniedthechargeanddefiedCicerotoproveit.
“IfConsulCiceroisafraidofmydoingharminRome,”saidhe,“Iamwillingtoplacemyselfasaprisonerinthehandsofanysenator.”
“Idonotthinkitissafetohaveyouinthecity,”repliedCicero,“anddoyouexpectanyonetotakeyouintohishouse?”
AfteragreatdealofexcitingtalktheSenatelaidasidethechargesagainstCatilineforawhile.
IIAfewweekslater,inacitynearRome,therewasanuprisingofthepeopleagainstthepublicofficers.Thiscausedagreatdealofalarm,andCicerosaiditwasthebeginningoftheplotthathehadchargedCatilinewithforming.
ThenhehurriedtotheSenate,whereCatilinewas,andmadeagreatspeechagainsthim.Hecalledhimatraitortohiscountry.Catilineturnedpaleandbegantotremble.Heattemptedtospeak,butthesenatorsshouted,andhootedandhissedhim.Thosewhosatnearhimgotupindisgustandtookseatsinanotherpartofthechamber,leavingtheconspiratorsittingbyhimself.AtlastCatilineranoutoftheSenate,furiouswithanger,andthreateningrevenge.Thenhemountedahorseandrodequicklyoutofthecity.
ShortlyafterwardsCicerolearnedthenamesofnineRomancitizenswhowereleadersintheplot,andhehadthemarrested.HedeclaredintheSenatethattheyhadplannedtomurderthesenatorsandthehighofficers,andtoburnRome.Thesenatorsdeclaredatoncethattheninemustdie,andsoCicerohadthemputtodeath.
CatilinenowfledtothemountainscalledtheApenninesandthereraisedaforceoftwentythousandmen.TwoarmiesweresentagainsthimfromRome.Abattletookplace,inwhichCatiline’sarmywasdefeatedandhehimselfkilled.
ThusendedwhatwasknownastheCatilineConspiracy.Cicero’sactioninhelpingtodestroyitgreatlypleasedtheRomans.IntheSenatehereceivedmuchpraiseandhonor.Itwasevendeclaredthathewasthe“FatherofhisCountry.”
AntonydidnotlikeCicero,andwhentheTriumviratewasformed,thegreatoratorwasputtodeathbyAntony’sorder.
AUGUSTUS
IThefirstofthelonglineofRomanemperorswasOc-ta’vi-us,calledinhistoryAu-gus’tus.HewasthegrandnephewofJuliusCæsar.AlthoughhewasscarcelytwentyyearsoldwhenCæsardied,hewasveryambitious.HeoftensaidthatheshouldonedaybeattheheadoftheRomanEmpire.
“IshallruleRomelikeCæsar,”hewouldsaytohiscompanions.“Youmaylaughatmenow,butthetimewillcomewhenIshallbemasteroftheRomans.”
ShortlyafterCæsar’sdeathOctaviusbegantotakeanactivepartinpoliticalaffairs.AtthistimeMarkAntonywasincontrolofRomeandwasmanagingeverythingtosuithimself.HehadbeenanintimatefriendofCæsarandcommandedoneofhisarmies.Heobtainedagreatdealofpower,buthewasnotlikedverymucheitherbythenoblesortheplebeians.Hewasabadruler,andnobodytrustedhim.
OnceAntonytriedtopreventOctaviusfrombeingelectedatribuneofthepeople.“Iwillbeatribuneinspiteofyou,”Octaviussaid,andhesettoworkwithallhisenergytogettheoffice.Therewasaseverestruggleonelectionday,buttheboywassuccessful.
AfterthisOctaviushatedAntonyandplannedinsecrettobringabouthisdownfall.Andhesucceededinallheattemptedtodo.Fromatribuneheadvancedsteadily,stepbystep,tomoreimportantoffices.AtlastheobtainedcommandofanarmyandmarchedhissoldierstonorthernItaly,whereawarwasgoingon.WhileinthisregionhemetAntonywithhisarmy.Thetwobegantoquarrelandatlastcametoblows.ThenthearmyofOctaviusfoughtthearmyofAntony,andthenorthernplainswerereddenedwiththebloodofthesoldiers.
Whenthefightinghadgoneonforsometime,OctaviussenttoAntonyandaskedhimtostopit.HepretendedthathewasverysorryhehadbeguntofightwithAntonyandaskedforhisfriendship.
“Letusbefriendsandworktogether,”hesaidtoAntony.“Byjoiningour
armiesweshallbeabletodosomegood.”
Thefightingwasthenstopped,andthetwogeneralshadameeting.Theyagreedtounitetheirarmies,andtoinviteanotherRomangeneral,namedLep’i-dus,whohadalargearmy,tojointhem.LepidusacceptedtheinvitationandcametohaveatalkwithAntonyandOctavius.TheyagreedtoaplanbywhichtheythemselvesweretoruleRometogether.Thisrule,orgovernment,wascalledatriumvirate,andOctavius,Antony,andLepiduswerecalledtriumvirs,awordwhichmeansthreemen.
IIAftermakingalltheirarrangements,Antony,Octavius,andLepidusstartedforRomewiththeirarmiesandtookpossessionofthecity.Thentheybegantokillthosethattheythoughtweretheirenemies.MorethantwothousandRomanswereslain.TheywouldhavekilledBrutusonlythathewastheninGreece,wherehehadgoneafterCæsar’sdeathtoraiseanarmytofightAntonyandhisfriends.AntonyandOctaviusnowwentwithanarmytoGreecetofightBrutus.BotharmiesmetatPhilippi,inMacedonia,andthentherewasabattleinwhichthearmyofBrutuswasdefeated.AfterthebattleBrutusrequestedoneofhisslavestokillhim.Theslaverefused,butwhenBrutusstillpressedhimtodoit,heheldouthisswordandBrutuskilledhimselfbyfallinguponit.
ItistoldthatsometimebeforethebattleofPhilippi,asBrutuswassittingonenightinhistent,avisionorspectreappearedtohimandsaid,“Iamthyevilgenius,Brutus;weshallmeetagainatPhilippi.”ItisalsosaidthatthespectreagainappearedtoBrutusonthenightbeforethebattleofPhilippiandtoldhimthathisdeathwasathand.
TherewasnoonenowtointerferewithAntony,Octavius,andLepidus,andtheymanagedeverythinginRomeastheyliked.TheypretendedallthetimetohavegreatrespectfortheSenateandtheofficersofgovernmentwhohadbeenelectedbythepeople.
AfterashorttimeAntonywenttosomeoftheEasterncountriesthatwereapartoftheRomanEmpire,andLepiduswenttoAfrica.OctaviuswasleftinRometoattendtoitsaffairs.HethenbegantoplantogetridofAntonyandLepidus,sothathemightruleRomehimself.Withthisobjectheraisedagreatarmyanddeterminedtomakewaronhisrivals.
SextusPompey,asonofPompeytheGreat,wasatthistimeincontroloftheislandofSicily.HewasalwaysmakingtroubleforOctavius,andhewasaided
byLepidus,whohadcomefromAfricatoSicilywithhisarmy.OnedayOctaviussailedovertheMediterraneanSeatoSicily,withthousandsofsoldiers,destroyedthearmyofSextus,andinducedthearmyofLepidustoleavehim.Lepiduswasthentakenprisoner.“NowtoputanendtothepowerofAntony!”saidOctaviustohimself,when
hereturnedtoRomefromSicily.SohewenttotheSenateandaccusedAntonyoftreasoninAsiaandAfricaandaskedthatwarbedeclaredagainsthim.TheSenatedeclaredwar,andOctaviusbegantomakegreatpreparationsforit.
AntonywasinEgyptwhenheheardofthedeclarationofwar.HelaughedscornfullyattheideaofOctaviusbeingabletobeathim.Thenhegatheredanarmyofmorethanahundredthousandmenandafleetofseveralhundredwarships,andsetouttomeetOctavius.HehadwithhimCle-o-pa’tra,thebeautifulqueenofEgypt,whomhehadmarried,andshehadafleetofherown,numberingsixtyships.
OctaviushadaboutasmanysoldiersandshipsasAntony.ThetwofleetsmetnearaplacecalledAc’ti-um,onthecoastofGreece,andfoughtabattle.Forseveralhoursthefightwentonbravely,butneithersidegainedanygreatadvantage.SuddenlyCleopatrasailedawaywithherfleet,andAntonyquicklyfollowedherwithafewships.Thushedesertedhismenwhiletheywerefighting.
ThesailorsandsoldiersofthedesertedfleetkeptonfightingforashorttimeandthensurrenderedtoOctavius.AfewdayslaterapartofAntony’sarmy,whichwasencampedontheshorenearActium,alsosurrendered.
AntonywentbacktoEgyptwithCleopatra.Hisfriendsandsupportersthenlefthim,andhispowerwasgone.Soonafter,hestabbedhimself,andsodied.ItissaidthatCleopatradiedfromthebiteofapoisonousserpentcalledanasp,whichsheplacedonherarmonpurposetokillherself.
IIIOctaviuscontinuedtofightindifferentpartsoftheEmpireuntilhedefeatedeveryonewhodaredtoopposehim.ThenhewentbacktoRomewithagreatdealofgloryandrichesandletitbeknownatoncethatheintendedtobethemasterofthegovernment.Althoughhepretendedtoprotecttherightsofthepeople,hemadehimselfconsulandalsoassumedotherhighofficeswhichgreatlyaddedtohispower.Thousandsofsoldierswereathiscall,andfinallyhebecameverymuchlikeaking.
TheSenateaskedhimifhewouldwishtobeappointeddictatorforlife,buthethoughtitwisetorefusethisoffice.TheSenatethengavehimthenameofAugustus,whichmeantthathewasworthyofrespect.ThewordaugustusintheLatinlanguagemeanssacred.Hecalledhimselfemperor,and,asEmperorCæsarAugustus,heruledtheRomansalltherestofhislife,aperiodofabouttwenty-sevenyears.AndwhenAugustusbecameemperortheRepublicofRomewasnolongerinexistence.
WhatwereknownasthePræ-to’ri-anGuardswereorganizedbyAugustustoprotecthimselfandupholdhisauthorityasemperor.Theseguardswereabouttenthousandinnumber,andtheywerecomposedofthemosttrustysoldiersoftheEmpire.Eachsoldierhadhighrankandlargepay,andhadtoserveformanyyears.WheneverAugustusappearedinpublichewasattendedbysomeofthePrætorianGuards,andtheylookedveryimposingwiththeirhandsomeuniformsandglitteringswordsandspears.
Augustusmademanygoodchangesinthegovernment.Heverymuchimprovedtheconditionoftheplebeians.HisprincipalministersweretwoablemennamedA-grip’-paandMæ-ce’nas,whogavehimveryvaluableassistance.
WheneverthesewisemensawthattheRomansweregettinguneasyandbeginningtogrumble,theywouldadvisetheemperortodistributecornormoneytothepoor,ortogivethepeoplegrandexhibitionstoamusethem.Augustuswouldfollowtheadvice,andbysodoingmadehimselfverypopular.
DuringhislongreignAugustushadmanysplendidpalaces,temples,andotherbuildingserectedinRome,andtheymadethecityverybeautiful.AugustusalsofoundedcitiesinvariouspartsoftheEmpire.Heencouragedliteratureandartandwashimselfanauthor.InhistimethefamousRomanpoets,Hor’ace,Ver’gil,Va’ri-us,andOvidlived,andalsothegreathistorianLivy,whowrotethehistoryofRomefromtheearliestperioddowntohisowntime.VergilwastheauthorofacelebratedpoemcalledtheÆ-ne’id,whichtellsofthewanderingsandadventuresoftheTrojanheroÆneasmentionedonpage1ofthisbook.
ItwasinthereignofAugustusthatJesusChristwasborninBethlehem,atownofPalestine,orJudea,inSouthwestAsia.JudeawasthenpartoftheRomanEmpire.
NERO
IOnthedeathofAugustusintheyear14A.D.hisstepsonTi-be’ri-usbecameemperor.Hewasacrueltyrant.Heputtodeathagreatmanypeopleonlybecausehethoughttheywerehisenemies.ARomanemperorcouldputtodeathanyonehepleased.Ifhedidnotlikeaperson,hewouldchargehimwithsomecrimeandorderhissoldierstokillhim.Tiberiushadmanypeoplekilledinthisway,buthewashimselfkilledbythecommanderorgeneralofthePrætorianGuard.
ThenexttwoemperorswereCa-lig’u-laandClau’di-us.Theyalsoweretyrantsandputmanypeopletodeathwithoutjustcause.ItissaidthatCaligulaoncewishedthatalltheRomanpeopletogetherhadbutoneheadsothathemightcutitoffwithoneblow.
Butthenextemperorwasastillgreatertyrant.HisnamewasNero.Hebecameemperorintheyear54A.D.HewasthesonofawickedwomannamedAg-rip-pi’na.ThiswomanmarriedtheEmperorClaudiusandgothimtoappointherson,Nero,hissuccessor,insteadofhisownlittleson,Bri-tan’ni-cus.ThenshekilledClaudiusbypoison,andNerobecameemperor.
Nerowasatall,strong,good-looking,brightyouth.Hewasfondofgames,andcouldplaywellonseveralmusicalinsruments.Whenhefirstbecameemperorheseemedtobeaffectionateandkind-hearted,andhedidanumberofgoodthings.Once,whenhewasaskedtosignawarrantfortheexecutionofamancondemnedtodeath,heexclaimed:
“IwishIhadneverlearnedtowrite,forthenIshouldn’thavetosignawaymen’slives!”
Thenallthepeoplearoundhimcried:
“Whatanobleyoungmanouremperoris!Whatagoodhearthehas!”
ButinaveryshorttimeitwasfoundthatNerowasnotatallkindormerciful,butthathewasacruelandwickedman.
HismotherAgrippinaexpectedthatwhenhersonwasemperorsheherselfwouldbetherealmistressandwouldruletheRomanEmpireasshepleased.Nerowasonlyaboy,shethought,andhewouldnotwanttotakeuponhimselfthecaresandburdensofgovernment.
AndforawhileAgrippinadidruleRome.Shehadawomanshehatedputtodeathandshepunishedseveralotherpersonswhohadoffendedher.ShemadesomeoftherichestRomanspayherlargesumsofmoney.ButNerosoonputanendtohismother’spower.Onedayhesaidtoher:
“I,notyou,amtheruleroftheEmpire.Youhavenorighttotakeanypoweruponyourselfandyoumustnotdosoagain.Wheneveryouwantanythingdoneyoumustaskmetodoitforyou.”
“Askyou?”criedAgrippina,inarage.“Howdareyoutalkthiswaytomewhomadeyouemperor?Youtheemperor!Youarenottherightfulemperor.ThetrueheirtotheEmpireisyourstepbrother,youngBritannicus,thesonofClaudius!”
ThentherewasafiercequarrelbetweenNeroandhismother,andatlastheturnedheroutofhispalaceandorderedhernevertoappearthereagain.
Butwhatshehadsaidalarmedhimverymuch.HefearedthatBritannicusmightbemadeemperor,andthereforehedeterminedtogethimoutofthewayassoonaspossible.
AtthistimetherewasinRomeadreadfulwomannamedLo-cus’ta,whomadepoisonsandsoldthemsecretlytoanyonewhowantedthem.Nerowentonenighttothiswomanandsaid:
“Makemeastrongpoison—sostrongthatitwillkillapersonlikeaflashoflightning!”
Locustamadethepoisonandgaveittohim.Hetrieditonapig,anditkilledtheanimalinafewmoments.
“Ha!”saidhe,“thiswilldothework.”
Now,Britannicuslivedinthepalacewithhisstepbrotherandnextday,whendinnerwasserved,Neroputsomeofthepoisonintoacupofwinewhichheknewtheboywastodrink.ThemomentBritannicusdrankit,hefelltothefloordead.ThenNerosaidtotheguestswhowereatthetable:
“Donotbealarmed.Itisnothing.Mypoorstepbrotheralwayswassubjecttofits.”
TheattendantscarriedthebodyofBritannicusoutoftheroom,andthedinnerwentongayly.
IIAlittlewhileafterhehadpoisonedhisstepbrother,Neromadeuphismindtogetridofhismother,also.Hewasafraidthataslongasshelivedhewouldnotbesafeasemperor.Shemightstirupthepeopleagainsthimanyday.Sohewenttoseeherandpretendedthathewassorryhehadill-treatedher.Hekissedandcaressedhersoaffectionatelythatshewasentirelydeceived.
Thenthecruelsonmadeaplantodrownhismother.Hehadashipsobuiltthatbypullingoutcertainboltsandpinsitwouldsuddenlyfalltopiecesandsink.Hethenhiredawickedcaptainandcrewtodohisbidding,andgothismothertotakeasailintheshipdowntheTiber.
Agrippinatookamaidwithherandwentaboard.Shewasinahappyhumor,becauseherson,asshethought,wassokindtoher.Whentheshipcametoacertainplaceintheriverwherethewaterwasverydeep,thesailorspulledouttheboltsandpins.Thentheshipbegantofallapartandtosink.
Thesailorssprangintotherivertoswimtotheshore,andAgrippinaandhermaidjumpedoverboard.Themaidwaskilledbyasailor,butAgrippinawaspickedupbythecrewofafishingboat.
Nerowasgreatlytroubledwhenhelearnedofhismother’sescape.Hebelievedthatnowshewouldcertainlytrytohavehimremovedfromthethrone.Sohesentsomementokillherinherhouse,andtheydidsoinamostcruelmanner.
IIINoneoftheemperorsbeforeNerolivedsograndlyashedid.HehadasplendidmarblepalaceatRome,containingimmensequantitiesofbeautifulfurniture,goldandsilverornaments,andworksofartofthefinestkind.OnthepleasantshoresoftheMediterraneanSeahehadseveralhouseswherehelivedinthesummerandautumnmonths.Whereverhewenthehad,ashiscourtorcompanions,threeorfourhundredrichlydressedmenandwomen,withmanyslavestowaituponthem.Theytraveledinchariotscoveredwithivoryandgoldanddrawnbybeautifulhorses.
Nerowasfamousforthesplendiddinnershegaveinhispalace.Therarest
andmostcostlyfoodandwineswerespreaduponthetablesingreatplenty,andwhenthefeastingwasovertroopsofactorsanddancerswouldgiveperformanceswhichlasteduntillateatnight.
Sometimes,atthesedinners,Nerowouldplayonaharporflute,andsometimeshewouldactportionsofplaysorrecitepoemswhichhehimselfhadcomposed.Hewasaveryclevermusicianandactor,andhewroteverygoodpoetry.
OneeveningafirebrokeoutinRomeandragedfuriouslyforaweek.Halfthecitywasburned,andhundredsofpeoplelosttheirlives.SomeoftheRomanssaidthatNerohadstartedthefireandhadpreventeditfrombeingputout.Mostofthesixdaysduringwhichthefirelastedhespentinahightower,enjoyingthesight.Heplayedonhisharp,sangmerrysongs,andrecitedversesabouttheburningoftheancientcityofTroy.
AfterthefirewasputoutNerosaidthatithadbeencausedbythebelieversinthereligionofChrist.AtthistimetherewasaverylargenumberofChristiansinRome.ButmostoftheRomansstillworshipedtheiroldpagangods,andtheyhatedandill-treatedtheChristians.
WhenNerodeclaredthattheChristianshadcausedthegreatfire,thepeoplebegantopersecutetheminadreadfulmanner.ManyoftheChristianswerehanged,somewerecoveredwithpitchandburned,andotherswerehuntedtodeathbysavagedogs.DuringthetimeofthispersecutiontheApostlePaulwasbeheadedandtheApostlePeterwascrucified,asChristhadbeencrucifiedthirty-oneyearsbefore.
AfterashorttimeRomewasrebuiltinagreatermagnificencethanbefore.NerobuiltforhimselfanimmenseandsplendidpalaceonthefamousPalatineHill.ThispalacecontainedsomanyornamentsofgoldthatitwascalledtheGoldenHouse.
IngoverningtheEmpireNerowasveryharshandcruel.Heoftenputinnocentmenandwomen,andevenhisownfriends,todeath.Hekilledhiswifeinafitofpassion.HedidsomanywickedthingsthatatlasttheRomansgottiredofhavingsuchatyranttorulethem,andtheyformedaplottodethronehimandmakesomeoneelsetheiremperor.
Buttheplotcametonothing,becauseaslavewhohadheardofitwenttoNeroandtoldhimallaboutit.ThePrætorianGuardsseizedtheleadingplottersandputthemtodeath.Nerothenbecamemorewickedthanhehadbeenbefore.HeevenaccusedhisoldtutorSeneca,andthefamouspoetLucan,oftakingpart
intheplotagainsthim,andhesentthemanordertoputthemselvestodeath.Senecawasaverygoodmanandagreatwriter.WhenhereceivedthecruelorderfromNero,heknewthatifhedidnotobeyitthetyrantwouldsendsomeonetokillhim,sohehadtheveinsofhisarmscutopenandhediedaftermuchsuffering.Lucanalsoobeyedthetyrant’sorder.Whiledyingherepeatedlinesfromoneofhisownpoems.
IVThiswickedemperorreignedfourteenyears.Butatlasttherewasarebellionagainsthim,andthesoldierselectedGalba,theRomangovernorofSpain,tobethenewemperor.
ThenNeroactedlikeamiserablecoward.HewasafraidtostayanylongerinRome,formostofthepeoplehatedhimandfavoredGalba.Sohemountedahorseandrodeoutofthecitytothehomeofatrustyslave.ButwhilehewastherehereceivedwordthattheSenatehadcondemnedhimtodeathandthathorsemenhadbeensentouttocapturehim.
“Nowdigagraveforme,”hesaidtotheslave,“andIwillkillmyself!”
Atthismomentthegallopingofhorseswasheard.
“Hark!Theyarecomingtokillyou,”criedtheslave.“Usethedaggerwhileitistimeandsaveyourselffromdisgrace!”
WithtremblinghandNeroplacedhisdaggerathisthroat,butdidnothavethecouragetouseit.Theslavethenseizeditandplungeditintotheemperor’sthroat,andthewickedNerofelldead.
TITUS
IDuringthetwoyearsthatfollowedthedeathofNero,therewerethreeemperors,Galba,Otho,andVi-tel’lius.TheyweregeneralsofRomanarmies,andweremadeemperorsbytheirsoldiers.Buttheyreignedonlyafewmonthseach,andtheydidnothingofimportance.
Vitelliuswasaglutton.Hetookpleasureonlyineatinganddrinking.HewouldoftenvisitthehousesofrichRomanswithoutinvitationandtakebreakfastwithone,dinnerwithanother,andsupperwithanother.Afterbreakfasthethoughtonlyaboutdinner;andwhendinnerwasoverhebegantothinkofwhathewouldhaveforsupper.
ThenextemperorwasTitusFlaviusVespasian,commonlycalledVespasian.Healsowasanarmygeneral.WhenhewasmadeemperorbyhissoldiershewasinPalestine.HehadbeensenttherebyNerowithanarmytopunishtheJewswhohadrebelledagainstRome.AssoonashewasdeclaredemperorhereturnedtoItalyandlefthissonTitusFlavius,calledinhistorysimplyTitus,tocarryonthewaragainsttheJews.
TituscapturedJerusalemafterasiegeofsixmonths,andhissoldierstookpossessionofallthevaluablethingstheycouldfind.Thentheyburnedthecitytotheground.Thefamoustemplewasalsodestroyed,andthuswasfulfilledtheprophecyofChristthatnotonestoneofthebuildingshouldbeleftuponanother.WhenTitusreturnedtoRomehehadagrandTriumph,andabeautifularchwasbuiltinhishonor.Thisarchisstillinexistence.
IIVespasiandiedin79A.D.,andthenTitusbecameemperor.OneoftheremarkablethingsTitusdidduringhisreignwastofinishtheColosseum,whichhadbeenbegunbyhisfather.
TheColosseumwasthelargesttheatreintheworld.Ithadseatsforover
80,000people.ItwasfirstcalledtheFlavianAmphitheatre,fromthefamilynameoftheemperorswhobuiltit.Insideithadseatsallroundthering,orarena,andasthewordamphimeansaround,theycalledthegreatbuildinganamphitheatre.InlatertimesitgotthenameofColosseum.TheGreeksusedthewordcolossusasanameforanyverylargestatue,andbecausetheFlavianAmphitheatrewassolargeitwascalledtheColosseum.Inourownlanguageweusethewordcolossaltodescribeanythingofimmensesize.
IntheColosseumtheyhadmanykindsofamusements.Whenitwasfirstopenedtheshowsandgameslastedforahundreddays,and5,000wildbeastswerekilledinthearenabygladiators.Thearenawasavastspacefencedroundaboutwithastrongwall,andarounditwerecirculartiersorrowsofseats,onebehindtheother,likestepsofstairs.Sometimesthearenawasturnedintoalakebylettingwaterflowintoitfrompipes.Thentheyputshipsuponitandhadshamfightsinimitationofabattleatsea.Thissortofshowwascallednaumachia,whichmeansafightwithships.ItwasfirstintroducedintoRomebyJuliusCæsar,whohadalakedugforthepurposeintheCampusMartius.
TheColosseumisstillinexistence,butitispartlyinruins.
BesidesfinishingtheColosseum,theEmperorTitusalsobuiltsplendidbaths.TheywerecalledtheBathsofTitus.TheRomanswereveryfondofbaths.Wealthycitizensusedtobatheseveraltimeseveryday,andoftentheyspentthegreaterpartofthedayatthebaths,wheretherewerefinelyfurnishedrooms.
ItwasinthereignofTitusthatthecitiesofPom-pe’ii(-p ’yi)andHercula’ne-um,inthesouthofItaly,weredestroyedbyaneruptionofMountVesuvius.AfamousRomanauthor,PlinytheYounger,sawtheeruptionfromadistanceandwroteadescriptionofit.Hetellsthatafierycloudofcinders,stones,andashesburstfromthetopofthemountainandraineddownuponthecountryallround,destroyingtownsandvillagesandpeople.TheruinsofHerculaneumwereaccidentallydiscoveredbyworkmenin1709,andtheruinsofPompeiiwerediscoveredsomeyearslater.
Tituswasaverygoodemperor.Healwaysdideverythinghecouldforthewelfareandhappinessofthepeople,andhewassomuchlikedbyeverybodythathewascalledthe“DelightofMankind.”Itissaidthatonenighthethoughthehaddonenothingduringthatdayforthegoodofanyperson,andthathecriedout,“Ihavelostaday.”
TRAJAN
IOnthedeathofTitushisbrotherDomitianbecameemperor.Hewasaverybadmanandtookpleasureonlyindoingcruelandwickedthings.Itissaidthatoneofhisamusementswascatchingfliesandstickingthemwithpins.Oncewhenavisitorcalledandinquiredwhethertherewasanyonewiththeemperor,theservantanswered,“No,notevenafly.”
Itisnottobesupposedthatsuchanemperorcouldhavebeenlikedbythepeople.Evenhissoldiershatedhim,andatlasttheyformedaplotagainsthislifeandkilledhiminhisownpalace.
Nerva,whohadbeenafavoriteofNero,wasthenextemperor,buthewasanoldmananddiedafterareignoftwoyears.HewassucceededbyhisadoptedsonTrajan,whobecameemperorin98A.D.andreignedfornineteenyears.
Trajanwasagoodmanandabravesoldier.AtthetimehebecameemperorhewasgovernorofoneoftheRomanterritoriesorprovincesinGermanyalongthebanksoftheRhine,andheresidedatColonia,nowcalledCologne.
NotlongafterhisreturntoRomeTrajanwasengagedinawarwiththeKingofDacia.ThiswasthenameofthecountrylyingnorthoftheDanubeRiver.ThegreaterpartofitisnowcalledHungary.TheDacianking,whosenamewasDe-ceb’a-lus,hadfrequentlymaderaidsintoneighboringcountrieswhichbelongedtoRome,androbbedandkilledmanyofthepeople.TrajanresolvedtopunishDecebalus,andsohesetoutwithalargearmyandmarchedintoDacia.Thewarcontinuedthreeyears,fortheDacianswerebraveandskillfulfighters;butatlastDecebaluswasdefeatedinagreatbattleandhehadtocometoTrajanandhumblybegforpeace.HeagreedtobeavassalofRome;thatis,toholdhiskingdomsubjecttothecontroloftheRomanemperors.
ButinlessthanayearDecebalusagainattackedhisRomanneighbors,andTrajanhadagaintomarchagainsthimwithanarmy.TheDacianswereoncemoredefeatedinagreatbattle,andDecebalus,afterfailinginanattempttoescape,putanendtohisownlife.DaciawasthenmadeaRomanprovince.
DuringthisyearTrajanbuiltaremarkablebridgeacrosstheDanube.Beforethattimebridgeswerebuiltofwood,butinthebridgeovertheDanubeTrajanusedstoneforthepiers,whichwereofgreatsize.Thebridgehadtwenty-twoarches,anditsruins,whicharestilltobeseen,showwhatawonderfulworkitwas.
WhenTrajanreturnedtoRomeafterhisvictoryoverDecebalushehadagrandTriumph,andthereweregamesandshowsinhishonorwhichlastedahundredandtwentydays.Itistoldthatduringthesecelebrations10,000gladiatorsfoughtintheamphitheatreand11,000wildanimalswerekilledinthearena.
AmarblecolumnwaserectedinhonorofTrajan’svictoriesinDacia.ThismonumentisstillstandinginRome.ItiscalledTrajan’sColumn.ManyscenesshowingbattlesandothereventsintheDacianwarareengraveduponitfromthebasetothetop.
IITrajanalsohadwarsinAsia,andhewonmanyvictories.HeconqueredArmeniaandMesopotamiaandaddedthemtotheEmpire.ButhedidnotlivetoreturntoRome.HediedinatowninAsiaMinor,whichinhonorofhimwasafterwardscalledTrajanopolis.
TheRomansweremuchgrievedatthedeathofTrajan,forhehadbeenagoodemperorandhaddonemuchtobenefitthepeople.HebuiltfineroadsandcanalsandbridgesinItalyandtheprovinces.HegreatlyimprovedandbeautifiedtheCircusMaximus.ThiswastheplaceinwhichtheRomanshadtheirhorseracesandchariotraces.ItwasbuiltinthehollowbetweenthePalatineandAventinehills,andithadseatsfor250,000people.
TrajanalsomadeaforuminRome,whichwascalledafterhisnametheTrajanForum.InthecentreofthisforumtheTrajanColumnwasbuilt,andarounditweretemplesandlibrariesestablishedbythegoodemperor.ForalongtimeafterTrajan’sdeaththepeopleofRome,whenevertheygotanewemperor,usedtowishthathewouldbe“asgreatasAugustusandasgoodasTrajan.”
SomegreatwriterslivedinRomeinthetimeofTrajan.OneofthemwasPlutarch,whowrotethefamousbookcalledPlutarch’sLives.Thisbook,whichyouwillperhapssomedayread,containsanaccountofthelivesofmanygreatmenofGreeceandRome.ThehistorianTacitus,thepoetJuvenal,andPlinytheYounger,alreadymentioned,alsolivedinthetimeofTrajan.
PlinytheYoungerwasso-calledtodistinguishhimfromhisuncle,PlinytheElder,wholivedinthetimeofNeroandwastheauthorofacelebratedworkonnaturalhistory.
MARCUSAURELIUS
IThenextemperorwasTrajan’scousinHa’dri-an.HewasagoodruleranddidagreatdealtoimprovethecityofRome.HetraveledthroughmanypartsoftheEmpiretoseethatthepeoplewerejustlygovernedandthatthepublicofficialsweredoingtheirduty.HevisitedBritain,whichwasthenaRomanprovince,andhecausedastrongwalltobebuiltfromseatoseaacrossthecountrynearScotland,topreventthefiercetribesofthenorthfrommakingraidsupontheRomansettlementsinthesouth.Someoftheremainsofthiswallarestilltobeseen.
HadrianalsobuiltagreattombinRome,whichwascalledHadrian’sMole.HeandmanyotherRomanemperorswereburiedinthistomb.ItisnowknownastheCastleofSt.Angelo.
WhenHadriandiedaverygoodmannamedAn-toni’nuswasmadeemperor.HeshowedsuchfilialregardforHadrian,bybuildingatempleinhishonor,thathewascalledAntoninusPi’us.UndertheemperorswhoruledbeforehistimetheChristianswereverycruellytreated.Theywerenotallowedtohavechurchesorplacesofworship,andnumbersofthemwereputtodeathinthemostshockingmanner.OftenChristianswerethrownintothearenaintheAmphitheatreanddevouredbywildbeasts.
InthosetimestheChristiansofRomeheldtheirreligiousmeetingsinundergroundpassagesdugforburyingplaces.TheseCatacombs,astheywerecalled,werenearthewallsofthecityandaltogetherwerehundredsofmilesinlength.Alongbothsidesofthetunnelswereopenings,oneaboveanother,inwhichthedeadwereburied.ManyoftheCatacombshavebeenexploredinrecenttimes.Theyareamongthe“sights”whichvisitorstoRomearealwayseagertosee.
AntoninusPiuswasveryfriendlytotheChristians.Hegaveordersthattheyshouldbeallowedtopracticetheirreligionandthatanyonewhointerferedwiththemshouldbepunished.
ThenextemperorofRomewasaveryremarkableandaverygoodman.HisnamewasMar’cusAu-re’li-us.HegovernedtheEmpirejustlyandwellfornearlytwentyyears.Hebegantoreignintheyear161A.D.HewastheadoptedsonofthegoodEmperorAntoninus.ForsometimebeforethedeathofAntoninus,heheldahighofficeandhelpedtogoverntheEmpire.
AssoonashebecameemperorAureliusinvitedayoungmannamedVe’rustosharethethronewithhim.VerushadalsobeenadoptedbyAntoninus.ThegenerousactofAureliussurprisedeverybody.NeverbeforewasthereaRomanemperorwhowantedtogivehalfofhispowertoanotherperson,anditseemedstrangetothepeoplethatAureliusshoulddoso.ButAureliussaid:
“Ithinkmyadoptedbrotherhasarighttobeemperorwithme.”
AndsoVeruswasmadeemperorwithAurelius,andforthefirsttimeRomewasruledbytwoemperors.VerushadagreatrespectforAurelius.Heseldomattemptedtodoanythinginmattersofgovernmentwithoutaskinghisadvice.Buthedidnothavemuchtodowithpublicaffairs.Hecaredverylittleaboutbeingemperorandgenerallyspenthistimeinamusinghimself.Hewasnotagoodyoungman,andhisconductgaveAureliusagreatdealofsorrow.ButafternineyearsVerusdied,andAureliuswasthesolerulerduringtherestofhislife.
InhisyouthAureliusstudiedunderthebestteachersintheEmpire,andsohadanexcellenteducation.Healwayshadaneagerdesireforknowledgeandwasconstantlylearning.Eveninwartimes,whenhewasfightinginthefield,hecarriedalibrarywithhimandcouldoftenbeseeninhistentengagedinstudy.HewasoneofthemostlearnedoftheRomanemperors,andhisintimatefriendswerescholarsandauthors.
WhenaboyofonlytwelveyearshejoinedtheSto’ics.ThesewerefollowersofafamouswisemanorphilosopherofGreece,calledZe’no.Thismantaughtthatthepeopleshouldactaccordingtoreasonandvirtue,andshouldkeepaneventemperandabraveheartunderallcircumstances.Hetaughtalsothatmenshouldshowneitherjoynorsorrow,butcontroltheirfeelingsandpassions,andsubmitwithoutcomplainttowhatcouldnotbeprevented.
ThefollowersofZenowerecalledStoics,fromtheGreekwordstoa,whichmeansaroofedcolonnadeorporch.ItwasinaroofedporchatAthensthatZenotaughthisdoctrine.
TheEmperorAureliuswasoneofthebestandmostearnestoftheStoics.Hecarefullytrainedhimselftocontrolhisfeelingsatalltimesandtodohisdutyhonestlyandfaithfully.TheRomansneverhadapurerornobleremperor,orone
morerespectedandbeloved.Hisstyleoflivingwasverysimple.Hehadnoidlecourtiersathishouse,andhekeptonlyafewservants.Hegavenocostlydinnersandentertainments.Hespentmuchofhissalarytoimprovetheconditionofthepoorandtoprovidegoodschoolsfortheirchildren.
HeusedtowalkthroughthestreetsofRomeinplainclothing,attendedonlybyafavoriteslave.Hereturnedthegreetingsofthepeoplewithbowsandpleasantsmiles.Anyonecouldgotohimandtalkfreely,andheencouragedthepeopletotellhimabouttheirtroublessothathemightunderstandhowtohelpthem.
HegavetheSenateagreatdealofpowerwhichhethoughtitoughttohave,andgavebacktothepeoplemanyrightsandprivilegeswhichformeremperorshadtakenawayfromthem.NowondertheRomanslovedhimandcalledhimagoodman.
IIButthereignofAureliuswasfulloftroubles.InthefirstpartofittheTiberonedayoverfloweditsbanks,andthewaterssweptawayalargeportionofRome,destroyingmanylives.Afterthisthereweredreadfulearthquakes,verydestructivefires,andotherseriousmisfortunes.
Therewerealsomanywars.TherewasawarwiththeParthians,abrave,warlikenationinAsia,whodestroyedaRomanarmyandtheninvadedSyria.LargearmiesweresentagainstthemandtheyweresoonconqueredandforcedtopayhomagetoAurelius.
TheParthianhorsemenhadastrangewayoffighting.Theywerearmedwithbowsandarrowsandsmallspearscalledjavelins,andweremountedonveryswifthorses.TheywouldmakeattacksontherearlinesoftheRomans,andwhentheRomansturnedtoattackthemtheywouldlashtheirhorsesandrideoffasfastasthewind.Andwhiletheirhorsesweregoingatfullspeedtheywouldturnintheirsaddlesandcasttheirjavelins,orshoottheirarrowswithwonderfullyaccurateaim.
AftertheParthianwartherewerewarswithanumberofwildtribeslivinginthecountriesnowcalledAustriaandHungary.ThetribesthererebelledagainsttheirRomangovernors,andAureliushadyearsofhardfightingbeforehecouldsubduethem.Hewashimselfaremarkablybraveandablegeneralandgainedmanysplendidvictories.SoatlasthetaughtthebarbarianstorespectandobeytheRomanswhogovernedthem.
Once,whileAureliuswasfightingatribecalledtheQua’di,hissoldierswerehemmedinbytheenemy,inasmallrockyvalley,andsufferedgreatlyfromthirst.Suddenlytheskydarkenedandrainfellintorrents.Thethirstysoldierscollectedthewaterintheirhelmetsanddrankiteagerly.
Whiletheyweredrinking,andtheirlineswereinconfusion,theQuadisuddenlyattackedtheminlargenumbers.TheRomanswouldhavebeencuttopiecesbutthattherecameaviolenthailstorm,withlightningandthunder,whichstoppedthebattle.Whenthestormhadceased,theRomans,muchrefreshedbytherainfall,boldlyfoughttheQuadiandwonagreatvictory.
SomeoftheRomansbelievedthatthesuddenstormwhichrelievedthemsomuchwascausedbythemagicalpowerofanAfricanwizardwhowaswiththearmyatthetime.Buttherewasalsowiththearmyalegionofsoldiers,some3,000innumber,whowereChristians.TheChristianshadprayedforrain,andtheybelievedthattheraincameinanswertotheirprayers.TheysaidthatitwasamiraclesentbyGodtoprovethetruthofChristianity.
NowAureliuswasapagan.SomeofhisChristiansoldiershadtriedtoconverthimtotheirfaith,buttheyhadnotsucceeded.Helivedanddiedabelieverinthepagangodsandgoddesses.Afterthestrangestorm,however,heseemedtohaveagreaterrespectforChristianity,andhenamedhisChristianlegionofsoldiersthe“ThunderingLegion.”
IIIOncethecommanderoftheRomanarmiesinAsia,amannamedA-vi’di-usCas’si-us,plannedarebellionagainstAurelius.WheneverythingwasreadyCassiusdeclaredhimselfemperorandstartedwithhisarmytoRometotakepossessionofthecity.AureliuscollectedhistroopsandwenttomeetCassius;butnomeetingtookplace,forCassiuswaskilledbyhisownsoldiers,andtherebellionquicklycametoanend.
ThosewhohadaidedCassiuswerebroughtbeforeAureliusforpunishment.Buttheemperorwouldnotpunishthem.
“No,Iwillnotharmthem,”hesaid.“IthinkIhavegovernedtheEmpiretoofaithfullyandliberallytofearplots.Icanaffordtoforgivetraitors.LetallthefriendsofCassiusgofree;theyaretobepitiedratherthanpunished.”
Aureliuswasalwaysveryindustriousandwouldneverwasteanyofhistime.Itwasapartofhisdutyasemperortoattendthegamesandsportsinthe
ColosseumandtheCircus.Aureliuscarednothingforsuchsportsandwheneverheattendedthem,healwaysspenthistimeatsomeusefuloccupationwhilesittinginthesplendidchairofstateprovidedforhim.Sometimeshewouldstudyhisfavoritebooksandmakenotesfromthem,andsometimeshewoulddictatelettersandgovernmentorderstoasecretary.ThousandsofexcitedRomansaroundhimwouldbeshoutingtheirdelightatthesportsinthering,butAureliuswouldgooncalmlywiththeworkhehadinhand.“Idonotliketowastemytimebysittingheredoingnothing,”hewouldsay.
“Towastetimeisoneofthegreatestofcrimes.”
Andso,byneverallowinghimselftobeidle,Aureliuswasabletodomanyusefulthings.HeestablishedgoodschoolsandhospitalsinRomeandothercitiesofItaly.Heintroducednewtradessothatthepoorpeoplecouldgetamuchbetterlivingthanbefore.
Aureliusalwaysgavegreatencouragementtoartandliterature.HewelcomedauthorsandartiststoRomeandwasalwaystheirfriend.Heestablishedlibrariesandhallsofpaintingsandstatuary.Hehimselfwroteseveralbooks.
ItissaidthatwithallhisvirtuethelifeofAureliuswasnotahappyone.HehadserioustroublesattimesingoverningtheEmpire,andthecaresofaruleroftenweighedheavilyuponhim.Hiswife,whomhedearlyloved,behavedverybadlyandcausedhimmuchanxiety,andhisonlysonwasaverybadyoungman.
SointhelatteryearsofhislifeAureliusalwaysappearedmelancholy.Asmilewasseldomseenuponhisface.HediedatthecitynowcalledVienna,inAustria,180A.D.
CONSTANTINETHEGREAT
IFormorethanahundredyearsafterthetimeofMarcusAureliusnoneoftheRomanemperorsdidanythinggreatorremarkable.Theywerenearlyallbadmen,andmanyofthemwereputtodeathfortheirevildeeds.
Intheyear307A.D.theEmpirehadbeendividedupthroughmanyquarrelsandwarsbetweengeneralsofthearmies.Oftenanarmywoulddeclareitscommanderanemperor,andhewouldsethimselfupasrulerofpartoftheEmpire.Sointhiswaytherecameatlasttobesixpersonswhoclaimedtobeemperors.
NoneofthemwasinanywayremarkableexcepttheEmperorCon’stantine,calledConstantinetheGreat.HewasthesonofaformeremperornamedConstan’ti-us.WhenConstantiusdiedthearmychoseConstantinetobeemperor.ButhedidnotgotoRometobecrowned.HeremainedinGaul,forhelearnedthatfiveothershadtakenthetitleofemperorindifferentpartsoftheEmpire.
Afterawhile,however,ConstantinegotmessagesfrompeopleinRomebegginghimtocomeandrelievethemfromthecruelgovernmentofMax-en’ti-us,whowasactingasemperorthere.ButConstantinewasawiseman.HethoughtitwouldnotbewellforhimtoleaveGaulandenterintoafightwithMaxentius,sohepaidnoattentiontothemessages.
AtlastMaxentiusopenlyinsultedConstantineandthreatenedtokillhim.ThenConstantinewasarousedtoanger,sohegatheredagreatarmyofgoodsoldiersandsetoutforRome.HemarchedovertheAlpsandinashorttimewasfightingthearmyofMaxentiusontheplainsofItaly.
ThefirstbattletookplacenearTurin.ThesoldiersofMaxentiuswerecladinsteelarmor;butConstantine’smenfoughtthemsofiercelythattheirarmorwasoflittleusetothem,andtheywerespeedilydefeated.TherewasanotherbattleatVerona,whereConstantinewasagainthevictor.
ThethirdbattletookplaceonthebanksoftheTiber,nearRome.MaxentiushadmoresoldiersthanConstantine,buthewasnotagoodgeneral,sohewaseasilybeaten.HehimselfwasdrownedwhilefleeingacrosstheTiber.
AfterthebattleConstantineenteredRomeamidstthecheersofthepeople.AlittlewhileafterwardshetoldaninterestingstorytoaChristianbishopnamedEu-se’bi-us.HesaidthatwhilehewasmarchingthroughnorthernItaly,onthewaytoRome,hewasconstantlythinkingabouttheChristianreligion.Ithadbeenspreadingineverycivilizedcountryformorethantwocenturies,andConstantinethoughtthathe,too,shouldbecomeaChristianandnolongerworshippagangods.Buthecouldnotmakeuphismindtodoso.
Onedaywhilehewasinfrontofhistent,withhisofficersandtroopsaroundhim,thereappearedintheheavensanenormouscrossoffire.AlittleononesideofthecrosswerethesewordsintheGreeklanguage,“Bythis,conquer.”ThewordsaresometimesgivenintheLatinform,Inhocsignovinces,thetranslationofwhichis,“Throughthissignthoushaltconquer.”
Constantinewasastonishedatthewonderfulvision,andhegazedatituntilitfadedaway.Hecouldnotunderstandwhatitmeantandwasgreatlytroubled.ButthatnighthedreamedthatChristappearedtohiminrobesofdazzlingwhite,bearingacrossinHishands,andthatHepromisedhimvictoryoverhisenemiesifhewouldmakethecrosshisstandard.
ConstantinenowdeclaredhimselfaChristianandhadastandardmadeintheformofacross,withabannerattachedtoitbearingtheinitiallettersofthenameofChrist.ThisbannerwascalledtheLab’a-rum,anditwasafterwardsthestandardoftheRomanemperors.
WhenConstantinebecameaChristianhimselfhebegantotaketheChristiansintohisfavor.Hemadesomeofthemhighofficersofthegovernment;hebuiltChristianchurchesanddestroyedthepagantemples.HealsomadetheChristianreligionthereligionoftheEmpire,andhehadthesignofacrosspaintedontheshieldsandbannersoftheRomanarmies.
Thus,aftermany,manyyearsofterriblepersecution,theChristianswerebefriendedbytheRomanemperor,andsoontheybecameverypowerful.ThousandsofRomanswereconvertedtoChristianity,andthechurcheswerecrowdedwithworshipers.
II
ConstantinealsoverymuchimprovedtheRomanlawsandsystemofgovernment.Heputastoptothedishonestpracticesoftheofficersandestablishedjustmethodsofcarryingonpublicaffairs.HedisbandedthefamousPrætorianGuards,whichhadbeenanevilpowerinRomeforcenturies.ManyotherreformswerecarriedoutbyConstantine,whoseemedanxioustodowhatwasrightandwhatwasforthebestinterestsofthepeople.
UnderConstantine’srule,therefore,Romewashappyandprosperous.Toshowtheirgratitudetohimforhisnobledeedsthepeopleerectedinhishonoragrandmarblearchinthecentralsquareofthecityandinscribedonit:
“TOTHEFOUNDEROFOURPEACE.”
FourofthesixemperorswhohadatonetimeruledtheEmpirewerenowdead.ButintheeasttherewasoneemperornamedLi-cin’i-us.Constantineattackedhim,scatteredhisarmies,andtookawayfromhimthegreaterpartofhisterritory.
Thetwoemperorsthenbecamefriends,butaftersometimetheyhadaquarrelandwenttowaragain.Eachhadalargearmyandafleetofwarships.Twogreatbattleswerefought,andConstantinewonboth.Liciniussoonafterwardsdied.
NowforthefirsttimeConstantinewassoleemperor,andformorethanfourteenyearsheruledtheimmenseRomanEmpire.HebuiltthemostmagnificentpalaceRomehadeverseen.Hesurroundedhimselfwithhundredsofcourtiersandlivedingreatsplendor.
AfteratimeheresolvedtomovethecapitaloftheEmpiretoamorecentralplacethanRome,andheselectedBy-zan’ti-um,anancientcityofThrace,attheentrancetotheBlackSea.TothiscityConstantinesentnumbersofworkmentomakealterationsandimprovements,andhechangeditsnametoConstantinople,whichmeanscityofConstantine.Hespentvastsumsofmoneyinerectinggorgeousbuildings,makingaqueducts,constructingstreetsandpublicsquares,andindoingthemanyotherthingspropertobedoneinthecapitalofagreatEmpire.ThefineststatuesandotherworksofartthatcouldbeobtainedinGreece,Italy,andthecountriesofAsiawerebroughttomakeConstantinoplebeautiful.
WheneverythingwasreadyConstantinewiththeofficersofhisgovernmentremovedtoConstantinople.Helivedforaboutsevenyearsafterwards.Thereno
furtherwars,exceptaslightconflictwithatribecalledtheGoths,andthepeopleoftheEmpirewerecontentedandprosperous.
ConstantinediedinConstantinopleattheageofsixty-three,afterareignofnearlythirty-oneyears.HewasthefirstChristianemperorofRome.
ENDOFTHEWESTERNEMPIRE
MostoftheRomanemperorsafterConstantinewereeithercrueltyrantsorveryworthlesspersons,whospenttheirtimeinidlepleasureandneglectedtheirdutiestothepeople.Afew,however,didsomeremarkablethingsandthereforedeservetobementionedamongtheFamousMen.
Oneemperor,whosenamewasJu’li-an,iscalledinhistoryJuliantheApostate,becausehegaveuptheChristianreligionandtriedtoestablishtheworshipofthepagangodsagaininRome.JulianalsoattemptedtorebuildtheTempleofJerusalemwhich,aswehaveseen,wasdestroyedbyTitus.TherewasaChristianprophecythatitwouldneverberestored,andJulianthoughtofrebuildingittoprovetheprophecyfalse.Astoryistoldthatassoonasthemenbegantheworkballsoffireburstfromthegroundclosebythemandtheyhadtostop.Theytriedagainandagainandthesamethinghappened,andatlasttheyhadtogiveuptheworkaltogether.
NotlongafterhebecameemperorJuliansetoutwithalargearmytoconquerPersia.ForawhilehewasverysuccessfulanddefeatedthePersiankinginmanybattles.Butonedayhewasshotinthebreastbyanarrowandhediedsoonafter.Itissaidthatwhilehelaywoundedhecastahandfulofhisownbloodtowardheaven,cryingout,“Thouhastconquered,OGalilean.”ByGalileanhemeantChrist,whoissometimescalledtheGalileanbecauseHewasbroughtupinGalilee.
NotlongafterthereignofJulian,therewasanemperornamedVal-en-tin’i-an.HemadehisbrotherVa’lensemperoroftheeasternpartoftheEmpirewhilehehimselfruledoverthewesternpart.AndformanyyearsafterwardstheEmpirewasruledinthiswaybytwoemperors,onecalledtheEmperoroftheEast,andtheothertheEmperoroftheWest.
OnthedeathofValentinianhissonGra’ti-anbecameEmperoroftheWest,andatalentedsoldiernamedThe-odo’si-usbecameEmperoroftheEastonthedeathofValens.Gratianwasweakandunfittorule,andhewaskilledbyaSpaniardnamedMax’i-mus,whomadehimselfEmperoroftheWest.
TheodosiusfoughtMaximusanddefeatedhim,andafterwardshadhimputtodeath.ThenhemadeasonofValentinianEmperoroftheWest,asValentinianII,andgavehimashisadviserachiefnamedAr-bo-gas’tes.ButArbogasteswassoontherealmasteroftheWesternEmpire.OnedayValentinianwasfounddeadinhisbed,andArbogastesthenmadeEu-ge’ni-us,ateacher,theemperor.Theodosius,whowellknewthatValentinianIIhadbeenmurdered,madewaronEugeniusandArbogastesanddefeatedthem,anduntilhisdeath,afewmonthsafterwards(in395),TheodosiuswasemperorofbothEastandWest.
Theodosiushadbeenawiseruler,buthedidoneverybadthing.ThepeopleofThes-sa-lo-ni’ca,acityofMacedonia,acountrynorthofGreece,hadkilledtheirgovernorbecausehehadputoneoftheirfavoritecircusridersinprison.WhenTheodosiusheardofthishewasveryangry,andhegaveordersthattheyshouldbeinvitedtoashowinthecircusandthereputtodeath.Thiscruelorderwascarriedout.ThecitizensofThessalonicawereinvitedtocomeonedaytothecircustoseeagrandshow.Thousandscame,andassoonastheyhadtakentheirseatsatroopofsoldiersunderthecommandofoneofthegeneralsofTheodosiusenteredthebuildingandmassacredthemallwithoutmercy.Oversixthousandmen,women,andchildrenwerekilled.
AtthistimeTheodosiusresidedinMilan,acityofnorthItaly.AtthesametimetherelivedinMilanabishopnamedAm’brose,whowasagoodandholyman.WhenAmbrosewastoldofthemassacreatThessalonicahewasgreatlyshocked.Heseverelyreprimandedtheemperorandwouldnotpermithimtoenterthedoorofthechurchuntilhehaddonepenanceforthesinhehadcommittedinsocruellyputtingtodeathmanyinnocentpersons.
ThesuccessorofTheodosiusasEmperoroftheWestwashissonHon-o’ri-us,whoreignedfortwenty-nineyears;buttheactualrulerduringallthattimewasasoldiernamedStil’i-cho,whowastheemperor’sguardian.Honoriuswasasimpletonandhadnodesireorabilitytoattendtotheaffairsofthegovernment.
TheGothsandVandalsandotherbarbaroustribesfromthenorthandeastofEuropenowbegantooverruntheWesternEmpireandtothreatenRomeitself.Twicethegreatcitywasactuallycapturedandplundered;thefirsttimebytheGothsunderAl’ar-ic,andnextbytheVandalsunderaboldwarriornamedGen’ser-ic.AboutthosebarbarianchiefsandtheirexploitsyouwillperhapsreadinFAMOUSMENOFTHEMIDDLEAGES,acompanionvolumetothisbook.
TodefendtheseatoftheirEmpireagainsttheattacksofitsenemiestheRomanswereobligedtowithdrawtheirforcesfromseveraloftheoutlying
provinces,includingBritain,whichwasnowlefttoitsnativeinhabitants.FormorethanfiftyyearsafterwardsanumberofmenwithoutmuchabilitytookpartinrulingwhatwasleftoftheoncemightyEmpire.Oneofthesewascalledbythehigh-soundingnameofRomulusAugustulus.HewasthesonofO-res’tes,thegeneralofthearmyofItalyandhadbeenmadeemperorbyhisfather.HewasthelastoftheWesternemperors.
AmongtheItaliansoldierstherewasahuge,half-savagemannamedO-do-a’cer,whobelongedtoawildnortherntribe.Hewasafavoriteofthearmybecauseofhiscourageandstrength.HeresolvedtobetherulerofItaly,sowiththearmyathisbackheputOrestestodeath,tookRomulusAugustulusprisoner,andforcedhimtogiveupthetitleofemperor.ThenOdoacerbecamekingofItalyintheyear476A.D.
BythistimetheworldhadnearlyenteredthatperiodwhichisknownastheMiddleAges,andmanyoftheothercountrieswhichhadbeenpartsoftheRomanEmpirewereeitherrulingthemselvesordefendingthemselvesagainstnewinvaders.GaulwasinvadedandconqueredbyGermantribescalledFranks,fromwhomthecountrysubsequentlygotthenameofFrance.Britain,abandonedbytheRomans,wassoonafterconqueredbyotherGermantribes.AndsoatlastthegreatRomanEmpirehadcrumbledtopieces,andRome,solongtheMistressoftheWorld,asshewascalled,hadfallenfromherproudpositionofgrandeurandpowerintothatofasecondorthirdratecity.
ButtheEmpireoftheEastcontinuedtoexistforcenturiesafterwards,withConstantinopleasitscapital.ItincludedmanyofthecountriesofAsia,Africa,andeasternEuropewhichhadformerlybelongedtotheundividedEmpire.IncourseoftimethepoweroftheGreeks,aidedbytheinfluenceoftheGreekdivisionoftheChurch,becamesupremeatConstantinople,andsotheEmpirewasalsocalledtheGreekEmpire,andsometimestheByzantineEmpire,fromtheancientnameofthecapital.
InthefourteenthcenturytheTurks,orMohammedans,thenverypowerfulinsouthwesternAsia,begantomakeinroadsontheEmpire.Theyconqueredandtookpossessionofseveralofitsprovinces,andin1453theycapturedConstantinople,whichhassincebeenthecapitaloftheTurkish,orOttomanEmpire,therulerofwhichisknownasthesultan.
THEEND