FACULTY OF EDUCATION · level and junior primary level, while English language (L2) becomes...
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1 AKPOJOTOR, RITA UFUOMA PG/ M.E.D / 08/ 49628 EFFECT OF PHONICS READING STRATEGY ON PUPILS‟ ACHIEVEMENT IN WORD RECOGNITION IN OSHIMILI SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS Chukwuma Ugwuoke Digitally Signed by: Content manager‟s Name DN : CN = Webmaster‟s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre
Transcript of FACULTY OF EDUCATION · level and junior primary level, while English language (L2) becomes...
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AKPOJOTOR, RITA UFUOMA
PG/ M.E.D / 08/ 49628
EFFECT OF PHONICS READING STRATEGY ON PUPILS‟
ACHIEVEMENT IN WORD RECOGNITION IN OSHIMILI SOUTH LOCAL
GOVERNMENT AREA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
Chukwuma Ugwuoke
Digitally Signed by: Content manager‟s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster‟s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
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EFFECT OF PHONICS READING STRATEGY ON PUPILS’
ACHIEVEMENT IN WORD RECOGNITION IN OSHIMILI
SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA
BY
AKPOJOTOR, RITA UFUOMA
PG/ M.E.D / 08/ 49628
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
JUNE, 2013
TITLE PAGE
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EFFECT OF PHONIC READING STRATEGY ON PUPILS’
ACHIEVEMENT IN WORD RECOGNITION IN OSHIMILI
SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA
A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION (M.ED) IN CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
BY
AKPOJOTOR, RITA UFUOMA
PG/ M.ED / 08/ 49628
SUPERVISED BY: DR. MRS J.O. CHUKWU
JUNE, 2013
CERTIFICATION
Akpojotor, Rita Ufuoma, a post graduate student in the department Educational
Foundations with registration number PG/M.ED/08/49628 has satisfactorily
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completed the requirement for courses and research work for the Degree of Master of
Education in Childhood Education. The work embodied in this project is original and
has not been submitted in part or full for any other degree of this University or to any
other institution of learning.
--------------------------------- ------------------------------
Dr. (Mrs.) J.O Chukwu Akpojotor, R.U
APPROVAL PAGE
This project has been approved for the Department of Educational Foundations,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
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------------------------------ ----------------------------
Dr. (Mrs.) J.O Chukwu DR. D.U NWOKE
Supervisor Head of Department
----------------------------- -----------------------------
External Examiner Internal Examiner
--------------------------------
Prof. Ike Ifelunni
Dean, Faculty of Education
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty for his infinite mercy all through the course
of study.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is with deep sense of gratitude to God almighty for his infinite mercy and love and
guidance throughout the duration of the study. The researcher wish to sincerely thank
her supervisor, Dr. Mrs. J.O.Chukwu who through her love for her students and
wealth of knowledge made me to complete this work.
The researcher is greatly indebted to all those who contributed in various ways to the
successful completion of this project. Special thanks go to the Head of Department of
Primary Education Studies, Federal College of Education (T) Asaba, Mrs.
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Ebelechukwu Elui, and colleagues Mrs. Arinze Patricia, and Ororho Maureen for their
support and encouragement throughout the period of my study.
The researcher also wishes to appreciate the effort of her content reader, Dr. A.N
Okolo, design reader, Dr. I.O Ezenwaji, Prof. Uche Eze, who assisted in the analysis
of the study. Special thanks also goes to the head teachers and classroom teachers of
the primary schools used for the study and above all the primary school pupils
involved in the study.
Finally, the researcher inestimable gratitude goes to her husband Mr. Christian
Akpojotor and our children Emuesiri, Ebruphiyor and Oghenenyore for their love and
support all through this period.
Akpojotor, Rita Ufuoma
Department of Educational Foundations,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ……………………………………………………… i
Certification……………………………………………………. ii
Approval Page ………………………………………………. iii
Dedication ……………………………………………………… iv
Acknowledgement …………………………………………… v
Table of Contents ... ..…………………………………………… vi
List of Tables …………………………………………………….. ix
Abstract ………………………………………………………….. x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
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Background of the study…………………………… 1
Statement of the problem………………………………………. 7
Purpose of the Study………… ………………………………… 8
Significance of the study…………… ………………………… 9
Scope of the study……………………………………………… 10
Research Questions …………………………………………… 10
Hypotheses……………………………………………………… 10
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual Framework……………………………… 12
Concept of reading ……………………………………………… 13
Stages and component of reading ……………………………… 14
Importance of reading …………………………………………… 16
Concept of word recognition ……… …………………………… 18
Stages of word recognition ……………………………………. 18
Strategies of word recognition ………………………………… 21
Phonic Reading Strategy ………………………………………… 21
Teacher factor and pupils achievement ………………………… 26
Gender factor and pupils achievement ………………………… 27
Location factor and pupils achievement ………………………… 28
Theoretical framework ……………………………………… 29
Phonic theory of reading ………………………………………….. 29
Review of Empirical Studies ………………………… 31
Summary of related literature …………………………………… 34
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD
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Research Design ………………………………………………… 36
Area of the study ………………………………………………… 36
Population for the study…………………………………………. 37
Sample and sampling technique………………………………… 37
Instrument for data collection…………………………………….. 37
Development of instrument ………………………………………. 38
Validation of the instrument……………………………………… 38
Reliability of the instrument……………………………………… 38
Method of Data Collection…………………………………….. 39
Method of Data Analysis ……………………………………… 40
Instructional procedure ………………………………………… 40
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Testing of Hypotheses ………………………………………. 49
Summary of the Findings ……………………………………. 54
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Discussion of Results ……………………………… 56
Implication of the findings …………………………… 59
Recommendations …………………………………… 60
Limitation of the study ………………………………… 62
Suggestions for further study ………………………… 62
Concussion ………………………………………….. 63
References ………………………………………… 64
Appendix i…………………………………………… 71
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Appendix ii …………………………………………… 75
Appendix iii…………………………………………… 76
Appendix iv …………………………………………… 77
Appendix v ………………………………………… 78
Appendix vi ………………………………………… 79
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES
1. Table of specification (test blue print) …………………. 37
2. The means and standard deviation of pupils scores ……. 75
3. Item analysis for reading recognition test ………………. 75
4. Primary school performance in Oshimili South LGA …….. 78
5. Research Design ………………………………………… 78
6. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) of pupils …………. 79
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ABSTRACT
This study sought to investigate the Effect of Phonics on pupils‟ achievement in word
recognition in Oshimli South Local Government Area. Three research questions and
three hypotheses guided the study. A non equivalent control group quasi-experimental
design was used. A multi phase sampling technique was used to select 144 primary
one pupils from four primary schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of
Delta State as subjects for the study. The word recognition achievement test (WRAT)
was developed, validated and used for data collection. Means, standard deviations and
a 2x2 analysis of covariance were used to analyze the data. The study found out that:
1. The experimental group achieved better in word recognition using phonics
than the control group using whole language.
2. Phonics reading strategy favored male pupils in word recognition than their
female counterpart.
3. Phonics reading strategy favored pupils in the urban area than those in the
rural area.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Primary Education is the first formal Education level. It is the education given
in institutions for children aged six to eleven plus. This level of education has among
its goals the inculcation of permanent literacy and numeracy and the ability to
communicate effectively (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004:14). At this level of
education, the medium of communication is the language of the immediate
environment. Ogbuchi, (2003) sees language as the expression of idea by means of
speech sounds combined into sentences and the combination leading to ideas and
thoughts. She went on to describe it as a purely human and non instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntary
produced symbols. While Trager (2001), describes language as a system of arbitrary
vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates. Language can therefore
be defined as a special tool used in passing information between two or more persons.
Nigeria appreciates the importance of language as a means of promoting social
interaction and national unity as well as preserving cultures (FRN, 2004). This is why
it is placed first in the list of the goals and the curriculum of primary education
respectively. Language is the most vital element for all forms of learning. It is the
medium for giving, receiving, hiding and distorting information (Ogbuchi 2003).
Language is therefore a social tool used by people to carry out the affairs of the
society.
It is in recognition of the above facts that the Federal Government of Nigeria,
in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) recommends that the mother tongue
or the first language (Li) should be the language of instruction at both the pre primary
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level and junior primary level, while English language (L2) becomes language of
instruction from the senior primary school. The use of English as a medium of
instruction from the senior primary school has adverse effect on the teaching and
learning situation. Children are now required to speak, read and write, study and think
in a language they are not familiar with.
The implication is that for the Nigerian primary school child, vocabulary
knowledge and word recognition is problematic. These are important factors to
reading development because if children cannot recognize written words they will not
be able to extract meaning from them. Since they are second language readers,
Nigerian primary school child learn with a bilingual second language and go through
a complex process involving two languages, one of which is usually foreign to their
natural speech habits, home background and culture (Alyousef, 2006)
Reading is one form of communication that must be developed in children
right from their early years. It is an activity that every child engages in, from the day
the child commences the educational career at the pre primary level then through the
long years at primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. Alyousef (2006)
simply defined reading as a process of obtaining information from a text. It is a
complex process that involves interaction or negotiation between the reader and the
text, leading to fluency or automacity. Vacca and Vacca (2002) also see reading as a
conversation, a give and take exchange between the reader and the text. In this
context, reading is a meaning searching and meaning getting activity that involves the
reader and the text leading to success both in and out of school. In this context,
reading can be defined as the ability of the reader to get meaning from the author‟s
message in the text.
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In the present information age children are expected to read text to learn. All
text and examination requires their ability to read examination questions. Evidently,
academic achievement of any kind is therefore closely tied to children‟s reading
ability. It is in view of this fact that Oyetunde (1999) in Ezema (2002, 175) contends
as follows: “Can you imagine what life is for school children who can‟t read? I am
sure you cannot bear to think of it. I can‟t” The teaching of reading in our primary
schools and the performance of pupils in public examination have been reportedly
very poor. Thus, pupils performance in primary school examination in Oshimili South
Local Government Area of Delta State for 2006-2010 revealed that the level of
achievement pass in English language is average and this could be attributed to pupils
reading at frustration level.(see appendix iv)
The findings of United Nations International Children‟s Education Fund GCA
reading projects in public primary schools in the 10 UNICEF A field states of
Anambra, Enugu, Benue, Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Rivers state, Bayelsa, Ebonyi,
Imo and Abia state reveal that only few children can read fluently and respond to their
reading and that primary six pupils can neither decode nor comprehend. In the like
manner, research findings have revealed that there is a serious problem of reading at
all levels of education in Nigeria (Idogo, 2005, Alegbeleye, 2004). These researchers
in their respective findings further revealed that a large number of elementary school
pupils lack literacy skills especially reading which they require in their formal and
non formal learning situations. Some of the pupils find it difficult to read and
understand and some of them also show carefree attitude to reading (Adeniyi, 2010).
Scholars like Idogo, (2005) and Ajayi, (2004) have traced the problem of reading
skills to the weak foundation that pupils have in reading at the primary level.
Researchers such as Kolawole, Adepoju and Adelore (2000) and Adegbite (1999)
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identified teacher choice of method as one of the main factors of poor performance in
reading.
Most teachers unfortunately, do not understand the difference between
teaching English and teaching reading. Actually, reading is done not to practice the
reading skill but to practice and learn English language (grammar and vocabulary)
through reading. In Nigerian public schools today, the spelling method and whole
language are widely used in teaching reading. The Universal Basic Education
Commission (2010) describes the spelling method as an approach by which children
are taught to read the words by first spelling them. First they are taught to recognize
individual letters of the alphabet, master them, and even sing them out so as to recall
all the 26 letters individually. Thereafter they are taught to build up words by spelling
them. This method is still widely used in many Nigerian schools. Some of the
weaknesses associated with this method are that it makes children stick to spelling of
all words in their effort to read, even much later in life. When this is an established
practice children are essentially slowed down.
Secondly, the whole language method introduces connected words and
sentences to learners. Children are not taught to first recognize individual letters,
rather words and short sentences are presented as language units and the pupils are led
to say what they mean. They are encouraged to memorize words as whole units, for
instance the word “CAT” could be presented perhaps with the picture of that animal,
and children are told to pronounce the word. They are never led to do the spelling.
After successfully calling the name, they are led to practice writing the word by
imitating what they see on the chalkboard or cardboard. Thereafter whole sentences
follow. For instance, they see the picture of a cat running, and are asked what they can
see the cat doing. Gradually they are led to read “THE CAT IS RUNNING” which is
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the caption below the picture. This method helps children to learn how to read „sight
words” which are words that do not reflect the sounds of what they stand for.
Examples of sight words are “the”, “said”, “find” etc.
The strengths of whole language method are quite obvious. First, it encourages
children to begin to write early. Second, it gets them to be involved in connected print
rather than stick to letters for long before connecting the letters to form words. An
obvious weakness of this method is that children never acquire a full phonic
foundation. That is, they are not quite able to decode unfamiliar words. It is like not
being able to describe individual leaves that make up a large tree though they are able
to describe the tree fully In spite of all these methods, in the views of Carle (2005), a
lot of school children still have problems becoming good readers at the primary
school level of education. There is therefore need to adopt a phonics reading strategy
to see if there will be an improvement in the reading skills of primary school children.
The phonics method encourages children to begin reading through auditory
training that is training their ears to recognize the sounds of letters, and associating
these sounds and letters with the shapes of the letters in written form. This is of course
carried over to the association of the letters and sounds with specific words which
they learn in the process. The Manual for the Training of Federal Teachers Scheme
(2010) describes the phonic method as a method of introducing the sounds of the
language to children through words that can be related to such sounds. The phonic
method teaches children to “sound out” new words. In most cases, they first learn
what a letter stands for, and then learn to associate the sound and the letter to specific
words. Literature tends to suggest that phonics method of teaching reading can be
used to get young learners to master the skills of reading Moat (2000), Tompskin
(2003) and Vacca (1998). Many of these literatures are alien. Nigerians live in a
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different environment with a different environment with a different culture. Also,
there is lack of literature to show that such a study on the effect of phonics has been
carried out within our cultural context especially in Oshimili South Local Government
Area of Delta State.
Location could also be a factor in children‟s acquisition of reading skills. The
location of a school, according to Okoye (2009) has a significant effect on a child‟s
ability to study and perform at the level expected of the child. In the view of
Abidogun (2005), the rural areas are seen as having the greater challenges concerning
educational development than urban centres due to the peculiar socio-economic and
institutional structures in the rural areas. Specifically, according to Okoye (2009), in
Nigeria, most rural-based schools lack enough qualified teachers, are poorly equipped
and lack basic amenities, all serving as inhibiting factors to good academic
performance. It is quite obvious that the degree of interest and motivation a child
derives from a learning environment may affect his performance.
Pupil‟s characteristic such as gender has been linked to early measures of
language and learning. Gender has been used to describe the behavior expected of an
individual on the basis of being born a male or female (Mboto and Bassey 2004).
Girls tend to have a slight advantage over boys in the early stages of vocabulary
development (Tamis Le Monda and Rodriguez, 2008). Contrarily, Okeke (1999)
posits that some socio-cultural impediments such as role stereotyping and the belief
that reading is a male gender subject pose obstacles to female pupils participation in
reading. On the other hand, Gambell and Hunter (2000) claim that boys do less well
than girls in reading, almost regardless of the criteria used to assess competency. Boys
predominantly held negative attitudes towards reading stating that reading is boring
and feminine activity (Clark and Akerman, 2006). Research on reading has indicated
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that actually there may be sex differences. Two major theoretical explanations have
been given, namely inherent biological differences or maturational differences
between males and females and cultural or environmental sources (Okeke, 1999).
While some researchers claim male superiority to reading, others claim female
superiority. But there is no universally accepted view. This study intends to find out
the truism or otherwise of this view.
For the primary school child, word recognition is the foundation of the reading
process; this explains why words are the building blocks of comprehension (Gough,
1985). It is also true that the overall goal of reading is comprehension, but without the
ability to recognize words in continuous text accurately, this goal cannot be achieved.
(Oyetunde and Muodumogu, 1999) More also, it has been observed by the Universal
Basic Education Commission (2010), that the area of phonics, which has close affinity
to the ability to read efficiently and speak intelligibly has not been properly addressed.
Hence this study is motivated by the desire to adapt phonics method in the teaching of
word recognition in primary schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of
Delta State.
Statement of the Problem
Reading is an important tool for children because it forms the gateway to
knowing the wider world and the environment. Reading can only be meaningful if it
is understood. It is therefore important that every reading activity children are
introduced to must make sense in print. Written form of words will only have
meaning for children if they are familiar with these words in speech. The ability of a
reader to recognize words is the key to proficiency in reading for first language (L1)
readers. Since Nigerian primary school children are second language readers,
knowledge of vocabulary and word recognition are problematic issues. Evidence also
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abound that many children, especially at the primary school level read at a frustration
level. Observation has also shown that most pupils, at their primary education, are still
deficient in the basic reading skills. This deficiency has been traced to a number of
factors especially poor teaching methods where the teachers often focus more on what
is taught and not the learners.
Although, literature abounds on the use of phonics as an effective strategy of
getting young learners to master the skills of reading, there are no literature to show
that that such a study has been carried out within our cultural context especially
Oshimili South Local Gove rnment Area of Delta State. This study is therefore
concerned with teaching primary school pupils word recognition using phonics
reading strategy. What then will be the effect of phonics reading strategy on pupil‟s
achievement in word recognition?
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of this study is to find out the effect of phonics on pupils‟
achievement in word recognition. Specifically, the study is aimed at finding out the
following:
1. Whether there is a difference in the post test mean scores in achievement in
word recognition of pupils taught reading using phonics and those taught
using whole language
2. Gender related differences in pupils‟ achievement in word recognition using
phonics.
3. Whether the location will affect pupils‟ achievement in word recognition using
phonics
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Significance of the Study
The primary school has a critical role to play in laying the foundation on
which other levels of education must build. This implies that the foundation of school
subjects must be solidly laid at the primary school level. Nigerian primary school
children are second language readers hence vocabulary knowledge and word
recognition are both important, the findings of this study will benefit to primary
school teachers, pupils, curriculum planners and the government.
Findings of this study would be of immense benefit to primary school teachers
as this would enhance their enthusiasm for the use of phonics towards the
achievement of pupils‟ word recognition skills. Profound understanding on phonics
reading strategy on pupil‟s academic achievement would spur teachers on the need to
update their knowledge, skills and abilities through seminars and capacity building
workshops. It would also be beneficial to pupils as it would enhance pupils‟ interest in
reading and also make them to be phonemically aware by engaging them in activities
that would help in building their vocabulary and word recognition skills.
Curriculum planners on the other hand would benefit from the findings of this
study as they need to have profound understanding of phonics reading strategy on
pupil‟s academic achievement. Such understanding will be utilized in the planning of
the curriculum and budgetary provisions of facilities and staff development on
training and retraining of teachers in order to facilitate teaching and learning within
and outside the classroom. Finally, this study will be beneficial to government. It will
serve as a useful intervention for them. It will in turn necessitate the organization and
training programmes for new primary school teachers and lecturing of old teachers on
the techniques needed for effective use of phonics reading strategy.
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Scope of the Study
The study was limited to Oshimili South Local Government Area of Delta
State. It focused on one urban and one rural area and these are Asaba town which is
the Headquarter of Delta state and Okoh which is almost a riverine community
without good road network. There are 29 schools in Oshimili South LGA. Two
schools each were selected from Asaba and Okoh making a total of four schools. (See
appendix iv)
Specifically, the study was limited to primary one pupil in the area of the
study. Primary one was chosen because it is at this lower level of education that pupils
are taught word recognition skill so that by the time they move to the upper basic
school they will be fluent readers. The topics were drawn from the primary one
school curriculum module. Furthermore, this study mainly focused on the
achievement of pupils as a result of the use of phonics in word recognition.
Research Questions
This study was guided by the following research questions
1. What is the difference in the post test mean scores in achievement of pupils taught
reading using phonics and whole language?
2. What gender differences are there in the post test mean scores in achievement using
phonics and whole language?
3. What is the difference in the post test mean scores of pupils‟ achievement in word
recognition using phonics with regards to location?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study and were
tested at 0.05 level of significance.
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1. There will be no significant difference in the post test mean scores in
achievement of pupils taught using phonics and whole language strategy for
word recognition.
2. There will be no significant gender difference in the post test mean
achievement scores of pupils taught using phonics and whole language.
3. There will be no significant location difference in the post test mean
achievement scores of pupils‟ taught using phonics and whole language.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of work related to the study under three broad
headings; namely conceptual framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies and
summary of literature review.
Conceptual Framework
Concept of reading
Stages and component of reading
Importance of reading
Concept of word recognition
Strategies of word recognition
Phonic reading strategy
Teacher factor and pupils achievement
Gender factor and pupils achievement
Location factor and pupils achievement
Theoretical Framework
Phonics theory of reading by Rudolf Flesh
Review of Empirical Studies
Summary of Literature Review
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Conceptual Framework
Concept of Reading
Reading is one of the communication skills. It is the third in the row among
the four communication skills. Reading is a very imperative skill for effective
education and communication. Knowledge is acquired through reading. Kane,(
2005:17) therefore defines reading as a meaning structure process in which the
readers must actively construct meaning and work towards fitting new information
into the knowledge they already have. Vacca and Vacca, (2002:28) also sees reading
as an interactive process. It is seen as a conversation, a give and take exchange
between the reader and the text.
Walker (1982) sees reading as an active problem solving process that involves
guessing or predicting what the author and about story events. He claims that since
reading involves recalling an individual‟s life experiences and trying to understand
what is written, it is more than just receiving meaning in a literal sense. Supporting
the above view, Hill (1997) opines that reading is the most useful skill that students
need to understand a text because it gives them immediate feedback about a text.
Obanya (2002) sees reading, as interpreting written language and translating into
words and sentences which conveys thoughts and ideas. Burke (1990) is of the idea
that reading is the process of getting meaning from and the bringing of meaning into
printed words in the text. The implication is that readers should bring their
backgrounds, experiences as well as emotions into play, during reading. On his part,
Rubin (1991) defined reading as a process in which information from the text and the
knowledge possessed by the reader act together to produce meaning.
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Stages and Components of Reading
Joel (1991) identifies three broad stages that young children move through as
they learn to read, namely Emergent, Beginning and Fluent reading stages. At the
emergent reading stage, they show great interest in reading, develop book handling
skills, can Identify most of the letters of the alphabet, know some letter sounds, read
20 familiar high frequency words, can use predictable patterns in text to re-read
familiar books and makes text to self connections. Children become emergent readers
in the nursery and kindergarten but those whose parents have read to them daily and
provide them a variety of literacy experience do learn how to read before coming to
school (Temple, Nathan, Burns and Temple in Tompkins 2003:46).
At the beginning stage, the emphasis is on interactive and guided activities and
accordingly Tompkins list the things a child can do at this stage as:
Identifying the letter names and sound, match spoken words to written words,
recognize 20 – 100 high frequency words, applying the knowledge of the cueing
systems to decode words, corrects self while reading. Reads orally and slowly word
by word, points to words while reading, makes reasonable predictions and
making text to self and text to word connections. Most children in primary one and
two are beginning readers and with teachers instructions in reading strategies and
skills and if given daily opportunities to read, they move through this stage to reach
the fluent stage (Tompkins, 2003: 45)
At the fluent reading stage, the child recognizes most words automatically,
read with expression, read independently, uses a variety of strategies effectively,
applies knowledge of strong structure and genre when reading and thinks
inferentially, makes connections when reading (Matthews, Stewart and Walter 1999)
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The Independent Review on the teaching of early reading (Rose Report, 2006)
presents a simple view of reading and sees skilled reading as the development of a set
of processes by which words in print are recognized and understood and the
development of language comprehension processes by which text as well as spoken
language are understood and interpreted.
The report identifies two components of reading namely: Word Recognition
and Language Comprehension and re-in states that both of them are essential for
developing fluent and effective readers and this requires specific kinds of teaching.
The report explains that children need to acquire and practice certain skills in the early
stages of reading in order to develop fluent automatic word reading. It recommends
that children should be taught the knowledge; skills and understanding that make up
high quality phonics in the emergent stage of reading while comprehension is the
ability to understand and appreciate written words should be taught alongside the skill
of word recognition as the children develop as critical and fluent readers. It points out
that at this later stage; the emphasis should be on engaging them to interact with a
wide range of text for pleasure and purpose (Rose 2006:70)
The Simple View of Reading
Language comprehension process
|
Good
Word Recognition __ Poor | Good ___ Processes
|
Poor
|
Language comprehension process
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The above table shows the four patterns of performance that reflects relative in
children‟s balance of word recognition and language comprehension. The report states
that the teachers must recognize the four patterns and identifies children‟s particular
learning needs and then use it to guide further reading.
Importance of Reading
The importance of reading cannot be overemphasized. The goal of reading
according to Omojuwa (2005) especially at the primary school level, is that each
child‟s should be functionally literate, being able to communicate effectively even
when the child‟s academic pursuit terminates atb the primary school level. Just as the
Pivotal Teacher Training Manual (2000) states, reading is one of the means by which
a human person can widen his perspective and become more enlightened. Reading not
only enhances the language use by children but also improves critical and analytical
thinking. As Cullingham (1992: 5) points out, when we tell stories and encourage our
students to tell and re-tell the one we have told them, we provide and solve problems.
He sees good stories as important elements of literature that provides a framework for
remembering and making events memorable.
Dopyera and Norton in Amadi-Ali (2007) feel that children should read to
increase imaginative ability, widen their expressive ability, discover things unknown,
get a thorough learning of a particular topic and knowledge, build positive attitude
about books and reading, gains a sense of well being, develops language, stimulate
thinking and develop socially, sharpen reasoning, gain reading skills and develop real
readers and writers.
Furthermore, reading according to Darko – Ampem (2005) helps the reader
acquire knowledge, draw out and foster qualities such as imagination and self
understanding and contribute to the child‟s mental growth by stimulating the senses of
28
touch, sight and hearing. Reading is also important for young children because a
strong foundation in reading early in childhood will set students up for success as they
get older. It is vital to learning because you understand the world around you much
better. This is because the more informed one is, the better life decisions one will be
able to make in life thereby making one‟s whole life a little better (James, 2010).
Reading therefore helps one think and gets brain active. According to Eyre (2005),
what we have today is information technology driven by computers whose mode of
transmission is words.
To him, without the fundamental understanding of those words, a person will
have difficulty functioning let alone succeeding. It is therefore very important that
every child and adult learns to read because with the advent of internet, more and
more reading is required on a daily basis. According to Ranweiler (2004), reading is
important for many reasons. While some reasons are very practical, others are less
tangible and not so obvious. He said that when people teach children to read at an
early age and to improve their reading, they are preparing them to become productive
adults in the future because not only is reading a required skill to complete school and
then university but also a required skill in adulthood. The ability to read and learn new
things throughout one‟s life keeps one‟s brain young and healthy. Furthermore, with
the ability to read comes the ability to understand and comprehend new subject matter
that one is not previously exposed to. Barnet (2006) gave five reasons why reading is
important. They include being an active process that improves one‟s concentration
and focus, improvement of one‟s discipline and memory, building self esteem and
improving creativity. Others include improving one‟s vocabulary and reducing
boredom; and giving one a glimpse into one‟s cultures and places of the world.
29
Concept of word recognition
Concept of word is defined as an awareness that spoken words match to
printed words in the reading of a text (Morris & Bloodgood, 2003). Concept of word
has rarely been studied in beginning reading research; however, recent findings
demonstrate that it plays a pivotal role in early reading development (Flanigan, 2006).
In a sense, concept of word is a skill that is based on evolving conceptual knowledge.
Initially this skill depends on the child‟s awareness of spacing between printed words
and attention to beginning consonant letter sounds. With reading practice, the skill is
elaborated and strengthened as the child begins to attend to additional letter sounds
within the printed word- first the ending consonant and later the vowel (Morris &
Bloodgood, 2003).
Ehri's Stages of Word Recognition
Ehri (1991) describes a three-phase process in the ability to learn and
recognize words in print. These consist of logographic, alphabetic, and orthographic
phases. Associating an oral word with a feature of print is the logographic phase.
During this phase, the learner associates items such as logos, pictures, or letter shapes
with words stored in memory. However, the reader eventually becomes frustrated in
his limited ability to recognize words consistently, and thus progresses to the
alphabetic phase of reading. This phase is attributed to the students developing
knowledge of grapheme-phoneme relationships in their word recognition. Once
readers successfully progress through the alphabetic phase, they develop a richer
sense of orthographic knowledge which is based on the idea that words are analyzed
without phonological conversions.
30
While literally hundreds of studies have examined the role of phonemic
awareness (phoneme detection) in reading acquisition, researchers have paid little
attention to beginning readers‟ concept of word in text. Studies often measure concept
of word as an ability to accurately finger point words and then go back and identify a
target word within the sentence (Morris and Bloodgood, 2003). Finger-point reading
depends on both alphabet letter knowledge and phoneme segmentation skills (Morris
& Bloodgood, 2003). They also created The Developmental Sequence of Early
Reading Acquisition for kindergarten as alphabet knowledge, beginning consonant,
concept of word in text, spelling beginning and ending consonants and phoneme
segmentation while first grade is word recognition and contextual word recognition.
Which demonstrates that beginning consonant knowledge precedes concept of word
in text, which in turn precedes phoneme segmentation, which in turn precedes word
recognition? In summary, concept of word in text is the vehicle that allows emerging
phonological and letter/sound knowledge to be used in the act of reading (Morris &
Bloodgood, 2003)
Larson (2004) also describes three major categories of word recognition
models. They include the word shape model which says that words are recognized as
complete patterns rather than the sum of letter parts. The model emphasizes that
whole words are the units we recognize. The second model is called the serial letter
model which states that words are read letter by letter serially from left to right.
Gough (1985) proposed this model because it is easy to understand and far more
testable than the word shape model of reading. In other words, you start off by finding
the first letter, then the words and so on until you recognize the words. The third
model is called the parallel letter recognition model. It states that the letters within a
31
word are recognized simultaneously and the letter formation is used to recognize the
words.
Words are the building blocks of comprehension. This explains why word
recognition is the foundation of the reading process (Gough, 1985) It is true that the
overall goal of reading is comprehension, but without the ability to recognize words in
continuous text accurately, this goal cannot be achieved. (Oyetunde and Muodumogu,
1999)
They also state that there are three types of words that primary school children
will need to learn. They include:
a. Words already in the pupils vocabulary
b. Words that are not in the pupils oral or reading vocabulary but which they have
available concept
c. Words that are new or difficult and for which the pupils have no available
concept or pre experience. They went further to state that the vital element in
word recognition is learning each letter sequence.
Five stages of word recognition were proposed by Spencer and Hay (1998)
cited in Larson (2004) as Glance and guess, sophisticated guessing, simple phoneme
to grapheme correspondence (for example letter sounding out), Recognition of
analogy (recognition of words patterns with a word such as and in sand. Later word
recognition involving compound words and syllabication (for example recognizing
playground as play plus ground)
When a child is confronted with an unfamiliar word, he or she is first encouraged
to look into the word for familiar letter and spelling patterns, and then use context as
32
back up support to confirm hypothesis as to what that word might be e.g. make is m
plus ake as cake is plus ake. (Alyousef, 2006)
Spencer and Hay (1998) in Larson (2004) sees word recognition as an essential
component in the mastery of reading and considerable evidence suggest that the major
difficulty confronting the beginner reader is the development of rapid automatic word
recognition skills. Efficient readers use a variety of orthographic data to recognize
units, such as individual letters, letter clusters, morphemes, word stem and word
patterns.
Strategies of Word Recognition
Ekpo (2005) defines strategy as well planned series of actions, in teaching a
particular subject for achieving its aims, goals and objective. It is a skill of planning in
advance. Strategies of word recognition skill will be discussed under the phonic
method.
The Phonics Method
The phonics methods of teaching gives the child the ability to work out words
for himself by learning the individual letter sounds and groups of sounds (syllables)
and encourage the child to “blend” these sounds to form words for example, c_ ca_
cat. This idea of blending sounds to make up words can be particularly useful when
teaching children how to read. (Hann, 1994)
Advocates of this theory believe that children should learn the sounds of letter
and how to blend with the other sound (for example c – a - t) then they can tackle new
words independently. Umolu (1991) explained that this method focuses on the
relationship between phonics (speech sounds) and graphemes (letter symbols) used in
written language. Resnick (2005) concluded that sounding out words is the only
33
solution to identifying new words. He went further to stress that it could be used with
large number of children who have difficulty leaving to read.
The alphabetic principle and theories of beginning reading by Thomas (2000)
state that letters systematically map into phonemes supporting this view, Share
(1995) as (cited in Yopp 1995) believe that in the beginning to read the child needs
explicitly taught phonological recoding “sounding out” that used taught sounds for
letter, to enable at reading unfamiliar words. These theories also claim that phonemic
awareness is involved in the acquisition of such phonological reading procedures.
Phonemic awareness is children‟s basic understanding that speech is composed of
sense of individual sounds and it provides the foundation for breaking the code;
(Yopp, 1992) when children can choose a duck as animal whose name begins with /d/
from a collection of toy animals, identify “duck” and “luck” as rhyming words in a
song or blend the sounds /d/, /u/ and /k/ to produce “duck” they are phonemically
aware. Developing phonemic awareness enables children to use sound – symbol
correspondence to read and spell words. Phonemic awareness is not sounding out
words for reading nor is it spelling words to write words, rather it is the foundation for
phonics. (Tompkins 2003:95)
Grant(1970), Resnick (2005) all agreed that phonics method of reading teach
children the sound values of letters and letter clusters, which must be done by
matching pictures and objects with letters. For example, introducing the picture of an
apple, elephant etc. to them, these key pictures carry a phonic clue which provides
information about the beginning letter sounds and its name.
Googacre (1971) explained that phonic method of teaching reading tends to be
synthetic process in that it initially concentrates on parts of words and their sounds
which are later combined into whole words. Advocates of this theory believe that
34
children should learn the sounds of letters and how to blend with the other sound (for
example c-a-t) then they can tackle new words independently. Umolu (1991)
explained that this theory focuses on the relationship between phonics (speech
sounds) and graphemes (letter symbols) used in written language. Resnick (2005)
concluded that sounding out words is the only solution to identifying new words. He
went further to stress that it could be used with large number of children who have
difficulty learning to read. From the foregoing, one finds the alphabetic principle of
instruction a strong base for the use of jolly phonics in teaching school pupils word
recognition.
Tompkins (2003) further stated that there is no consensus among researchers about
the best way to teach phonics, but most agree that teachers should use direct and
indirect instruction. Children should be involved in real reading and writing activities
as they learn phonics. This therefore means that phonics instruction should be tied to
reading and writing. Teacher‟s emphasis should be that children can decode words
fluently when reading and spell words conveniently when writing.
Amadi – Ali (2007) states that phonics instruction is concerned with the
teaching of the association of sounds (phonemes) with letters (graphemes) in order to
give pupils a tool for recognition of words which they cannot read. She went on to say
that when pupils know the sounds which letters represent they are able to pronounce
unknown words. If the words are in their unspoken vocabulary they will recognize the
words as soon as they are able to pronounce it.
Amadi- Ali (2007) identifies the following as principles for phonics
instruction: Do not introduce pupils to phonics instruction until they can understand
and speak English fluently and then decide on your approach to phonics – analytic
phonic, synthetic phonic or a combination. Analytic phonic is the use of whole words
35
to demonstrate letter sounds while synthetic phonic is the use of sounds in isolation
that are blended together /b/ /a/ /t/ = /bat/. There after decide on the sequence of
sounds to be taught. It is generally preferred to start with consonants sound because
most English words start with a consonants, teach c and g last as they have more than
one sound. Then, Let pupils have success with one sound before teaching a new one.
The teacher can then demonstrate the application of sound – letter relationship to
recognize an unfamiliar word in context. For example guide the pupils to identify a
word they can‟t read like this; Step one: What word make sense in this sentence? Step
two: What word start with this letter sound? Step three: Guess
The role of phonics in reading instruction
The International Reading Association (1997) adapted the following as the role
phonics in reading instruction: Phonics instruction serves one purpose to help readers
figure out as quickly as possible the pronunciation of unknown words. It also sees it
as the most widely respected value of letter sound instruction and that it provides
students with a means of deciphering written words that are visually unfamiliar.
Phonics is also a tool needed by all readers and writers of alphabetically written
language and early systematic, explicit phonics instruction is an essential part but one
of a balanced comprehensive reading program. Furthermore, phonics and other word
identification skills are tools that children need for information, for enjoyment and for
developing insights. Thus the intensity of phonics instruction must be adjusted to the
individual needs of the children by a well prepared teacher. When phonics instruction
is linked to children‟s genuine effort to read and write, they are motivated to learn.
Therefore, phonics inculcates early reading habit in children and sensitizing
the children as early as possible in the areas of phonetics and phonology thereby
making it easier for them to listen, speak, read and write independently given their
36
age. Promotes self confidence in the children through synthesized reading It teaches
the children to read and write through systematic phonics programmed vis a vis the 42
letter sounds and not just the 26 letters of the alphabet. It teaches the teachers the
fundamental early systematic phonic skills. It is fun and child centered approach to
teaching the sounds of the alphabet of the letters in a play way method
Phonic Activities
Hann (1999) gives a brief description of some activities that can be used in
teaching phonics as follows:
A phonic table: Collect together a group of objects connected to a sound you
have introduced. Label the objects individually and put a label of the letter you
are introducing over the table. This can be done for an initial sound for
example „Bb‟ box, book, basket, ball, bowl, etc or end of a word.
Missing letters: the missing letter card is probably the simplest way to check if
a child has remembered and understood a letter
- - - at
- - - up
- - - ar
- - - ot
Words sums: Give all the letters of the alphabet a number
a b c d e f g h I j k …………..
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ………….
Then give each child “sums” to work out e.g. 297, 217, 6554, 254. They can find the
words once they understand the game get them to work out sums for each other?
Picture crossword: The teacher draws a set of squares and gives the children
sets of small pictures the size of the squares. A letter is given at the beginning
37
of each row of the cross word and the child tries to fill up the squares with the
correct picture.
- at -i- --n
h_ _
h _ _
s_ _
Teacher Factor and Pupils Achievement in English Language
In the Nigeria educational system, English is used as a language of instruction
from primary four in the upper primary classes through tertiary levels. It has thus
become a window through which sound academic excellence can be viewed and
attained. At the primary level, taking some of the results of the past common entrance
examination as well as the interview conducted on pupils, it is clearly evident that
emphasis is laid on the importance of writing ability and expression before a pupil can
be considered for any admission for further studies (Komolafe and Yara, 2010).
Despite the importance attached to English language, the primary pupils
performance revealed in common entrance examination both in the subject and other
subjects which are expressed in English Language is still very low. So also, poor
performances of students in west African Examination Council (WAEC) is on the
increase (Adepoju, 1999). Among the factors responsible for pupils performance as
identified by the chief examiners report for 2000 and some researchers such as Idogo,
(2005) ; Ajayi, (2004); Ezeokoli , (1999); Alababu (1998); Jiboku,(1998) and Ayodele
(1984) includes poor knowledge of the rules of grammar, ignorance of acceptable
38
sentence patterns, inability to construct a complete sentence and lack of teachers ex
posture to modern method of teaching.
Furthermore, Idogo (2005), analyzing the Universal Basic Education Project
(2003) asserts that Nigeria educational system has not met the objectives of education.
Her submission shows that majority of the schools are deficient in the teaching of the
core skills as contained in the curriculum. Researchers in Nigeria, for example,
Kolawole, Adepeju and Adeloye (2000), identify student inability to write well in
English while Richard and Rodgers (1986); Obeameta (1995) and Adegbile (1996)
opine that methods of instruction among others are probable causes of poor
performance and achievement in English language. Among the solutions proffered by
them include the need to have improved modern method of teaching and the need to
help students to their reading skills in English.
The poor performance of pupils in reading is traceable to many factors. This
perhaps explains why Adegbile (1999) identifies teacher choice of method as one of
the main factors of poor performance in student‟s achievement in English language.
Feelers from the primary school pupils reveal that the written English of primary
school pupils is nothing to write home about. An average primary school pupil cannot
express himself or herself in simple and correct English expression. Scholars have
attributed this to the deficiency of primary school pupils in the knowledge of basic
grammatical concepts to combine sentences into larger ones and effective application
of grammatical rules and concepts in their writing (Digha, 2007; Afon. 2006)
Gender Factor and Pupils Achievement
Gender factor has continued to be a relevant predicting variable in the
academic achievement of learners at all level. Gender factor examined by Halpern
(1997) point to girls having advantage in variety of verbal task. This is because to a
39
greater extent, girls acquire language proficiency than boys and that gender related
differences in verbal abilities appear very early as children who to talk. Zammit
(1993) observes and believes that girls have more positive attitude toward language
learning than boys as they tend to perform better than boys in language learning,
reading and verbal skills.
Whereas, Okoye (1983) and Oskamp (1977) finds no significant difference in
gender and learners performance. They submit that eventual achievement by learners
is hinged on many inter – related variables and personal effort than gender variable.
Therefore gender issues will continue to gain attention of language scholars since
there is yet to emerge a clear picture of the role of gender in academic performance.
(Akinbote & Komolafe, 2010)
Location Factor and Pupils Achievement
It has been suggested that one of the most important factors influencing a
Childs‟ reading development is the home. (Ogunleye, 2002) There is no doubt that the
educational advantage of a home will be highly influenced by the urban and rural
location. In Nigeria, most rural homes are poor and this no doubt adversely affects the
academic performance especially the reading ability of the children. The relationship
between school location and student achievement has been widely reported. Adepoju
(2001) found that students in urban schools manifest more brilliant performance than
their rural counterpart. According to Ogbuaja (1997) students in urban settings are
more exposed to modern day life and as such acquire more knowledge and experience
than rural students. Also, Ogunleye (2002) and Warwick (1992) reported a significant
difference in the achievement of students in urban and rural areas. However,
Daramola cited in Ogunleye (2002) and Orji (1997) did not find any significant
difference in the urban and rural schools.
40
Theoretical Framework
Phonics Theory of Reading
The phonics theory of reading of reading was propounded in 1955 by Rudolph
Flesh. Its emphasis is on the idea that letters represent the sounds of speech and that
there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken
words. Phonics is considered an analytical approach where students analyze the letters
letter combinations and syllables in a word in an effort to “decode” the speech sounds
represented by the letters and the meaning of the text (Vaugha & Bos, 2009). It
emphasizes the alphabetic principles that letters represents the sounds in speech and
that there are systematic and predictable relationships between the written letters and
spoken words which are specific to the alphabetic writing system. In other words the
phonics advocates focus their efforts on and emphasize the importance of students
having phonetic awareness which is an understanding that the spelling of words
relates to they sound when spoken.
Phonics theory advocates that mastery of a set of symbols comes first in learning
to read. According to Umolu (1999), children should be able to sound out (read)
words based on how they are spelt. Children are therefore expected to first learn the
letters and letter combinations that convey the sounds of a language then they can
read whole words by decoding them from their component phonemes. In Umolu‟s
view, this theory focuses on the relationship between phonemes (speech sounds)and
graphemes (letter symbols) used in written language. While agreeing with the above
view, Goswani (2000) states that agreement on the importance of phoneme awareness
and progress in reading has found a positive connection. In support of the phonics
theory, Resnick (2005) states that phonics theory of reading teaches children the
41
sound values of letters and letter clusters which must be done by matching pictures
and objects with letters. To him, these pictures carry phonics clues which provide
information about the beginning letters sound and not its name.
However, a problem with teaching reading with this approach is that most
languages, especially English words do not have one to one speech sound to symbol
relationship (Resnick, 2005). Generally, with a few common exceptions, the
consonants have one to one speech sound to symbol relationship but the vowels do
not. For instance, the letter „a‟ represents one sound “say”, second sound in “at” , a
third sound in “any”, a forth sound in “are”, a fifth sound in “father”, an eight sound
“orange” and ninth sound in “bread”. The speech sounds could be influenced by the
letters surrounding the target vowel, the sentences containing the word or the stress or
lack of stress given to the syllable containing the letter. It therefore follows that a
beginning reader will have difficulties picking the appropriate sound when sounding
out words which are not in their speaking vocabularies.
Furthermore, phonics instruction is not ideal for those who learn to speak by
learning the whole sound of a word because these learners do not naturally break
words into separate sounds. For, according to Goltz (2010), the most important reason
for teaching phonics is not because it is the best way to teach reading. It is because it
teaches the child that the universe is an orderly place that follows rules, that it is not
arbitrary and that it is worthwhile to try to learn the rules or figures them out.
According to Reyhner (2008), phonics proponents attacked the whole word approach
because it did not get students into reading children‟s stories that did not have
carefully controlled vocabularies. The theory is relevant to the present study in the
sense that the child needs to know the letters of the alphabets and their sound to be
able to apply them in word recognition. In other words, this knowledge of letters and
42
their sounds will aid the child in sounding out words. This knowledge will also help in
the acquisition of word recognition skills that will make for eventual fluent readers.
Review of Empirical Studies
This section aims at reviewing available literature in the area of the effect of
method on student‟s achievements, gender and location. Komolafe and Yara (2010),
in an experimental study evaluated the impact of sentence combining instructional
strategy on primary school pupils‟ achievement in written English in an attitude to
composition writing in Akinyele local government area of Oyo state. The study
adopted a pre-test, post-test and control quasi – experimental design. Two hundred
and ninety five pupils from 12 schools randomly drawn from public primary schools
were used for the study. Three hypotheses were answered. The data were analyzed
using descriptive inferential statistics, ANCOVA and MCA. The result showed there
were significant interaction effects of treatment on pupil‟s achievement in written
English expression and there was significant main effect of gender on pupils‟ attitude
to written expression. There was significant interaction effect of treatment and gender
on pupil‟s attitude to written English expression. The study therefore confirms that
adopting this technique for classroom practice enhances learning which is related to
this study.
Akinbote and Komolafe (2010) conducted a study on the impact of explicitly
grammar instructional strategy on primary school pupil achievement in written
English in and attitude to composition writing in Akinyele local government area of
Oyo state. It also looked into the interaction effect of attitude, verbal ability and
gender. The study adopted a pre-test, post test quasi- experimental design. A total of
two hundred and ninety primary five pupils from 12 schools randomly drawn from
public primary schools were used for the study. Four validated instruments and seven
43
hypotheses were tested. The Scheffe Post Hoc analysis was employed to determine
the source of the significant difference found among the groups. The result showed
that pupils in the explicit grammar instructional group had higher mean scores (mean
=26.30) while the conventional group had least score (mean 16.82). However, gender
had significantly contributed to pupils attitude scores (mean =23. 21) than the female
(mean = 19.11). The strategy was found to be effective in improvising composition
writing on pupils at this level.
Okoli (1995) in an experimental study sought to examine the effects of co-
operative and competitive learning styles on achievement and interest of students
exposed to each of co-operative and competitive learning styles. in Onitsha urban area
of Anambra state. The study design was non- equivalent control group design. 360
senior secondary year two (11) biology students drawn from six secondary schools
were used for the study. All students in each group were pre-and post tested using a
30 item selected biology concepts achievement test and a 38 item interest in biology
scale. A 2*2 analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used test the different hypothesis
formulated at the 5% confidence level. It was found out among others that co-
operative learning style and competitive learning styles significantly enhanced
students‟ achievement and interest in biology rather than the conventional style .The
co-operative leaning style enhanced achievement more for female students then for
male students, while competitive learning style enhanced achievement more for male
students than the female students. There was no significant difference in the interest
of male and female biology students exposed to each of the co-operation and
competitive learning style.
Chukwu (2001) also investigated the effect of selected local games on primary
school pupils‟ achievement and interest in subtraction operation in Nsukka education
44
zone of Enugu state Gender was also a variable. Six research questions and six
hypotheses guided the study. A non- equivalent control group quasi experimental
design was used. A multi phased sampling technique was used to select 80 primary
one pupils from two primary schools as subjects for the study. Two main instruments
namely, mathematics achievement test (MAT), mathematics interest scale (MIS),
were developed, validated and used for data collection. Means, standard deviations
and 2x2 analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) were used to analyze the data. The study
found out that teaching subtraction and using games enhanced pupils achievement and
interest in the contents better than using lecture or conventional method. Boys
achieved significantly better than girls, there was no significant difference in the
interest level of boys and girls and teaching subtraction operation using selected local
games and gender interaction was significant for achievement but not for Interest.
Okeke (1986) investigated the comparative effectiveness of the inquiry based
or open class room and the RET (Refined Traditional Approach) institutional
approaches to science teaching in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State Five
hundred and seventy (570) students selected as subjects were randomly assigned to
experimental and control groups. Two instrument, the attitude scale and achievement
test were used for data collection. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for
analyzing the data. The result among others showed that intra- approaches,
comparism made between performance of male and female subject ts showed that for
approach A, male subjects performed significantly better than female students .In the
case of approach B, no significant difference was recorded between the male and the
female subjects.
Yousif (2009) investigated the differences between Saudi tertiary level male
and female students of English as a foreign language in the comprehension
45
performance of gender-neutral texts. 132 male and female university students
participated in this study, performing two reading comprehension tests on two
different types of gender-neutral text (familiar and unfamiliar). One measure was used
to assess comprehension that is multiple choice questions. Findings reveal that content
familiarity has a facilitating effect on reading comprehension. Male students
significantly outperformed their female counterparts in both tests.
Summary of Literature Review
This review of literature was organized under four broad headings, namely, the
conceptual framework, theoretical framework and empirical studies and summary of
literature review. The concept of reading, stages and component of reading, models of
reading, concept of word recognition, strategies to word recognition, teacher factor
and pupils‟ achievement, gender factor and pupils achievement were reviewed.
Secondly, the theoretical framework looked at the theory of reading based on
phonics reading method of instruction as propounded by Rudolf Flesh. It emphasizes
that letters represent the sounds of speech and that there are systematic and
predictable relationships between written letters and spoken words. Finally, the
empirical studies highlighted related research on various teaching methods and gender
and location as it affects the achievement of pupils.
Therefore the review of literature has shown that teachers use of inappropriate
teaching methods result in primary school pupils poor achievement in English
language, especially reading. Hence the researcher desires to adapt phonic reading
strategy which has been found to be an effective teaching strategy for emergent and
beginning readers. It is also assumed that phonic approach allows a reader to have an
oral vocabulary that will allow for decoding to take place. There is need therefore to
adopt this strategy to see if there will be an improvement in word recognition skills in
46
primary school children since research has shown that the deficiency in early reading
is as a result of teaching methods employed by teachers. More also, this study has not
been carried out in our own cultural context it would help in beefing literature and
also draw attention of other researchers on the need to carry out similar studies in
areas of phonics so as to improve primary school pupils reading ability.
47
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter presents the Research design, Area of the study, sample and
sampling technique, population of the study, instrument for the study, Development of
the instrument, validation of the instrument, Reliability of the instrument, method of
data collection and method of data analysis.
Research Design
The design of the study was quasi-experimental design. According to Ali
(2006) quasi experimental research design can be used when scheduling and
implementation of experimental treatment conditions or randomizations and grouping
of subjects are not possible. Thus, designs of experiment which offer less well and
less rigorous control compared to true experimental designs are quasi experimental
designs. Specifically, the design was adopted because the experiment was carried out
in intact classes. Intact classes were used to avoid disruption of normal classes. Thus
there was no randomization of pupils into treatment and control group. The research
design has to be so since the treatment group can not be adequately controlled. The
design helped to determine the effect of phonics reading strategy on pupils‟
achievement in word recognition. The design is diagrammatically represented below
in appendix vi
Area of the Study
The study was carried out in Oshimili South Local Government Area of
Delta State of Nigeria. Oshimili South Local Government was chosen because it
comprises of Asaba town where the head quarter of Delta state is situated and Okoh
town. It has 29 primary schools at present. Since Nigerian primary school children are
second language readers, knowledge of vocabulary and word recognition are
48
problematic issues. Evidence also abounds that primary school pupils were reading at
a frustration level and thus affected their performance in examinations. Observation
has also shown that most pupils lack the basic reading skills and this has been traced
to poor teaching methods. More also, there is no literature to show that such a study
has been carried out in Oshimili South Local Government of Delta State. (See
appendix vii)
Population of the Study
The target population for the study consisted of primary one pupil in Oshimili
South Local Government Area of Delta State numbering 4750 and it comprises of
2350 female pupils and 2400 male pupils (Source: Oshimili South Local Education
Authority)
Sample and Sampling Technique
A total of 144 primary one pupils was randomly sampled from four primary
schools in Asaba and Okoh. 82 pupils from Asaba and 62 from Okoh using multi
phase sampling technique which will serve as experimental and control school. Out of
this sample, 82 belonged to the experimental group with 45 female and 37 are male.
Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument named Word Recognition Achievement Test (WRAT) was
developed by the researcher and used for data collection. The instrument contains the
name, class, sex of pupils and eight items with a total number of fifty questions which
were generated for pupils to answer to elicit information on word recognition. The
instrument was used as pre-test for the purpose of assessing pupils‟ entry behavior.
The same instrument was used at the end of instruction for the purpose of measuring
achievement gain of the pupils as a consequence of using phonic based instruction of
teaching word recognition.
36
49
Development of Instrument
The instrument was developed as follows:
Word Recognition Achievement Test (WRAT)
In developing the WRAT, reference was made to performance objective for the
selected reading contents as stated in the primary school curriculum module. Below is
a table of specification (Test Blue Print) that was used in the construction of the word
recognition achievement test from the selected reading content.
Table of specification (Test Blue Print)
Contents No of item
Read /identify letters of the
Alphabet
2
Combination of letters of the
alphabet to form simple familiar words
5
Word games/ word and picture
Matching
3
Validation of the Instrument
The instrument was given to four experts one in English language, one in
measurement and evaluation, one in childhood education and one experienced
primary school teacher for face and content validation in terms of appropriateness to
the table of specification and clarity of expression in the instrument with level of
understanding of the respondents (see appendix vi)
Reliability of the Instrument
A tryout test was carried out to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. The
instrument was administered to twenty primary one pupils in a primary school outside
the sample of the study. To establish the internal consistency of word recognition
50
achievement test, scores generated from the 20 pupils were applied to K – R 20
(Kuder Richardson) formula. The internal consistency co-efficient of 0.77 was
obtained. The formula was considered appropriate because the instrument were
dichotomously scored. Coefficient of internal consistency was established because the
researcher wants to find out how internally consistent the items will be to the
objective of the study (see appendix ii & iii).
Method of Data Collection
A pre-experimental orientation was organized for the teachers to be used for
the study. Separate orientation was organized for the teachers in the two groups. The
researcher also monitored the study to ensure uniform approaches by the teachers.
The pupils were pre-tested using WRAT. The same pre-test was administered to all
pupils in both treatment and control group. This will help to establish equivalence of
the subjects before treatment and will help to establish the basis on which variation in
the post test after treatment or lack of treatment will be justified. After the pre-test, the
teachers started the teaching in both experimental and control groups. The control
group was taught using the conventional lesson approach. While the treatment group
was taught to identify letters of the alphabet and their sounds before they are
gradually made to form two or three letter words by blending the sounds, use of
phonics activities such as fishing games, matching pictures with sounds of the
alphabets.
At the end of the treatment which lasted for six weeks, the WRAT was
administered to subjects in the two groups immediately. To ensure that the
instructional situations were the same for all schools, the researcher also gave
instructional guides to teachers in the two treatment groups. They taught all primary
51
one classes in the schools to be used for the study with the same approach and to
control the effect of pre-test and post-test, the instrument was reshuffled.
Method of Data Analysis
Analysis of co-variance (ANCOVA) was used for analyzing data in respect of the
hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance, while mean and standard deviation was used
for testing the research questions.
Instructional Procedure
The purpose of this phase was to train teachers of the experimental group on the
use of phonics in teaching word recognition. Phonics as an effective teaching strategy
provides a systematic and learning activities for six to eight weeks under the
following basic steps:
i. learning the letter sounds
ii. learning word formation
iii. blending
iv. identification of sounds in words
v. tricky words i.e. irregular words
Although they are separated into five skills they are taught at the same time after
the six sounds have been introduced. The forty two letter sounds are divided into
seven (7) groups. Each group has six letter sounds. Some of them appear with two
letters as one sound otherwise known as digraph. Since the researcher is teaching
primary one, she shall be looking at steps i-iv.
The teacher proceeds to teach the letter sounds after ensuring that the pupils have
mastered the 26 letters of the alphabet, the 5 vowels and 21 consonants. Every word is
made up of letters and sound and so for reading and writing, the children need to be
52
familiar with and fluent at saying the sounds that go with the letters. The task before
the teacher was to present the consonants to pupils and
Teacher thereafter drilled pupils on the following:
a e i o u a e I o u
ab eb ib ob ub ba be bi bo bu
ac ec ic oc uc ca ce ci co cu
ad ed id od ud da de di do du
af ef if of uf fa fe fi fo fo
ag ef ig og ug ga ge gi go gu
ah eh ih oh uh ha he he hi hu
aj ej ij oj uj ja je ji jo ju
ak ek ik ok uk ka ke ki ko ku
al el il ol ul la le li lo lu
am em im om um ma me mi mo mu
an en in on un na ne ni no nu
ap ep ip op up pa pe pi po pu
aq eq iq oq uq qa qe qi qo qu
ar er ir or ur ra re ri ro ru
as es is os us sa se si so su
at et it ot ut ta te ti to tu
av ev iv ov uv va ve vi vo vu
aw ew iw ow uw wa we wi wo wu
ax ex ix ox ux xa xe xi xo xu
ay ey iy oy uy ya ye yi yo yu
53
By demonstrating an action for ears, eyes and speech to help remember the lesson
and internalize it. The multi sensory approach is very efficacious as well as fun for
the children. The 42 sounds according to their groupings are:
Group one: s a t i p n
Group two ck e h r m d
Group three: g o u u l b
Group four: ai j og ie ee or
Group five: z w ng v oo oc
Group six: y x ch sh oh th
Group seven: qu ou oi ue er ar
Phonics makes use of step by step method of teaching especially for these early
learners. Teach one letter sound at a time. The teacher gets a flash card or phonic
table written boldly with a good diagram.
Ist day “s” as in snake, stone, sun
Emphasis is on repetition and demonstration
2nd
day “a” as in arm, apple, axe, ant
Let the child repeat after you and demonstrate writing the sound in the air
3rd
day “I” as in ink, indomie, insect
Drill them on oral discrimination repeating the sound and pronouncing it correctly
using word sums
4th
day “t” as in tree, toe, tin, taste
5th
day “p” as in pot, pant, pink
az ez iz oz uz za ze zi zo zu
54
6th
day “n” as in nose, nurse, name
Let each child make a sentence with words. Each sound has a story line and an action
to remember it.
Other activities include:
1. Introduction of sounds from the handbook or sound book improvised with
exercise book
2. Searching for the sound through picture word walls or story books. This is
called hunt the sound.
3. Identification of initial consonant sounds in words. Example “s” as in sat, “t”
as in table, “p” as in pot and “n” as in nose
4. Sorting the sound from the sound box
5. Repetition of sound with its individual flash cards
6. Matching of letter sound with pictures or identical sounds
7. Games, brainstorming, word games and word sums
Having taught the sound, the next is to teach word formation. It was observed that all
these activities helped the children not only to understand but also to relate the letter
sounds and words they represent.
In learning word formation, the teacher generates two or three letter words from the
first group of letter sounds.
Group one: s a t I p n
Two letter words as at it an in as
At this stage spelling is emphasized. Next, the same group one letter sound: drill
them in spelling and pronunciation example: sit, sat, tap, pan, pat, sip etc.
Here the teacher achieves effective listening: speaking through spelling the words,
reading the words properly and attempting writing in the air then their books. This is
55
then followed by blending which means that in reading children must be made to
understand that words are made up letters and sounds. For them to recognize and
read fluently, they must be able to say the words. The phonetic skills for this exercise
are:
1. Look at the word
2. Say the word
3. Hear the word
4. Blending
Example p – o – t, spell and pronounce as you put the individual words
together again “pot” as they listen to the teacher they repeat after you. The teacher
needs to teach it after teaching the first six letter sounds in group one using flash
cards.
Using two letter words a-s =as, a-t =at, i-s =is, i-t =it, a-n-=an, i-n =in
Using three letter words s-a-t =sat, s-i-t =sit, t-a-p =tap, p-a-t =pat, p-i-n=pin, t-i-p
=tip, p-a-n =pan, p-i-t=pit, n-a-p=nap, s-i-p=sip
In blending, the emphasis is on the first sound which is usually said aloud and
others are said gently. Also, repetition of letter sounds with flash cards, singing the
letter games will help to enhance retention and facilitate their participation.
Identification of sounds in words is one of the major challenges of teaching early
learners. The main phonic skills are:
1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Identify the sounds through reading or sound box
4. Writing the sounds in words, each sound has to be demonstrated.
56
LESSON PLAN FOR CONTROL GROUP
WEEK TOPIC PERFORMANCE CONTENT ACTIVITES LEARNING EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEACHER STUDENT MATERALS GUIDE
1-2 Reading
letters of
the
alphabet
People should be
able to :
1). Recognized and
read letters of the
alphabet
2). Write the
alphabets correctly
Letters of the
alphabet A-Z
1). Read to pupils
letters of the
alphabet
2). Ask pupils to
repeat the alphabet
3). Calls pupils
one after the other
to identify letters
of the alphabet.
4). Guides pupils
to write the
alphabet into their
books.
1). Listen to
teacher
reading
2).
Participate in
the reading
3). Place cut
out letters on
letters
identified.
1). Cut out
letters of the
alphabet
2). Wall
charts
3). Flash
cards.
1). Recognize
and read letters
of the alphabet
2). Write the
alphabet
correctly.
3-4 Combinati
on of
letters to
form
simple
familiar
words
Pupils should
breathe to (1)
combine letters to
form simple
familiar words
Combination
of letters to
form simple
words e.g.
monosyllabic
words of
toys books,
man, car, cat,
mat etc.
1). Writes different
letters or the
chalkboard 2). Ask
pupils to merge
letters to form
words.
1). Copy
letters into
their books
2).form
words with
the letters.
Pictures of
objects
3). Wall
chart or other
1). Course
book
2). Pictures
of objects
3). Wall chart
or other
relevant
charts.
Pupil to copy
correctly
spellings of
familiar words.
57
relevant
charts.
5-6 Word
Games
Word and
picture
matching
Pupils should be
able to
1). Match simple
words with familiar
pictures of the
objects.
Words
games or and
picture
matching
e.g. objects
found in the
home, parts
of the body.
1). Presents the
words one at a
time to pupils
simultaneously
with picture
2). Illustrates by
placing the word
card and the
flannel board
3). Guide pupils to
match words
correctly.
1). Perform
this activity
in turns and
in groups
2). Practice
matching
word card
and picture
using games.
1). Pictures
2). Real
objects
3). Word
cards
1). Pupil to
match words
correctly.
58
LESSON PLAN FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
WEEK
TOPIC PERFORMANCE CONTENT ACTIVITES TEACHING/ EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEACHER STUDENT LEARNING
MAT
GUIDE
1-2 Reading
letters of
the
alphabet
Pupils should be
able to
1). Recognize
letters of the
alphabet
2). Write the
alphabet correctly
3). Read letters of
the alphabet by
their sounds.
Letters of the
alphabet
Real to pupils letters
of the alphabet
2). Ask pupils to read
the alphabet
Give the sounds of
the alphabet
according to their
groups
4). Guide pupils to
write out the
alphabets into the
books.
1). Listen to
teacher reading
2).
Participate in the
reading
3). Sounds out the
letters of the
alphabets
4). Writes out the
alphabet into their
books
1). Flash cards
2). Sounds box
3). Wall charts
1). Recognize
letters of the
alphabet
2). Read letters of
the alphabet
3). Write out the
alphabets
correctly.
3-4
Combin
ation of
letters to
form
simple
familiar
word
Pupils should be to
combine letter to
form simple
familiar words
Formation of
two or three
letter words.
Relate letter
sounds to the
words
Asks pupils to
combine two or three
words
Relates letter sounds
to the words
Identify the
sounds
From two letter
words
Write two letter
words
Flash cards
Sounds box
Wall chart
Phonic game
Course book
Pupils to copy
correctly the
spellings of simple
words
59
5.6 Word
game/
word
and
picture
matchin
g
Pupils should be
able to:
1) match simple
words with
familiar word or
picture of identical
sound
Word game
or word and
picture
matching e.g
A for apple,
B for bell, C
for cat
1) presents the words
one at a time to
pupils simultaneously
with pictures using
sounds 2) illustrates
by placing the word
side by side on the
flannel graph
3)guides pupils to
match the pictures
correctly with word
and phonic games
1)brainstorming
activities in group
and in turns
2) carry out
picture crossword
3) sound out
words in
association with
their pictures
1) pictures
2) sound box
3)word card
4)real object
5)cut out
alphabet
Pupils to match
words correctly
with pictures of
objects
60
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data collected. Using
appropriate statistical tools, relevant interpretations were made based on the three
research questions using mean, standard deviation. Analyses of co-variance
(ANCOVA) were used to test the hypotheses. All the hypotheses were tested at the p<
0.05 level of significance.
Research Question 1
What is the difference in the post test mean scores in achievement of pupils taught
reading using phonics and whole language?
Table 4.1
Mean and Standard Deviation of Pretest and Post Test Mean Scores
in Achievement of Pupils taught Reading using Phonics and Whole
Language
Groups N Teaching
Strategy
Pre-test Post-test Mean gain
score
Difference
in gain
score
Experimental 82 Phonics 31.28 17.52 44.21 20.44 12.93
6.48 Control 62 Whole
language.
26.03 14.32 32.48 15.49 6.45
The data presented in Table 1 indicated that the experimental group had a mean of
31.28 and a standard deviation of 17.52 in the pretest and a mean score of 44.21 and
standard deviation of 20.44 in the posttest making a pretest, posttest gain in
experimental group to be 12.93. The control group had a mean score of 26.03 and a
X SD X SD
49
61
standard deviation of 14.32 in the pretest and a mean of 32.48 and standard deviation
of 15.49 in the post test making pre test gain of 6.45.
This implies that the experimental group achieved better in word recognition
using phonics than control group using whole language.
Research Question 2
What gender differences are there in the post test mean scores in word
recognition using phonics?
Table 4.2
Mean and Standard Deviation of Pre test and Post test Scores of
Male and Female Students Taught Using Phonics
Groups N Teaching
Strategy
Pre-test Post-test Mean gain
score
Difference
in gain
score
Male 37 Phonics 32.35 18.51 46.14 20.91 13.79 1.71
Female 45 Phonics 30.45 17.01 42.53 20.65 12.08
The data presented in Table 2 revealed that male students had a mean score of
32.35 and a standard deviation of 18.51 in the pretest and a mean score of 46.14 and
standard deviation of 20.91 in the post test making, a pre test post test gain of 13.79.
Female students on the other hand had a mean score of 30.45 and a standard deviation
of 17.01 in the pretest and a mean score of 42.53 and a standard deviation of 20.65 in
the post test, making a pre test post test gain of 12.08. This shows that phonics
favoured male students in word recognition than female counterpart.
X SD X SD
62
Research Question 3
What is the difference in the post test mean scores of pupils‟ achievement in
word recognition using phonics with regards to location?
Table 4.3
Mean and Standard Deviation of Scores of Pupils’ Achievement in
Word Recognition using Phonics with regards to Location
Groups N Teaching
Strategy
Pre-test Post-test Mean gain
score
Difference
in gain
score
Urban 48 Phonics 32.05 20.11 47.53 21.97 15.48 8.84
Rural 34 Phonics 31.65 19.01 38.29 17.75 6.64
The data presented in Table 3 revealed that students in urban had a mean score
of 32.05 and a standard deviation of 20.11 in the pretest and a mean score of 47.53
and standard deviation of 21.97 in the post test making, a pre test post test gain of
15.48. Students in rural areas on had a mean score of 31.65 and a standard deviation
of 19.01 in the pretest and a mean score of 38.29 and a standard deviation of 17.75 in
the post test, making a pre test post test gain of 6.64. This shows that phonics
favoured students in urban areas than those in rural areas in word recognition.
Testing of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
There will be no significant difference in the post test mean scores in
achievement of pupils taught using phonics and whole language strategy for word
recognition.
X SD X SD
63
Table 4.4
Analysis of Covariance of Scores of Experimental and Control
Groups in Word Recognition
Source
Sum of
Squares DF
Mean
Square F
Sig.
Corrected Model 11860.455 2 2965.114 554.841 .000
Intercept 2686.001 1 2686.001 502.613 .000
Pre – test 17.395 1 17.395 3.255 .074
Groups 9925.597 1 9925.597 1857.000 .000
Error 598.536 139 5.344
Total 132203.000 144
Corrected Total
12458.991 143
*Significant at sig of F< .05
The data presented in Table 4 shows F-calculated values for test of
significance between the mean scores of experimental and control groups in word
recognition. F-value for groups is 1857.000 with significance of F at .000, which is
less than .05. The null-hypothesis is therefore rejected at .05 level of significance.
With this result, there is significant difference in the post test mean scores in
achievement of pupils taught using phonics and whole language strategy for word
recognition.
Hypothesis 2
There will be no significant gender difference in the post test mean
achievement scores of pupils taught word recognition using phonics
64
Table 4.5
Analysis of Covariance of Scores of Male and Female Students
Taught Using Phonics
Source
Sum of
Squares Df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 2861.202 2 715.300 212.434 .000
Intercept 226.350 1 226.350 67.223 .000
Pre – test .103 1 .103 .031 .861
Group 2367.808 1 2367.808 703.204 .000
Gender 28.326 1 28.326 8.412 .004
Error 377.123 77 3.367
Total 2267689.000 82
Corrected Total 3238.325 81
*Significant at sig of F< .05
The data presented in Table 5 shows F-calculated values for test of significance
between the mean scores of male and female taught word recognition using phonics.
The F-value for gender is 8.412 with significance of F at .004, which is less than .05.
The null-hypothesis is therefore rejected at .05 level of significance. With this result,
there is a significant gender difference in the post test mean achievement scores of
pupils taught word recognition using phonics.
Hypothesis 3
There will be no significant location difference in the post test mean
achievement scores of pupils taught using phonics
65
Table 4.6
Analysis of Covariance of Scores of Students Taught Using Phonics
in Rural and Urban Areas
Source Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 3860.312 2 1930.156 212.434 .000
Intercept 327.351 1 327.351 67.223 .000
Pre – test .155 1 .155 034 .861
Location 3307.817 1 3307.817 705.606 000
Error 309.066 77 4.0138
Total 267699.001 82
Corrected Total 4236.315 81
*Significant at sig of F< .05
The data presented in Table 6 shows F-calculated values for test of
significance between the mean scores of pupils in rural and urban areas taught word
recognition using phonics. The `F-value for gender is 705.606 with significance of F
at .000, which is less than .05. The null-hypothesis is therefore rejected at .05 level of
significance. With this result, there is a significant location difference in the post test
mean achievement scores of pupils taught word recognition using phonics
Summary of the Findings
The summary of the findings of this research in relation to the research questions and
hypotheses are as follows:
Pupils in the experimental group obtained a higher mean score than their counterparts
in the control group. That is to say that the null hypothesis of no significant difference
in the achievement of pupils taught word recognition using phonics and those taught
using whole language is rejected.
In the experimental group there was significant difference in the mean scores of male
and female pupils. This difference statistically favored the male pupils than the female
pupils in phonics..
66
Also, there was significant difference in the mean scores of urban and rural pupils.
This difference statistically favored pupils in phonics in urban area than those in rural
areas.
67
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This chapter discusses the findings of the study as they relate to the research
questions and hypotheses, the educational implications, conclusion,
recommendations, summary, limitations of the study and suggestions for further
studies.
Discussion of Findings
The finding of research questions 1 on what is the post test mean scores in
achievement of pupils taught reading using phonics and whole language showed that
experimental group achieved better in word recognition using phonics than control
group using whole language. The finding indicated that phonic reading strategy has a
positive effect on pupils‟ academic achievement in word recognition. The finding of
research question 2 on what gender differences are there in the post test mean scores
in achievement using phonics and whole language revealed that that phonics favoured
male students in word recognition than female counterpart. That is, male achieved
higher than female counterpart in word recognition achievement test.
The findings of research question 3 on what is the post test mean scores of
pupils achievement in word recognition using phonics with regards to location
revealed that phonics favoured pupils in word recognition in urban areas than those in
rural areas. That is pupils in urban areas achieved better in word recognition
achievement test than pupils in rural areas. The findings on hypotheses 1, 2 and 3
confirmed that significant difference exists between the mean achievements scores of
experimental and control groups in the post test. This is an indication that phonics
reading strategy has positive effects on pupils‟ academic achievements in word
recognition than whole language. This means that phonic reading strategy is an
56
68
effective teaching strategy. It improves reading skills of primary school children. It
encourages children to begin reading through auditory training that is training the ears
to recognize the sounds of the letters and associating these sounds and letters with the
shapes of the letters in written form (Tompkins, 2003).
The finding is in agreement with finding of Dimeff, and Fox (1989). In their
studies they found that the adaptive of the phonics reading strategy greatly resulted in
higher students‟ performance and greater productivity, higher cognitive gains, lower
levels of subject distress, and higher course satisfaction. The finding is also in
agreement with finding of Resnick (2005) who found out phonics reading strategy
teaches children to sound out new words. It enables them to learn what a letter stands
for and then learn to associate the sound and the letter to specific words. The finding
is in line with the finding of Moat (2000) and Tompskin (2003) that phonics method
of teaching enables young learners to master the skills of reading. Vacca (1998)
explained that phonics strategy is most appropriate for pupils in primary schools when
it comes to language development.
The finding is also in agreement with Komolafe and Yara (2010), Akinbode
and Komolafe (2010) who concluded from their investigations that teaching students
using sentence combining instructional strategy and explicitly grammar instructional
strategy performed better than those taught using lecture method or other traditional
teaching methods. Involving students in active learning environment where they can
participate actively in the learning process with the opportunity to interact freely with
the teachers, converse with peers present and defend ideas and questions increases
their self confidence and self reliance. This consequently improves their learning and
performance. Jarvis (1998) and Jonaasan (1996) in their view affirmed that students
learn best when they are actively involved in the learning process and that regardless
69
of the subject matter, students working in groups tend to learn more of what is taught
and retain longer than when the same content is presented in other format.
The finding of hypothesis 2 shows that there is a significant gender difference
in the post test mean achievement scores of pupils taught word recognition using
phonics. This finding is in agreement with the opinion of Tamis Monda and
Roddriguez (2008) that girls tend to have slight advantage over boys in early stages of
vocabulary development. Contrarily Okeke (1999) posited that some socio cultural
impediments such as role stereotyping and the belief that reading is a male gender
subject pose obstacles to female pupils‟ participation in reading. The finding is also in
line with the opinion of Gambell and Hunter (2000) that boys do less well than girls in
reading, almost regardless of the criteria used to assess competency. Clark and
Akerman (2006) also found out from their study that boys predominantly held
negative attitudes towards reading stating that reading is boring and feminine activity.
That shows that there was a significant difference between the mean achievement
scores of males and females in post test. This is an indication that phonic reading
strategy has positive effect on female and male students.
The finding of hypothesis 3 shows that there is a significant location
difference in the post test mean achievement scores of pupils taught word recognition
using phonics. This finding is in line with the opinion of Okoye (2009) that location
of a school has a significant effect on a child‟s ability to study and perform at the
level expected of the child. He found out that most rural based schools lack enough
qualified teachers, are poorly equipped and lack basic amenities. They are all serving
as inhibiting factors to good academic performance. Abiodun (2005) also said that
rural areas are seen as the greater challenges concerning educational development
70
than urban centres due to the peculiar socio economic and institutional structures in
the rural areas
Educational Implication of the Findings
From the findings of this study the following implications have emerged for
Delta State government, teachers, lecturers, administrators and the curriculum
planners. Since phonics reading strategy have positive effect on students achievement
in word recognition, the lecturers will see it necessary to write books on best ways to
phonic reading strategy for teaching English language. Teachers have to adopt the use
of phonics reading strategy to create student-centred classroom in the teaching of
word recognition in the primary schools in Delta State.Teachers will also take it as
their personal responsibilities to search for more knowledge on the best way to use
phonics reading strategy for teaching. The implications of the findings of this study to
curriculum developers is that they will incorporate the use of phonic reading strategy
into the curriculum of English language for primary schools since it is found very
effective in teaching word recognition to pupils.
The implication of these findings for the pupils is that they will learn better
and develop more interest in their learning when phonics reading strategy is used for
teaching word recognition by the teachers. The adoption of the phonics reading
strategy for teaching of word recognition requires qualified English teachers who are
knowledgeable in using phonics reading strategy for teaching, therefore, pre-service
NCE teachers should be adequately trained on the use of phonics because they are the
teachers mostly used in teaching the lower basic level of education. This implies that
school administrators and the government need to employ qualified teachers of
English language and primary education specialist to teach in primary schools in
Delta State.
71
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
1. Primary school teachers in Delta State should adopt the use of the phonics
reading strategy to teach word recognition.
2. Qualified teachers of English language should be employed by government to
teach reading to pupils in primary school
3. Curriculum developers should recommend the use of phonics reading strategy
for teaching word recognition to pupils in primary schools.
4. Workshops and seminars should be organized by Ministries of Education and
related government agencies to train primary school teachers on the best ways
to use phonics reading strategy for teaching their pupils.
Summary
Primary education is an important level of education which lays the
foundation of school subjects on which other levels build. However, poor
achievement has been observed in English language especially in reading among
children at this level due mainly to teacher‟s use of poor and inappropriate teaching
methods. The need therefore arises to integrate a more meaningful approach in the
teaching and learning of reading in order that achievement might be enhanced.
Consequently, this study was carried out to find out the effect of phonics reading
strategy on pupils achievement in word recognition. The study also examined the
effect of gender and location on pupils‟ achievement in word recognition.
Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The design
used in the study was a quasi experimental design, specifically the non-equivalent
control group design. A total of 144 primary one pupils were randomly sampled from
four primary schools in Asaba and Okoh. 82 pupils from Asaba and 62 from Okoh
72
using multi phase sampling technique which served as experimental and control
school. Out of this sample 82 belonged to the experimental group with 45 female and
37 male. Four teachers in the experimental school were trained on the phonics
reading strategy.
The word recognition achievement test (WRAT) was developed, validated and
used by the researcher in the study. The phonics reading strategy which involves
listening, speaking, writing and demonstrations was also exposed to the teachers in
the experimental group.
A try out test was carried out to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. The
internal consistency reliability coefficients was established for WRAT using
K - R 20 (Kuder Richardson) formula. The internal consistency coefficient of 0.77
was obtained. The data generated from the study was analysed using analysis of co-
variance (ANCOVA) in which the pre test scores of the dependent measures
examined in the study served as covariates.
The result of the study showed that the use of phonics reading strategy
significantly enhanced primary school pupil‟s achievement in word recognition. The
research finding also revealed that male pupils achieved higher than their female
counterpart. Finally, phonics reading strategy favored pupil‟s in word recognition in
urban areas than those in rural areas. These results have implications for primary
school teachers, curriculum planners, school administrators and the government.
The researcher recommends among others that primary school teachers should
integrate the use of phonics in teaching reading and government should ensure that
qualified English teachers are employed to teach at this level of education. The
government should also organize series of seminars and workshops for primary
school teachers to familiarize them on the use of phonics strategy in teaching reading
73
Limitation of the Study
Although the researcher trained teachers to implement the teaching of phonics,
there could still be some personal teaching styles due to individual differences that
might have introduced some extraneous factors in the study.
It was very difficult to assign students into control and experiment groups.
That might have affected the outcome of the study and caused invalidity.
Suggestions for further Study
Based on the findings and limitations of the study, the researcher suggests that
further researches could address the following areas:
1. Effects of phonics reading strategy on pupils‟ achievement in word
recognition in other local government in Delta State or other States
2. Carrying out the study using other classes in the primary school in
comprehension.
3. Effects of phonics reading strategy on academic achievement of low ability
pupils in primary school in English language
4. Strategies for effective use of phonics reading method in primary schools in
Delta State.
74
Conclusions
Based on the finding of this study, the following conclusions were made:
Students learn faster and master skills better when appropriate teaching methods are
used for instruction. The adoption of the phonics reading strategy in conjunction with
other teaching methods will greatly improve academic achievement of pupils in word
recognition. Thus pupils taught word recognition using phonics reading strategy
achieved significantly higher than those who were not taught using phonics. Male
pupils taught word recognition using phonics reading strategy achieved significantly
higher than their female counterparts. Also, phonics reading strategy favored pupils in
word recognition in the urban areas than pupils in the rural areas
75
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82
Appendix I
Word Recognition Achievement Test
Class: Primary One
Name: __________________________
Sex: Male: ______ Female: _______
Instruction: Answer all questions
Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Ww Xx Yy Zz
23 24 25 26
Example: (7, 15, 1, 20) = G O A T
1. i. (8, 5, 1, 4) = _________
ii. (2, 15, 15, 5) = _________
iii. (1, 24, 5) = ________
iv. 18, 15, 16, 5 = _______
v 7, 12, 1, 4 = _________
Example: b a g = 2, 1, 7
2. vi m a n g o = __________
vii b a b y = _________
viii s c h o o l = ________
ix. t a b l e = ________
x. c h a i r = ________
83
3. Write out three letter words that have letter a as the second letter
Example: b a g
I. _______
II. _______
III . _______
IV. _______
V. _______
4. Write out 3 letter words using the following alphabets.
Example: A = Ant
a. P = _____
b. J = _____
c. B = _____
d. D = _____
e. M = _____
f. F = _____
g. H = _____
h. C = ______
i. E = _________
j. I = ______
5. Make 5 words from the word G R A N D F A T H E R
EXAMPLE: MOTHER = HOT, OR, TO
a. _________
b. _________
c. _________
d. __________
e. __________
84
6. Draw lines to match words
I. axe desk
II. bus egg
III. cap bell
IV. desk bus
V. egg axe
VI. bell cap
7. Draw lines to match pictures
i. Fish
ii. Bed
iii. Pot
iv. Mat
v. Key
vi. Bag
85
8. Complete these words with letters a, b, c, d, e and f
Example: food, dog, cake
i. ___ g g
ii. ___ x e
iii. ___ o y
iv. ___ i s h
v. ___ o o r
vi. ___ a l l
vii. ___ u p
viii. ___ h a I l
ix. ___ a g
x. ___ p p l e
86
Appendix II
ITEMS ANALYSIS SHOWING FACILITY (P) AND
DISCRIMINATION INDICES AND DIFFICULTY INDICES
FOR READING RECOGNITION TEST
Formula for difficulty index = R
T x 100 or
R
T
Where R = Number of pupils who answered item correctly
T = Total number of pupils tested
Formula for discrimination index = Ru - Rl
(1/2) T
Ru = No. in upper group who scored item correctly
RL = No. in lower group who scored item correctly
(1/2) T = Half of the total number of students when we divide
the group into upper and lower halves
Difficulty Index
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
0.55
0.74
0.76
0.66
0.54
0.48
0.42
0.58
0.53
0.55
0.35
0.45
0.48
0.44
0.64
0.56
0.52
0.36
0.43
0.46
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
0.62
0.56
0.36
0.55
0.64
0.46
0.53
0.26
0.55
0.45
0.73
0.64
0.45
0.35
0.69
0.55
0.27
0.36
0.73
0.45
Discrimination Index
0.40
0.70
0.60
0.40
0.60
0.40
0.70
0.80
0.60
0.70
0.50
0.60
0.40
0.60
0.60
0.70
0.40
0.40
0.60
0.50
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.60
0.40
0.70
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.60
0.70
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.40
0.60
0.80
0.60 21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
0.43
0.36
0.64
0.44
0.54
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
0.64
0.36
0.73
0.64
0.73
0.80
0.50
0.40
0.60
0.40
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.60
0.40
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
lxxxvii
lxxxvii
Appendix III
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY ESTIMATE OF READING
RECOGNITION ACHIEVEMENT TEST USING K – R 20 FORMULA
K – R 20 formula = rxx = n
n - 1
1 - pq
SX
Where n = Number of items in a test
p= Proportion of people who answered an item
correctly (For example, if on item 1, 20 out of 40
pupils answered it correctly, p for the item would
be 20
40 = 0.5
q = Proportion of people who answered an item
incorrectly
(q = 1 – R)
pq = Variance of a single item scored dichotomously i.e
right or wrong.
∑pq = Summation sign indicating that pq is summed
over all items.
SX2 = Variance of the total test
No of items in the test = 50
Calculated SX2 = 27.69
rxx = 50
50-1 =
6.84
27.69
= 1.02 x 0.75
= 0.77
2 ∑
1 -
lxxxviii
lxxxviii
Appendix IV
Names of Schools in Oshimili South LGA of Delta State
1. Abu – ato primary school 1 Asaba
2. Abu ato - primary school 11 Asaba
3. Abu ato - primary school 111 Asaba
4. Ahabor primary school Asaba
5. Ahor primary school Asaba
6. Akpakor primary school Ani Akpo
7. Amakeon primary school 1 Oko Amakon
8. Amakeon primary school 11 powerline
9. Anala primary school Oko Anala
10. Anwai primary school Anwai
11. Asagba primary school 1 Asaba
12. Asagba primary school 11 Asaba
13. Ekeanya primary school Ogbele
14. Obiokpu primary school Obiokpu
15. Ogbe – Afor primary 1 school Asaba
16. Ogbe – Afor primary 11 school Asaba
17. Ogbe – Olie primary school 1 Asaba
18. Ogbe – Olie primary school 11 Asaba
19. Okwe primary school 1 Okwe
20. Okwe primary school 11 Okwe
21. Okpu – elenchele primary school Okpu – elenchele
22. Oneh primary school 1 Asaba
23. Oneh primary school 11Asaba
24. Uzoigwe primary school 1 Asaba
25. Uzoigwe primary school 11 Asaba
26. Zappa primary school 1 Asaba
27. Zappa primary school 11Asaba
28. Women Affairs primary school Asaba
29. Oshimili South L.G. A. primary school
lxxxix
lxxxix
Appendix V
Table 1: primary school examination results in English in Oshimili south LGA 2006 –
2010
Year of
Exam
Total
Enrolled
PASS
FAIL
NO % NO %
2006 1933 873 45.2 1060 54.8
2007 1984 1016 51.2 968 48.8
2008 1939 1073 55.3 866 44.7
2009 2041 1542 75.6 499 24.4
2010 2234 1322 59.2 912 40.8
Source: Oshimili south local education authority 2011
Table 2 Research Design
Grouping Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experimental T1 X T2
Control T2 ---- T2
xc
xc
Key T1 - Pre Test, T2 - Post Test, X – Treatment, No Treatment
Appendix VI
RESULT OF THE ANALYSIS
RQ1
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
EXP 82 10.00 92.00 44.2099 20.43692
Valid N (listwise) 82
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
CONTROL 62 4.00 72.00 32.4839 15.48637
Valid N (listwise) 62
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
PREEXP 82 3.00 74.00 31.2805 17.51844
Valid N (listwise) 82
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
PRECONT 61 2.00 64.00 26.0328 14.32244
Valid N (listwise) 61
RQ 2
Descriptive Statistics
xci
xci
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
EMALE 37 10.00 88.00 46.1429 20.90615
Valid N (listwise) 37
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
EFEMALE 45 12.00 92.00 42.5333 20.65034
Valid N (listwise) 45
PRETEST EXPERIMENTAL
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
MALE 37 3.00 64.00 32.3514 18.51158
Valid N (listwise) 37
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
FEMALE 44 4.00 74.00 30.4545 17.00814
Valid N (listwise) 44
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
CMALE 22 4.00 64.00 30.2273 14.75492
Valid N (listwise) 22
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
CFEMALE 40 6.00 72.00 33.6500 15.85115
Valid N (listwise) 40
RQ 3
xcii
xcii
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
RUEXP 34 10.00 80.00 38.2941 17.75341
Valid N (listwise) 34
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
UREXP 48 12.00 92.00 47.5208 21.97386
Valid N (listwise) 48
