False Flag

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False flag

False colors redirects here. For the imaging technique,

seeFalse-color.

The contemporary term false flag describes covert oper-

This USDouglas A-26 C Invaderwas painted in fake Cuban Air

Force colors for themilitary invasion of Cubaundertaken by the

CIA-sponsored paramilitary groupBrigade 2506in April 1961.

ationsthat are designed to deceive in such a way that the

operations appear as though they are being carried out by

entities, groups, or nations other than those who actually

planned and executed them.[1]

Historically, the term false flag has its origins innaval

warfare where the use of a flag other than the belligerents

truebattle flagas a ruse de guerre, before engaging the

enemy, has long been accepted.[1]

Operations carried out during peace-time by civilian or-

ganizations, as well as covert government agencies, can

(by extension) also be called false flag operations if they

seek to hide the real organization behind an operation.

1 Use in warfare

In land warfare such operations are generally deemed ac-

ceptable in certain circumstances, such as to deceive ene-

mies providing that the deception is notperfidiousand all

such deceptions are discarded before opening fire upon

the enemy. Similarly innaval warfaresuch a deception

is considered permissible provided the false flag is low-

ered and the true flag raised before engaging in battle:[2]

auxiliary cruisers operated in such a fashion in both World

Wars, as did Q-ships, while merchant vessels were en-

couraged to use false flags for protection.

Such masquerades promoted confusion not just of the

enemy but of historical accounts: in 1914 theBattle ofTrindadewas fought between the British auxiliary cruiser

RMS Carmania and the German auxiliary cruiser SMS

Cap Trafalgarwhich had been altered to look like Car-

mania. (Contrary to some possibly mendacious accounts

the RMS Carmania hadnotbeen altered to resemble the

Cap Trafalgar.)

Another notable example was theWorld War IIGerman

commerce raider Kormoran which surprised and sank the

Australian light cruiserHMASSydneyin 1941 while dis-

guised as a Dutch merchant ship, causing the greatest

recorded loss of life on an Australian warship. While

Kormoran was fatally damaged in the engagement and

its crew captured the outcome represented a considerablepsychological victory for the Germans.[3]

Other examples from WWII included a Kriegsmarine

ensign in the St Nazaire Raid and captured a Germancode

book: the old destroyer Campbeltown, which the British

planned to sacrifice in the operation, was provided with

cosmetic modifications that involved cutting the ships

funnels andchamferingthe edges to resemble a German

Type 23 torpedo boat.

By this ruse the British were able to get within two miles

(3 km) of the harbour before the defences responded,

where the explosive-riggedCampbeltown

and comman-

dos successfully disabled or destroyed the key dock struc-

tures of the port.[4][5]

1.1 Air warfare

In December 1922February 1923, Rules concerning the

Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air

Warfare, drafted by a commission of jurists atthe Hague

regulates:[6]

Art. 3. A military aircraft must carry an exte-

rior mark indicating its nationality and its mil-

itary character.

Art. 19. The use of false exterior marks is for-

bidden.

This draft was never adopted as a legally binding treaty,

but theICRC states in its introduction on the draft that'To

a great extent, [the draft rules] correspond to the custom-

ary rules and general principles underlying treaties on the

law of war on land and at sea',[7] and as such these twononcontroversial articles were already part of customary

law.[8]

1
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2 2 AS PRETEXTS FOR WAR

1.2 Land warfare

In land warfare, the use of a false flag is similar to that

of naval warfare: the trial ofOtto Skorzeny, who planned

and commandedOperation Greif, by a U.S.military tri-

bunalat theDachau Trials included a finding that Sko-

rzeny was not guilty of a crime by ordering his men intoaction in American uniforms. While he had passed on to

his men the warning of German legal experts that if they

fought in American uniforms, they would be breaking the

laws of warthey probably were not doing so simply by

wearing American uniforms. During the trial, a number

of arguments were advanced to substantiate this position

and the German and U.S. military seem to have been in

agreement.

In the transcript of the trial,[9] it is mentioned that Para-

graph 43 of theField Manualpublished by theWar De-

partment,United States Army, on 1 October 1940, under

the entryRules of Land Warfarestates 'National flags, in-signias and uniforms as a ruse in practice it has been au-

thorized to make use of these as a ruse. The foregoing rule

(Article 23 of the Annex of theIVth Hague Convention),

does not prohibit such use, but does prohibit their improper

use. It is certainly forbidden to make use of them during a

combat. Before opening fire upon the enemy, they must be

discarded'.

The American Soldiers Handbook, was also quoted by

Defense Counsel: 'The use of the enemy flag, insignia,

and uniform is permitted under some circumstances. They

are not to be used during actual fighting, and if used in

order to approach the enemy without drawing fire, shouldbe thrown away or removed as soon as fighting begins.

Subsequently the outcome of the trial has been codified

in the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions

of 12 August 1949(Protocol I):

Article 37. Prohibition ofperfidy

1. It is prohibited to kill, injure, or capture an

adversary by resort to perfidy. Acts inviting the

confidence of an adversary to lead him to be-

lieve that he is entitled to, or is obliged to ac-

cord, protection under the rules of internationallawapplicable in armed conflict, with intent to

betray that confidence, shall constitute perfidy.

The following acts are examples of perfidy:

(a) The feigning of an intent to negotiate under

aflag of truceor of a surrender;

(b) The feigning of an incapacitation by

wounds or sickness;

(c) The feigning of civilian, non-combatant sta-

tus; and

(d) The feigning of protected status by the use

of signs, emblems or uniforms of the UnitedNations or of neutral or other States not Parties

to the conflict.

2. Ruses of war are not prohibited. Such ruses

are acts which are intended to mislead an ad-

versary or to induce him to act recklessly but

which infringe no rule of international law ap-

plicable in armed conflict and which are not

perfidious because they do not invite the con-

fidence of an adversary with respect to protec-tion under that law. The following are exam-

ples of such ruses: the use of camouflage, de-

coys, mock operations and disinformation.

Article 38. Recognized emblems

1. It is prohibited to make improper use of the

distinctiveemblem of the red cross, red cres-

cent or red lion and sun or of other emblems,

signs or signals provided for by the Conven-

tions or by this Protocol. It is also prohibited to

misuse deliberately in an armed conflict otherinternationally recognized protective emblems,

signs or signals, including the flag of truce, and

the protective emblem of cultural property.

2. It is prohibited to make use of the distinc-

tive emblem of theUnited Nations, except as

authorized by that Organization.

Article 39. Emblems of nationality

1. It is prohibited to make use in an armed con-

flict of the flags or military emblems, insignia

or uniforms of neutral or other States not Par-

ties to the conflict.

2. It is prohibited to make use of the flags or

military emblems, insignia or uniforms of ad-

verse Parties while engaging in attacks or in or-

der to shield, favour, protect or impedemilitary

operations.

3. Nothing in this Article or in Article 37,

paragraph 1 ( d ), shall affect the existing gen-

erally recognized rules of international law ap-

plicable to espionage or to the use of flags in

the conduct of armed conflict at sea.

2 As pretexts for war

2.1 Russo-Swedish War

In 1788, the head tailor at theRoyal Swedish Operare-

ceived an order to sew a number of Russian military uni-

forms. These were then used by the Swedes to stage

an attack onPuumala, a Swedish outpost on the Russo-

Swedish border, on 27 June 1788. This caused an outrage

inStockholmand impressed theRiksdag of the Estates,the Swedish national assembly, who until then had re-

fused to agree to an offensive war against Russia. The
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riksdag_of_the_Estateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puumalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Operahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_trucehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfidyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Conventions_(1899_and_1907)#Hague_Convention_of_1907https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Field_Manualshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachau_Trialshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tribunalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tribunalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Greifhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Skorzeny


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2.4 Cuban Revolution 3

Puumala incident allowed King Gustav III of Sweden,

who lacked the constitutional authority to initiate unpro-

voked hostilities without the Estates consent, to launch

theRusso-Swedish War (17881790).[10]

2.2 Second Sino-Japanese War

Japanese experts inspect the scene of the 'railway sabotage' on

South Manchurian Railway

In September 1931,Japaneseofficers fabricated a pretext

for invadingManchuriaby blowing up a section of rail-

way. Though the explosion was too weak to disrupt oper-

ations on the rail line, the Japanese nevertheless used this

Mukden incidentto seize Manchuria and create apuppet

governmentfor what they termed the independent state

ofManchukuo.[11]

2.3 World War II

2.3.1 Gleiwitz incident

The Gleiwitz incident in 1939 involved Reinhard Hey-

drich fabricating evidence of a Polish attack against

Germanyto mobilize German public opinion for war and

to justify the war with Poland. Alfred Naujockswas a

key organiser of the operation under orders from Hey-

drich. It led to the deaths ofNazi concentration camp

victims who were dressed as German soldiers and then

shot by theGestapoto make it seem that they had been

shot by Polish soldiers. This, along with other false flag

operations inOperation Himmler, would be used to mo-

bilize support from the German population for the start

ofWorld War II in Europe.[12]

The operation failed to convince international public

opinion of the German claims, and both Britain and

FrancePolands alliesdeclared war two days after

Germany invaded Poland.[13]

2.3.2 Winter War

On November 26, 1939, theSoviet army shelled Mainila,a Russian village near the Finnish border. Soviet author-

ities blamedFinlandfor the attack and used the incident

Alfred Naujocks

as a pretext to invade Finland, starting theWinter War,

four days later.[14]

2.4 Cuban Revolution

2.4.1 Operation Northwoods

The planned, but never executed, 1962Operation North-

woods plot by the U.S. Department of Defense for a

war with Cuba involved scenarios such as fabricating

the hijacking or shooting down of passenger and mili-

tary planes, sinking a U.S. ship in the vicinity of Cuba,

burning crops, sinking a boat filled with Cuban refugees,

attacks by alleged Cuban infiltrators inside the United

States, and harassment of U.S. aircraft and shipping

and the destruction of aerial drones by aircraft disguisedas Cuban MiGs.[16] These actions would be blamed on

Cuba, and would be a pretext for an invasion of Cuba

and the overthrow ofFidel Castro's communist govern-

ment. It was authored by theJoint Chiefs of Staff, but

then rejected by President John F. Kennedy. The sur-

prise discovery of the documents relating to Operation

Northwoods was a result of the comprehensive search for

records related to theassassination of President John F.

Kennedyby theAssassination Records Review Boardin

the mid-1990s.[17] Information about Operation North-

woods was later publicized byJames Bamford.[18]

2.5 Vietnam War
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bamfordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_Records_Review_Boardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_President_John_F._Kennedyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_President_John_F._Kennedyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staffhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castrohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Defensehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Northwoodshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Northwoodshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelling_of_Mainilahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Theatre_of_World_War_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Himmlerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestapohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Naujockshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland_(1939)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrichhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrichhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleiwitz_incidenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukden_Incidenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_peoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Manchurian_Railwayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Swedish_War_(1788%E2%80%9390)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_III


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4 3 AS A TACTIC TO UNDERMINE POLITICAL OPPONENTS

Operation Northwoods memorandum (13 March 1962).[15]

2.5.1 Gulf of Tonkin Incident

TheGulf of Tonkin Incidentoccurred in 1964 whereby

theCIA conducted operations reported by theNSAasNorth Vietnamese aggression towards the United States.

The incident was used as a pretext for the United States to

escalateVietnam Warefforts. During the operations on

August 2nd, 1964 USS Maddox provoked the North Viet-

namese by entering restricted waters. Then, on August

4th, 1964, it was reported that North Vietnam attacked

two US ships, USS Maddoxand USS Turner Joy. The

claim that the ships were attacked was later discovered to

be false and in 2005declassified documentsrevealed that

both theCIAandNSAwere involved in the manufacture

of the incidents that led to US air strikes on August 7th,

1964.[19]

3 As a tactic to undermine political

opponents

3.1 Reichstag fire

Main article:Reichstag fire

TheReichstag firewas anarsonattack on theReichstag

buildingin Berlin on 27 February 1933. The fire startedin the Session Chamber,[20] and, by the time the police

and firemen arrived, the mainChamber of Deputieswas

engulfed in flames. Police searched the building and

foundMarinus van der Lubbe, a young Dutch council

communistand unemployed bricklayer, who had recently

arrived in Germany to carry out political activities.

The fire was used as evidence by the Nazis that the

Communists were beginning a plot against the Germangovernment. Van der Lubbe and four Communist leaders

were subsequently arrested.Adolf Hitler, who was sworn

in asChancellor of Germany four weeks before, on 30

January, urged PresidentPaul von Hindenburgto pass an

emergency decree to counter the ruthless confrontation

of theCommunist Party of Germany".[21] With civil lib-

erties suspended, the government instituted mass arrests

of Communists, including all of the Communist parlia-

mentary delegates. With their bitter rival Communists

gone and their seats empty, the National Socialist Ger-

man Workers Party went from being a pluralityparty to

the majority; subsequent elections confirmed this position

and thus allowed Hitler to consolidate his power.

Historians disagree as to whether Van der Lubbe acted

alone, as he said, to protest the condition of the Ger-

man working class, or whether the arson was planned and

ordered by the Nazis, then dominant in the government

themselves, as a false flag operation.[22][23]

3.2 Project TP-Ajax

Main article:1953 Iranian coup d'tat

On 4 April 1953, theCIAwas ordered to undermine the

government of Iran over a four-month period, as a precur-

sor to overthrowing Prime MinisterMohammad Mosad-

degh.[24] One tactic used to undermine Mosaddegh was

to carry out false flag attacks on mosques and key public

figures, to be blamed on Iranian communists loyal to the

government.[24]

The CIA project was code-named TP-Ajax, and the tactic

of a directed campaign of bombings by Iranians posing

as members of the Communist party,[25] involved the

bombing of "at least" one well known Muslims house

by CIA agents posing as Communists.[25] The CIA de-

termined that the tactic of false flag attacks added to thepositive outcome of ProjectTPAJAX.[24]

However, as "[t]he C.I.A. burned nearly all of its files on

its role in the 1953 coup in Iran, the true extent of the

tactic has been difficult for historians to discern.[26]

3.3 2008 Kurcha incident

In 2008 there was ashootingagainst two minibuses driv-

ing along in a volatile area right on the border between

Abkhaziaand the republic ofGeorgia. The buses were

carrying Georgians who lived in Abkhazia and wanted tocross the border so they could go and vote in the parlia-

mentary election that day.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhaziahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Khurcha_incidenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TPAJAXhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TP-Ajaxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddeghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddeghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIAhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%2527%C3%A9tathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majorityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurality_(voting)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_von_Hindenburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_(German_Reich)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitlerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_communisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_communisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_peoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinus_van_der_Lubbehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_(building)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_(building)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_firehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_firehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declassificationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Turner_Joy_(DD-951)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Maddox_(DD-731)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Maddox_(DD-731)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War#Johnson%2527s_escalation,_1963%E2%80%9369https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin_Incident


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5

The country had been experiencing internal political tur-

moil for the last year, and in an attempt to calm the

situation, presidentMikheil Saakashvili moved forward

both presidential and parliamentary elections. However

the presidential election in January that year was strongly

contested, with hundreds of thousands attending protest

rallies. When the parliamentary election came up in May,the mood was still tense.

On mid day 21 May the two minibuses came under attack

with small arms and grenades, and though there were no

casualties, three people were taken to a hospital in Zug-

didi, where president Saakashvili later arrived and was

filmed by TV at the patients bedside.

In his comments on TV, which dominated the news dur-

ing election day, Saakashvili indicated that the attack had

been an attempt to disrupt the election, implying that it

had been Abkhaz or Russian forces who had been behind

it. This provided for a favorable opportunity for the pres-ident to focus the nations attention on an external enemy,

thereby leading attention away from his domestic critics,

as well as making use of his position as leader to rally the

Georgians around his candidates in the election.

An investigation by the United Nations Observer Mission

in Georgia found that the attackers were located on the

Georgian side of the ceasefire line, about 100m from the

buses, and that although hard evidence of the attackers

identities was lacking, inconsistencies merited further in-

vestigation, particularly the suggestion that the filming of

the attack seemed anticipatory.[27]

A Georgian investigative TV documentary later foundthat camera crew from the government-friendly channel

Rustavi 2 had been in position with their equipment be-

fore the shooting took place.

4 Pseudo-operations

Pseudo-operations are those in which forces of one power

disguise themselves as enemy forces. For example, a state

power may disguise teams of operatives as insurgents and,

with the aid of defectors, infiltrate insurgent areas.[28] The

aim of such pseudo-operations may be to gather short orlong-term intelligence or to engage in active operations, in

particularassassinationsof important enemies. However,

they usually involve both, as the risks of exposure rapidly

increase with time and intelligence gathering eventually

leads to violent confrontation. Pseudo-operations may

be directed by military or police forces, or both. Police

forces are usually best suited to intelligence tasks; how-

ever, military provide the structure needed to back up

such pseudo-ops with military response forces. Accord-

ing to US military expert Lawrence Cline (2005), the

teams typically have been controlled by police services,

but this largely was due to the weaknesses in the respec-tive military intelligence systems.

The State Political Directorate (OGPU) of the Soviet

Charlemagne Pralte of Haiti was assassinated in 1919, after

checkpoints were passed by military disguised as guerrilla fight-

ers.

Union set up such an operation from 1921 to 1926.During Operation Trust, they used loose networks of

White Armysupporters and extended them, creating the

pseudo-"Monarchist Union of Central Russia (MUCR)

in order to help the OGPU identify real monarchists and

anti-Bolsheviks.

An example of a successful assassination was United

States Marine Sergeant Herman H. Hannekenleading a

patrol of his Haitian Gendarmerie disguised as enemy

guerrillasin 1919. The Patrol successfully passed sev-

eral enemy checkpoints in order to assassinate the guerilla

leader Charlemagne Pralte near Grande-Rivire-du-

Nord. Hanneken was awarded theMedal of Honorandwas commissioned a Second Lieutenant for his deed.

During the Mau Mau uprising in the 1950s, captured Mau

Mau members who switched sides and specially trained

British troops initiated the pseudo-gang concept to suc-

cessfully counter Mau Mau. In 1960Frank Kitson, (who

was later involved in theNorthern Irish conflictand is now

a retired British General), publishedGangs and Counter-

gangs, an account of his experiences with the technique

inKenya; information included how to counter gangs and

measures of deception, including the use of defectors,

which brought the issue a wider audience.

Another example of combined police and military over-sight of pseudo-operations include theSelous Scoutsin

the former countryRhodesia(nowZimbabwe), governed
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6 5 ESPIONAGE

by white minority rule until 1980. The Selous Scouts

were formed at the beginning of Operation Hurricane,

in November 1973, by Major (later Lieutenant Colonel)

Ronald Reid-Daly. As with all Special Forces in Rhode-

sia, by 1977 they were controlled by COMOPS (Com-

mander, Combined Operations) Commander Lieutenant

General Peter Walls. The Selous Scouts were originallycomposed of 120 members, with all officers being white

and the highest rank initially available for black soldiers

being colour sergeant. They succeeded in turning ap-

proximately 800 insurgents who were then paid by Spe-

cial Branch, ultimately reaching the number of 1,500

members. Engaging mainly in long-range reconnaissance

and surveillance missions, they increasingly turned to of-

fensive actions, including the attempted assassination of

Zimbabwe Peoples Revolutionary Army leader Joshua

Nkomoin Zambia. This mission was finally aborted by

the Selous Scouts, and attempted again, unsuccessfully,

by theRhodesian Special Air Service.[29]

Some offensive operations attracted international con-

demnation, in particular the Selous Scouts raid on a

Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army(ZANLA)

camp at Nyadzonya Pungwe, Mozambique in August

1976. ZANLA was then led byJosiah Tongogara. Using

Rhodesian trucks and armored cars disguised as Mozam-

bique military vehicles, 84 scouts killed 1,284 people in

the camp-the camp was registered as arefugee campby

theUnited Nations(UN). Even according to Reid-Daly,

most of those killed were unarmed guerrillas standing

in formation for a parade. The camp hospital was also

set ablaze by the rounds fired by the Scouts, killing allpatients.[30] According to David Martin and Phyllis John-

son, who visited the camp shortly before the raid, it was

only a refugee camp that did not host any guerrillas. It

was staged for UN approval.[31]

According to a 1978 study by the Directorate of Military

Intelligence, 68% of all insurgent deaths inside Rhodesia

could be attributed to the Selous Scouts, who were dis-

banded in 1980.[32]

If the action is a police action, then these tactics would

fall within the laws of the state initiating the pseudo, but if

such actions are taken in a civil war or during a belligerent

military occupationthen those who participate in suchactions would not beprivileged belligerents. The princi-

ple ofplausible deniabilityis usually applied for pseudo-

teams. (See the above section Laws of war). Some

false flag operations have been described by Lawrence E.

Cline, a retiredUS Army intelligenceofficer, as pseudo-

operations, or the use of organized teams which are dis-

guised as guerrilla groups for long- or short-term pene-

tration ofinsurgent-controlled areas.

Pseudo Operations should be distinguished, notes Cline,

from the more common police or intelligenceinfiltration

of guerrilla or criminal organizations. In the latter case,

infiltration is normally done by individuals. Pseudoteams, on the other hand, are formed as needed from or-

ganized units, usually military or paramilitary. The use of

pseudo teams has been a hallmark of a number of foreign

counterinsurgencycampaigns.[28]

Similar false flag tactics were also employed during the

Algerian civil war, starting in the middle of 1994.Death

squadscomposed ofDpartement du Renseignement etde la Scurit (DRS) security forces disguised them-

selves as Islamist terrorists and committed false flag ter-

ror attacks. Such groups included the Organisation of

Young Free Algerians(OJAL) or the Secret Organisation

for the Safeguard of the Algerian Republic (OSSRA)[33]

According to Roger Faligot and Pascal Kropp (1999),

the OJAL was reminiscent of the Organization of the

French Algerian Resistance (ORAF), a group of counter-

terrorists created in December 1956 by theDirection de

la surveillance du territoire(Territorial Surveillance Di-

rectorate, or DST) whose mission was to carry out terror-

ist attacks with the aim of quashing any hopes of political

compromise.[34]

5 Espionage

Main article:False flag penetrator

Inespionage the term false flag describes the recruit-

ing of agents by operatives posing as representatives of a

cause the prospective agents are sympathetic to, or even

the agents own government. For example, during the

Cold War, several female West German civil servants

were tricked into stealing classified documents by agents

of theEast GermanStasi intelligence service, pretending

to be members of West German peace advocacy groups

(theStasiagents were also described as "Romeos, indi-

cating that they also used their sex appeal to manipulate

their targets, making this operation a combination of the

false flag and "honey trap" techniques).

[35]

The technique can also be used to expose enemy agents in

ones own service, by having someone approach the sus-

pect and pose as an agent of the enemy.Earl Edwin Pitts,

a 13-year veteran of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investiga-

tionand an attorney, was caught when he was approached

by FBI agents posing as Russian agents.

British intelligence officials in World War II allowed dou-

ble agents to fire-bomb a power station and a food dump

in theUKto protect their cover, according todeclassified

documents. The documents stated the agents took pre-

cautions to ensure they did not cause serious damage.

One of the documents released also stated: It should berecognised that friends as well as enemies must be com-

pletely deceived.[36]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declassified_documentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declassified_documentshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Edwin_Pittshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_HUMINT_asset_recruiting#Love,_honeypots_and_recruitmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stasihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_HUMINT#False_Flag_Penetratorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_de_la_surveillance_du_territoirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_de_la_surveillance_du_territoirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Faligothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_Young_Free_Algerianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_Young_Free_Algerianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9partement_du_Renseignement_et_de_la_S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9partement_du_Renseignement_et_de_la_S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_squadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_squadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterinsurgencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramilitaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army_intelligencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_flag#Laws_of_warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plausible_deniabilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privileged_belligerenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belligerent_military_occupationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belligerent_military_occupationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee_camphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah_Tongogarahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambiquehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Liberation_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodesian_Special_Air_Servicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Nkomohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Nkomohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_People%2527s_Revolutionary_Armyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_sergeanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Wallshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reid-Dalyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hurricanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_minority_rule


7/11

6.3 Ideological 7

6 Civilian usage

While false flag operations originate in warfare and gov-

ernment, they also can occur in civilian settings among

certain factions, such as businesses, special interest

groups, religions, political ideologies and campaigns for

office.

6.1 Businesses

In business and marketing, similar operations are be-

ing employed in some public relations campaigns (see

Astroturfing). Telemarketing firms practice false flag

type behavior when they pretend to be amarket research

firm (referred to as "sugging"). In some rare cases, mem-

bers of an unsuccessful businesswill destroy some of their

own property to conceal an unrelated crime (e.g., safety

violations, embezzlement) but make it appear as thoughthe destruction was done by a rival company.

6.2 Political campaigning

Political campaigning has a long history of this tactic in

various forms, including in person, print media and elec-

tronically in recent years. This can involve when sup-

porters of one candidate pose as supporters of another,

or act as straw men for their preferred candidate to de-

bate against. This can happen with or without the can-

didates knowledge. TheCanuck letteris an example of

one candidate creating a false document and attributing

it as coming from another candidate in order to discredit

that candidate.

In the final days of Floridas 1994 gubernatorial cam-

paign, Democrat GovernorLawton Chilesran a false flag

operation that paid for tens of thousands of calls to el-

derly voters using false organization names. The calls

purported to be from Republican groups and told vot-

ers thatJeb Bushwas against Social Security and seniors.

Chiles denied his campaign was behind the calls. Af-

ter winning re-election and facing an investigation, Chiles

admitted the truth in November 1995.[37]

In 2006, individuals practicing false flag behavior were

discovered and outed in New Hampshire[38][39] and

New Jersey[40] afterblogcomments claiming to be from

supporters of a political candidate were traced to theIP

addressof paid staffers for that candidates opponent.

On 19 February 2011, Indiana Deputy Prosecutor Carlos

Lam sent a private email to Wisconsin Governor Scott

Walker suggesting that he run a "'false flag' operation

to counter theprotestsagainst Walkers proposed restric-

tions on public employeescollective bargainingrights:

If you could employ an associate who pre-tends to be sympathetic to the unions cause

to physically attack you (or even use a firearm

against you), you could discredit the unions,

read the email. It went on to say that the ef-

fort would assist in undercutting any support

that the media may be creating in favor of the

unions.

The press had acquired a court order to access all of

Walkers emails and Lams email was exposed. At first,

Lam vehemently denied it, but eventually admitted it and

resigned.[41]

6.3 Ideological

A bomb threat forged by Scientology operatives.

Proponents of political or religious ideologies will some-

times use false flag tactics. This can be done to discredit

or implicate rival groups, create the appearance of ene-

mies when none exist, or create the illusion of organized

and directed opposition when in truth, the ideology is

simply unpopular with society.

In retaliation for writing The Scandal of Scientology, some

members of the Church of Scientologystole stationery

from authorPaulette Cooper's home and then used that

stationery to forge bomb threats and have them mailed

to a Scientology office. TheGuardians Officealso had

a plan for further operations to discredit Cooper known

as Operation Freakout, but several Scientology opera-

tives were arrested in a separate investigation and the plan

failed.[42]

7 See also

7.1 Concepts

Agent provocateur

Black propaganda

Casus belli

Covert operation

Denial and deception
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial_and_deceptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_operationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casus_bellihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_propagandahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_provocateurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Freakouthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardian%2527s_Officehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paulette_Cooperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scandal_of_Scientologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_bargaininghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Wisconsin_protestshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_addresshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jerseyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeb_Bushhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawton_Chileshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canuck_letterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straw_manhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embezzlementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugginghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_researchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemarketinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroturfinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations


8/11

8 8 REFERENCES

Front organization

Joe job, a similar online concept

Mimicry

State terrorism

7.2 Examples

Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Flemish neo-Nazi

group preparing false flag attacks)

Celle Hole

CIA Operation Ajax(United Statesoverthrowing of

Mohammed Mossadeq, Prime Minister of Iran, in

1953)[25]

Gleiwitz incidentakaOperation Himmler

Knights of the Red Branch Inc

Lavon Affair Israeli attempt to plant bombs in West-

ern targets in Egypt, in blaming Arab elements

Marxist-Leninist Party of the Netherlands (fake

party set up by the Dutch security service)

Masada Action and Defense Movement (French

white supremacists, under the guise of a fake ex-

tremist Zionist movement, conducted bombings of

Arab targets in France in an attempt to start a war

between French Arabs and Jews.)

8 References

[1] deHaven-Smith, Lance (2013). Conspiracy Theory in

America, Austin: University of Texas Press. p.225

[2] the use of a false flag has always been accepted as a le-

gitimate ruse de guerre in naval warfare, the true battle

flag being run up immediately before engaging (Thomas,

Rosamund M., ed. (1993), Teaching Ethics: Govern-

ment ethics, Centre for Business and Public, p. 80, ISBN9781871891034).

[3] Squires, Nick. "HMAS Sydney found off Australias west

coast",The Telegraph, 17 March 2008.

[4] Guinness World Records (2009), p.155

[5] Young, P (Ed) (1973) Atlas of the Second World War

(London: The Military Book Society)

[6] The Hague Rules of Air Warfare, 1922-12 to 1923-02,

this convention was never adopted (backup site)

[7] Rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in

Time of War and Air Warfare. Drafted by a Commissionof Jurists at the Hague, December 1922 February 1923.:

Introduction.ICRC. Retrieved December 2010.

[8] Gmez, Javier Guisndez (20 June 1998). The Law of

Air Warfare. International Review of the Red Cross38

(323): 34763.doi:10.1017/S0020860400091075.

[9] Source: Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals. United

Nations War Crimes Commission. Vol. IX, 1949: Trial

of Otto Skorzeny and others General Military Govern-

ment Court of the U.S. zone of Germany 18 August to

9 September 1947

[10] (Finnish) Mattila, Tapani (1983). Meri maamme turvana

[Sea safeguarding our country] (in Finnish). Jyvskyl:

K. J. Gummerus Osakeyhti. ISBN 951-99487-0-8. (),

p. 142.

[11] Weland, James (1994). Misguided Intelligence:

Japanese Military Intelligence Officers in the Manchurian

Incident, September 1931. Journal of Military History

58 (3): 445460. doi:10.2307/2944134.

[12] Bradley Lightbody, The Second World War: Ambitions to

Nemesis, Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-22405-5, GooglePrint, p.39

[13] Steven J. Zaloga, Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg,

Osprey Publishing, 2002,ISBN 1-84176-408-6, p. 39

[14] Turtola, Martti (1999). Kansainvlinen kehitys Eu-

roopassa ja Suomessa 1930-luvulla. In Leskinen, Jari;

Juutilainen, Antti. Talvisodan pikkujttilinen. pp. 44

45.

[15] U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Justification for US Mili-

tary Intervention in Cuba (TS)", U.S. Department of De-

fense, 13 March 1962. The Operation Northwoods doc-

ument inPDF format on the website of the independent,

non-governmental research institute theNational Security

Archiveat theGeorge Washington University Gelman Li-

brary, Washington, D.C. Direct PDF links:here and here.

[16] Excerpts from declassified 1962 U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff

Memo Operation Northwoods: Justification for U.S.

Military Intervention in Cuba

[17] Horne, Douglas P., Chief Analyst for Military Records,

Assassination Records Review Board (2009). Inside the

Assassination Records Review Board: The U.S. Govern-

ments Final Attempt to Reconcile the Conflicting Medi-

cal Evidence in the Assassination of JFK. self published.

ISBN 098431444X. Retrieved April 2014.

[18] James Bamford (2002). Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the

Ultra-Secret National Security Agency. Anchor Books. pp.

8291.ISBN 978-0-385-49907-1.

[19] Jan Goldman Ph.D. (2015). The Central Intelligence

Agency: An Encyclopedia of Covert Ops, Intelligence

Gathering, and Spies. ABC-CLIO. p. 170. ISBN

9781610690928.

[20] Tobias, Fritz, The Reichstag Fire. New York: Putnam,

1964, pages 2628.

[21] History of the Reichstag Fire in Berlin Germany

[22] The Reichstag Fire. Holocaust Encyclopedia. UnitedStates Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 12 Au-

gust 2013.
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007657http://www.reichstag.org/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610690928https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49907-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_Secrets:_Anatomy_of_the_Ultra-Secret_National_Security_Agencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_Secrets:_Anatomy_of_the_Ultra-Secret_National_Security_Agencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/098431444Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://www.maryferrell.org/wiki/index.php/Inside_the_ARRBhttps://www.maryferrell.org/wiki/index.php/Inside_the_ARRBhttps://www.maryferrell.org/wiki/index.php/Inside_the_ARRBhttps://www.maryferrell.org/wiki/index.php/Inside_the_ARRBhttp://www.ratical.org/ratville/CAH/Northwoods.htmlhttp://www.ratical.org/ratville/CAH/Northwoods.htmlhttp://www.ratical.org/ratville/CAH/Northwoods.htmlhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/doc1.pdfhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/northwoods.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelman_Libraryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelman_Libraryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Archivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Archivehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDFhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Defensehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Defensehttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/index.htmlhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/index.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1841764086https://books.google.com/books?id=oQeAKAjlEwMC&pg=PA39https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415224055https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_flag#CITEREF.28Finnish.29_Mattila.2C_Tapani_.281983.29._Meri_maamme_turvana_.5BSea_safeguarding_our_country.5D_.28in_Finnish.29._Jyv.C3.A4skyl.C3.A4:_K._J._Gummerus_Osakeyhti.C3.B6._ISBN_951-99487-0-8.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_flag#CITEREF.28Finnish.29_Mattila.2C_Tapani_.281983.29._Meri_maamme_turvana_.5BSea_safeguarding_our_country.5D_.28in_Finnish.29._Jyv.C3.A4skyl.C3.A4:_K._J._Gummerus_Osakeyhti.C3.B6._ISBN_951-99487-0-8.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_flag#CITEREF.28Finnish.29_Mattila.2C_Tapani_.281983.29._Meri_maamme_turvana_.5BSea_safeguarding_our_country.5D_.28in_Finnish.29._Jyv.C3.A4skyl.C3.A4:_K._J._Gummerus_Osakeyhti.C3.B6._ISBN_951-99487-0-8.http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/WCC/skorzeny.htmhttp://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/WCC/skorzeny.htmhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1017%252FS0020860400091075https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Review_of_the_Red_Crosshttp://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jpcl.htmhttp://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/57jpcl.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICRChttp://www.icrc.org/IHL.nsf/INTRO/275?OpenDocumenthttp://www.icrc.org/IHL.nsf/INTRO/275?OpenDocumenthttp://www.icrc.org/IHL.nsf/INTRO/275?OpenDocumenthttp://www.icrc.org/IHL.nsf/INTRO/275?OpenDocumenthttp://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/interwar/hagair.htmhttp://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1918p/hagair.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_(Australia)http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/17/wsydney117.xmlhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/17/wsydney117.xmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781871891034https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masada_Action_and_Defense_Movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist-Leninist_Party_of_the_Netherlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavon_Affairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_of_the_Red_Branch_Inchttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Himmlerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleiwitz_incidenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ajaxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIAhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celle_Holehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloed,_Bodem,_Eer_en_Trouwhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_terrorismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimicryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_jobhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_organization


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9

[23] DW Staff (27 February 2008). 75 Years Ago, Reich-

stag Fire Sped Hitlers Power Grab. Deutsche Welle. Re-

trieved 12 August 2013.

[24] Callanan, James (2009). Covert Action in the Cold War:

US Policy, intelligence and CIA operations, London: I.B.

Tauris. p.115

[25] Risen, James. Secrets of History: The C.I.A. in Iran

A Special Report; How a Plot Convulsed Iran in '53 (and

'79). The New York Times, 16 April 2000

[26] Weiner, Tim (1997).C.I.A. Destroyed Files on 1953 Iran

coup,The New York Times, 29 May.

[27] Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Abk-

hazia, Georgia(PDF).United Nations Security Council.

23 July 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2008.

[28] Cline, Lawrence E. (2005)Pseudo Operations and Coun-

terinsurgency: Lessons from other countries, Strategic

Studies Institute.

[29] Cline (2005), p. 11.

[30] Cline (2005), quoting Reid-Daly,Pamwe Chete: The Leg-

end of the Selous Scouts, Weltevreden Park, South Africa:

Covos-Day Books, 1999, p. 10 (republished by Covos

Day, 2001,ISBN 978-1-919874-33-3)

[31] Cline (2005), who quotes David Martin and Phyllis John-

son, The Struggle for Zimbabwe: theChimurenga War,

New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981, pp. 241242.

[32] Cline (2005), p. 813. For 1978 study, quotes J. K.

Cilliers, Counter-insurgency in Rhodesia, London:CroomHelm, 1985, pp. 6077. Cline also quotes Ian F. W.

Beckett, The Rhodesian Army: Counter-Insurgency 1972

1979atselousscouts

[33] Lounis Aggoun and Jean-Baptiste Rivoire (2004).

Franalgrie, crimes et mensonges dEtats, (Franco-

Algeria, Crimes and Lies of the States). Editions La

Dcouverte. ISBN 2-7071-4747-8. Extract in English

with mention of the OJALavailable here.

[34] Luonis Aggoun and Jean-Baptiste Rivoire, ibid., quot-

ingRoger Faligotand Pascal KROP, DST, Police Secrte,

Flammarion, 1999, p. 174.

[35] Crawford, Angus (20 March 2009). Victims of Cold

War 'Romeo spies". BBC Online. Retrieved 10 April

2009.

[36] Britain 'bombed itself to fool Nazis". BBC. 28 February

2002. Retrieved 4 November 2008.

[37] https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1346&

dat=19951211&id=gZosAAAAIBAJ&sjid=

wfwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4981,49418 Lakeland Times

1995

[38] Steele, Allison,"Bass staffer in D.C. poses as blogger: Bo-

gus posts aimed at his political opponent",Concord Mon-itor, 26 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October

2006).

[39] Saunders, Anne,Bass aide resigns after posing as oppo-

nents supporter online,The Boston Globe, 26 September

2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006).

[40] Miller, Jonathan,Blog Thinks Aide to Kean Posted Jabs At

Menendez,New York Times, 21 September 2006 (URL

last accessed 24 October 2006).

[41] Montopoli, Brian (25 March 2011).Indiana prosecutor

resigns for encouraging fake attack on Wisconsin gover-

nor. CBS News. Archived fromthe originalon 12 April

2012.

[42] United States of America v. Jane Kember, Morris Bud-

long, Sentencing Memorandum; pp. 2325.

9 External links
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United%2520States%2520of%2520America%2520v.%2520Jane%2520Kember,%2520Morris%2520Budlong,%2520Sentencing%2520Memorandumhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United%2520States%2520of%2520America%2520v.%2520Jane%2520Kember,%2520Morris%2520Budlong,%2520Sentencing%2520Memorandumhttp://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20047130-503544.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120412225147/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20047130-503544.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120412225147/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20047130-503544.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120412225147/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-20047130-503544.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Timeshttp://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0712FD3A550C728EDDA00894DE404482http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0712FD3A550C728EDDA00894DE404482https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boston_Globehttp://www.boston.com/news/local/new_hampshire/articles/2006/09/26/rep_bass_aide_posed_as_opponents_supporter_on_blogs/http://www.boston.com/news/local/new_hampshire/articles/2006/09/26/rep_bass_aide_posed_as_opponents_supporter_on_blogs/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord_Monitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord_Monitorhttp://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060926/REPOSITORY/609260344/1219/48HOURShttp://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060926/REPOSITORY/609260344/1219/48HOURShttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1346&dat=19951211&id=gZosAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wfwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4981,49418https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1346&dat=19951211&id=gZosAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wfwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4981,49418https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1346&dat=19951211&id=gZosAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wfwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4981,49418https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBChttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2522115.stmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Onlinehttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7953523.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7953523.stmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_Flammarionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Faligothttp://www.algeria-watch.org/en/analyses/ojal.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2707147478https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editions_La_D%C3%A9couvertehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editions_La_D%C3%A9couvertehttp://members.tripod.com/selousscouts/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croom_Helmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croom_Helmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimurenga_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781919874333https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covos-Dayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Studies_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Studies_Institutehttp://www.blackwaterusa.com/btw2005/articles/080105counter.pdfhttp://www.blackwaterusa.com/btw2005/articles/080105counter.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Councilhttp://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N08/427/22/PDF/N0842722.pdf?OpenElementhttp://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N08/427/22/PDF/N0842722.pdf?OpenElementhttp://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/29/us/cia-destroyed-files-on-1953-iran-coup.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/29/us/cia-destroyed-files-on-1953-iran-coup.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/16/world/secrets-history-cia-iran-special-report-plot-convulsed-iran-53-79.html?src=pm&pagewanted=1http://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/16/world/secrets-history-cia-iran-special-report-plot-convulsed-iran-53-79.html?src=pm&pagewanted=1http://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/16/world/secrets-history-cia-iran-special-report-plot-convulsed-iran-53-79.html?src=pm&pagewanted=1https://books.google.com/books?id=pXIAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115&dq=iran+coup+1953+%2522false+flag%2522&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dX9NU8rxAuewsASc04DAAg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=iran%2520coup%25201953%2520%2522false%2520flag%2522&f=falsehttps://books.google.com/books?id=pXIAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115&dq=iran+coup+1953+%2522false+flag%2522&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dX9NU8rxAuewsASc04DAAg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=iran%2520coup%25201953%2520%2522false%2520flag%2522&f=falsehttp://www.dw.de/75-years-ago-reichstag-fire-sped-hitlers-power-grab/a-3150026-1http://www.dw.de/75-years-ago-reichstag-fire-sped-hitlers-power-grab/a-3150026-1


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10 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text

False flagSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_flag?oldid=725680140Contributors:Olivier, Jdlh, Michael Hardy, Ixfd64, IZAK,

Skysmith, Kingturtle, Ugen64, GCarty, Wikiborg, Furrykef, Tempshill, AnonMoos, Vardion, PBS, Donreed, ZimZalaBim, Bkell, Carnildo,

Tom harrison, Capitalistroadster, Iceberg3k, Tagishsimon, Fergananim, GeneMosher, Tothebarricades.tk, Kevin B12, Asbestos, Neutrality,

Klemen Kocjancic, Cab88, D6, Jayjg, Discospinster, Wikiacc, Narsil, Kostja, Antaeus Feldspar, Bender235, El C, Ascorbic, Cacophony,

Martey, Mike Schwartz, John Vandenberg, Wiki-Ed, Toh, Hardy, La goutte de pluie, BM, Idleguy, Mrzaius, Alansohn, Uncle.bungle,

Hackwrench, Geo Swan, PatrickFisher, Ynhockey, Malo, Bart133, Max rspct, M3tainfo, Lapinmies, Kober, Vuo, Alai, LukeSurl, Zn-

trip, Hq3473, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Timharwoodx, Jeff3000, MONGO, Mangojuice,

SDC, Plrk, Stefanomione, Betsythedevine, Mandarax, RedBLACKandBURN, Graham87, A Train, Kbdank71, Dpr, Rjwilmsi, Bill Can-

non, Carbonite, Jtpaladin, The wub, Tarc, KiernMoran, Fred Bradstadt, Cassowary, Ground Zero, FrancisDrake, MacRusgail, GagHal-

frunt, Tequendamia, Diza, Coolhawks88, Bgwhite, WriterHound, Cornellrockey, Jayme, Subwayguy, YurikBot, Samuel Wiki, Jimp, John

Quincy Adding Machine, Briaboru, Zafiroblue05, DanMS, Kirill Lokshin, Shaddack, Big Brother 1984, Aryaniae, LaszloWalrus, Grafen,

Nutiketaiel, Aaron Brenneman, Lomn, Ospalh, Syrthiss, IceWeasel, BusterD, Miraculouschaos, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, E Wing,

Petri Krohn, Garybel, Shyam, Ephilei, Kurai, Jeff Silvers, Paul Pieniezny, Victor falk, JohnLeonard, SmackBot, Nicolas Barbier, Sti-

fle, Kintetsubuffalo, Nil Einne, Portillo, GoldDragon, Ksenon, Kaliz, Jprg1966, Hugzz, Renamed user Sloane, Paulfp, Sb617, Tough-

pigs, AKMask, Tewfik, Xeryus, Ian Burnet~enwiki, Chendy, Ncameron, JRPG, Tim Pierce, Geoffrey Gibson, Bolivian Unicyclist, Wen

D House, Cybercobra, Akral, Xyzzy n, Chrylis, Weregerbil, Doodle77, Xiutwel, Kukini, Tesseran, Crouchbk, Byelf2007, Ser Aman-

tio di Nicolao, Tazmaniacs, Robofish, JoshuaZ, Mgiganteus1, Minglex, Cmh, Karlwiegand, Meco, Dr.K., SmokeyJoe, OnBeyondZebrax,

Skandaprasadn, Clarityfiend, Poechalkdust, Hwonder, Joseph Solis in Australia, AlexLibman, Phoenixrod, Lent, Generalcp702, Ehistory,

CmdrObot, Megaboz, Olaf Davis, Erik Kennedy, Dgw, Outriggr (2006-2009), Chrisahn, Location, Cydebot, Treybien, Goldfritha, GogoDodo, Manik52, DumbBOT, Patrick O'Leary, Mathew5000, Septagram, Satori Son, Mamalujo, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Interested2,

Ucanlookitup, Hcberkowitz, Bobblehead, Davidhorman, Kingnixon, Oreo Priest, AntiVandalBot, Opelio, JHFTC, Joe Schmedley, Legit-

imus, Arkan5, Erxnmedia, JAnDbot, MarritzN, Minitrue, Attarparn, Lsi, Acroterion, Bencherlite, Canjth, Parsecboy, NeoJudus, LCJ,

SSZ, Bryanpeterson, JaGa, Pax:Vobiscum, Hersbruck, Gwern, Dan Dean, Phantomsnake, General Jazza, Ekotekk, KTo288, Nono64,

Pharaoh of the Wizards, PCock, Rodrigo braz, PalestineRemembered, JPLeonard, Maurice Carbonaro, Hodja Nasreddin, Cop 663, Gross-

cha, RenniePet, Chiswick Chap, Spartelite, C1010, DadaNeem, Xyl 54, Vanished user 39948282, Julyda4th, WLRoss, Ashcroftgm,

Morenooso, Indubitably, Nug, TXiKiBoT, Xenophrenic, Zurishaddai, Room429, EnglishDez, Jaqen, Andrewaskew, Enigmaman, Spad-

gos, THEODICEAN, Alcmaeonid, AlleborgoBot, GavinTing, Guerillamarketing, StAnselm, DarknessEnthroned, Rabbeinu, Pretest, Jc-

S0CO, Fredburks, Cicorp, Tensaijeff, Anakin101, Capitalismojo, ZaneSteez, LarRan, Sab128, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs787sads, Hoplon,

MenoBot, ClueBot, MBD123, The thing is, Binksternet, Mild Bill Hiccup, Foofbun, LonelyBeacon, Trivialist, Grandpallama, Geo247,

CuandoCubango, P.jasons, Xme, Mlaffs, Tony May, Thingg, Belchfire, Infinoth, 3d-geo, DumZiBoT, Kurdo777, Sannleikur, Ost316,

Dominatrixdave, For (;;), Addbot, Mhines54, Heavenlyblue, MrZoolook, Daverogue, Disbelieve, Download, Fogeltk421, Lihaas, SpBot,

Numbo3-bot, Peridon, Alanscottwalker, Lightbot, Nhalks, Aadieu, Yobot, Henri rouge, PMLawrence, Reenem, AnomieBOT, Vanishe-

dUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, DemocraticLuntz, Tryptofish, Jim1138, McSaddle, Shock Brigade Harvester Boris, Glenfarclas, Ulric1313, Ma-

terialscientist, Fuelsaver, Tbvdm, Cliftonian, LilHelpa, Xqbot, MaxPuckett, Thouliha, Catastrophe420, Rbrt21, Srich32977, RibotBOT,

Carrite, A Quest For Knowledge, Shadowjams, LucienBOT, Lothar von Richthofen, Mark Renier, MurfleMan, TurningWork, Haeinous,HJ Mitchell, Liverworth, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Bmclaughlin9, RedBot, MastiBot, Nikolas93ts, ARMitre, Ionisiso, Princesssissi,

Lotje, Defender of torch, Aoidh, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Grondemar, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Slightsmile,

Acidrain4696, Doelleri, ZroBot, Ahears, Dpenn89, MRBigdeli, Lhixson, Wingman4l7, Columbia666, Carmichael, Why is pizza so good?,

Farizana94, Mcc1789, 8h3d0kg, FeatherPluma, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Wertydm, Bazuz, CopperSquare, Helpful Pixie Bot,

Legoless, Zlisha Khan, Regulov, BG19bot, Londonboy2011, Shurusheero, Shorisharo, Terry Hildebrand, Darkness Shines, Mark Arsten,

Great50, Jacob van Maerlant, Harizotoh9, Turnr44, BattyBot, Gauzeandchess, Pratyya Ghosh, Ddcm8991, Aginwald, Cyberbot II, JYBot,

Mogism, Ranze, XXzoonamiXX, Lugia2453, Keptautokeptauto, 93, Pc1985, Halsingpurg, Kabulbuddha, Jgmoneill, Madreterra, Chris

troutman, A Certain Lack of Grandeur, Lixinheth, GeeBee60, Ter M. Ahn, Damon161, Darkone123, Monkbot, Magma1983, Gdeblois19,

Phantomop, Gamebuster19901, Isambard Kingdom, Mister Sneeze A Lot, A1491625, BU Rob13, ImHere2015, Ebookomane, Incendiary

Iconoclasm, TEH1990, Skyscraper1996, Moscowamerican and Anonymous: 396

10.2 Images

File:193109_mukden_incident_railway_sabotage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/193109_mukden_incident_railway_sabotage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: published in japanese newspaper Rekishi Syashin

Original artist: Unknown

File:Alfred_Naujocks.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Alfred_Naujocks.jpg License: Public domain

Contributors:U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, item number CW-004 Original artist:U.S. Army

File:Ambox_important.svgSource:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License:Public do-

mainContributors:Own work, based off ofImage:Ambox scales.svgOriginal artist:Dsmurat(talk contribs)

File:Charlemagne_Pralte.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Charlemagne_P%C3%

A9ralte.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Nombreux sites Internet et ouvrages divers Original artist: Un-

known
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Charlemagne_P%25C3%25A9ralte.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Charlemagne_P%25C3%25A9ralte.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Dsmurathttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Dsmurathttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dsmurathttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ambox_scales.svghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Alfred_Naujocks.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/193109_mukden_incident_railway_sabotage.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/193109_mukden_incident_railway_sabotage.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_flag?oldid=725680140


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10.3 Content license 11

File:Cooper_bomb_threat.gifSource:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Cooper_bomb_threat.gifLicense: Public

domain Contributors:Transferred fromen.wikipediato Commons byLiftarnusing CommonsHelper. Original artist:The original uploader

wasChrisOatEnglish Wikipedia

File:Douglas_A-26C_Invader_435440_Tamiami_26.04.09R.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/

Douglas_A-26C_Invader_435440_Tamiami_26.04.09R.jpg License:CC BY 3.0 Contributors:Own workOriginal artist:RuthAS

File:NorthwoodsMemorandum.jpgSource:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/NorthwoodsMemorandum.jpgLi-

cense:Public domainContributors: http://www.gwu.edu/~{}nsarchiv/news/20010430/doc1.pdfOriginal artist:?

File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0

Contributors:

Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based onImage:Question book.pngcreated byUser:EquazcionOriginal artist:

Tkgd2007

10.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Tkgd2007http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Equazcionhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book.pnghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svghttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/doc1.pdfhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/NorthwoodsMemorandum.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:RuthAShttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Douglas_A-26C_Invader_435440_Tamiami_26.04.09R.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Douglas_A-26C_Invader_435440_Tamiami_26.04.09R.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pdfhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:ChrisOhttp://tools.wmflabs.org/commonshelper/.pdfhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Liftarnhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_6//en.wikipedia.orghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Cooper_bomb_threat.gif

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