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CHUKWU, CHINWE R.

PG/M.ED/08/48605

EFFECTS OF IMAGERY AND GENDER ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

ACHIEVEMENT AND INTEREST IN ESSAY WRITING IN ANANBRA STATE,

NIGERIA.

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION

Chukwuma Ugwuoke

Digitally Signed by: Content managers Name

DN : CN = Webmasters name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

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TITLE PAGE

EFFECTS OF IMAGERY AND GENDER ON SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS ACHIEVEMENT AND INTEREST IN ESSAY WRITING IN

ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA

A PROJECT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION,

FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

MASTERS OF EDUCATION (M.Ed) DEGREE IN EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY.

BY

CHUKWU, CHINWE R.

PG/MED/08/48605

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS EDUCATION,

FACULTY OF EDUCATION,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

APRIL, 2012

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The world is dynamic just as language which human beings use to express their

ideas, feelings, and emotions. Nigeria is a country with three major indigenous languages,

namely, Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba, but English Language was chosen as her Lingua Franca.

Esu (1997) pointed out that the English language was introduced into Nigeria in 1842 by

the first batch of European missionaries who came for evangelization. The education then

was interwoven with Christian evangelism.

Alabi (1994) traced the evolution of English language in Nigeria to pre-trans-

Atlantic slave trade era, specifically in 1553 when some British were said to have paid a

very brief visit to the Nigeria coasts, especially the parts of Benin and old Calabar. There

was communication barrier between the natives and the English men. To bridge this gap,

there came the need to teach English language to the natives. The language was then meant

for communication, business transaction missionary activities, and for other official

functions. The communication was initially in English based pidgin, but English language

was later introduced in order to train clerks, interpreters, stewards and messengers to help

the white men in administrative and domestic activities.

The British introduction of the teaching of English language was not based on

evolution of standard English, but on the emergence of fairly communicative English.

English language at the moment is the worlds premier language (Oyeleye, 2005). Society

for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (2010) described the linguistic situation of

English as a result of globalization. Evans (1984) pointed out that English as a world

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premier language has become an indispensable tool for commerce, science and

technological development. According to Evans, English language is used in almost all

corners of all continents, even in countries where it is not their mother tongue such as the

case of Nigeria. For the learning of English as a Lingua Franca, various policy statements

in the national policy on education and the Universal Basic Education relating to teaching

of English language have been made. Some of these statements include the use of mother

tongue and / or language of the immediate community as the language of initial literacy at

the pre-primary and junior primary levels (Emenanjo, 1985). This means that the use of

English as a medium of instruction right from primary four should be enforced in both

private and public primary schools. It is envisaged that if this policy is implemented to the

last letter, pupils in primary four and beyond will be introduced to the four basic skills of

English language which are listening, speaking, reading and writing.

It has been noted by Magajiya (2004), that English language is very important in the

education of a child, and that it is because of this that policy makers chose it as the medium

for attaining education. Ukwuegbu (2004) opined that the realization of the importance of

English language makes it absolutely necessary that student should pass it at credit in

Senior Secondary Certificate Examinations (SSCE), and National Examination Council

(NECO) before gaining admission into higher institutions of learning. Examination bodies

such as West African Examination Council (WAEC), National Examination council

(NECO), and Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) also recognized this fact

about the language, and made it compulsory in their examinations.

Apart from examination requirement, English language is the common language in

the malls and eating houses. If traders do not communicate in English language, they will

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be limited to only local customers. English language is also the main language of the

media; and most books in most fields are written in English language. Eighty percent of

computer data are processed and stored in English (Internet TESL journal, 1996). Much

satellite communication is carried out in English, more than half of the Newspapers

published in the world, are published in English Language. Therefore, it becomes pertinent

and essential that students should be grounded in English language. A quality pass in it

qualifies a candidate for admission into a tertiary institution.

Such good performance in the subject requires determination to learn, persistence

and commitment to learning the different aspects of English language such as essay,

comprehension, summary, lexis and structure, and oral English. Essay is a piece of writing

from the authors personal point of view. Comprehension and summary on their own have

remarkable relationship with essay. Comprehension and summary require the ability to

grasp something mentally and the capacity to understand ideas and facts (SIL international,

1999). Comprehensibility in writing is related to comprehension in reading. This is because

research has shown that when children read extensively, they become better writers. Skills

of comprehension are the ability to use context and prior knowledge to aid reading, and to

make sense of what one reads and hears (SIL international, 1999). From the foregoing

therefore, it implies that a good student in essay can also do well in comprehension. Essay

writing is therefore an important aspect of English Language.

The WAEC Chief Examiners Report (2010) stated that only 337,071 out of

1,351,557 candidates representing 24.94 percent obtained credit and above in May/June

2010 English language Examination, while 244,456 out of 1,132,357 candidates

representing 21.59 percent obtained credit and above in June/July 2010 NECO

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examination. Osunde and Aduwa (2005) stated that, despite the new approaches to learning

and instruction in English language at senior secondary level, the subject is still being

plagued with poor results and low achievement.

The woeful performance of students in annual results from WAEC and NECO in English

language has become a worrisome issue, and it continues to deteriorate year after year. The

WAEC Chief Examiner (2010) report went further to say that if the situation remains like

this, it may affect both economic and technological growth of Nigeria.

The report attributed the poor performance to ignorance of the rudiments of the

language. According to it, most candidates lost all the marks allotted to spelling,

punctuation, grammar and sequence of tenses because they were unable to handle these

aspects of the language completely. It was also observed in the report that there was

insufficient exposure of the candidates to the skills of writing, lack of familiarity with the

required formats, construction of loose sentences, and transliteration from mother tongue

and the abuse of rules of grammar. Therefore, essay is one aspect of English Language that

students perform poorly in. To these, the report advised that students should read novels,

good magazines and journals. Considering the WAEC Chief Examiners report on

students poor performance in English Language, it has become pertinent to look into the

teaching/learning of English Language essay in secondary schools. Essay is usually allotted

more marks than other parts of English Language examination. Making a good

performance in essay is necessary for a good performance in the subject.

Essay writing is often used by many language teachers in assessing students literacy

development over time. This is because it tests the ability of students to use English as an

effective means of communication, to express themselves clearly and coherently that is

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appropriate for any situation. The process of writing is very much related to that of reading;

and learning to write entails a complex interaction between writer and reader. This implies

that writers write to arouse the senses of the readers to imagine the situation in question.

Writing is a method of representing language in visual form. It is the recording of

information to be read later (Ager, 2012). According to Ukwuegbu (2004), the process of

learning to write clearly and effectively requires a simultaneous process of writing down all

the relevant points one can think of on a piece of paper. This will go a long way in the

organization of the content. The points should be organized in a coherent, logical argument

to create that vividness required in a story. It is also important to plan well, since it makes

for natural and coherent argument. Planning entails ordering the information in such a way

that the pages of the essay be covered in relevant and strong points. The points should

either be organized chronologically, that is, from earliest to latest; from first to last; from

concrete to abstract; from the simple to the complex or from most important to least

important, all depending on the nature of the question. It is important to have a clearly

defined order of presenting ones argument. This shows that the writer knows where he is

going.

About four to five topics, including letter writing are often set by WAEC and

NECO respectively in Senior School Certificate Examinations, requiring students to write

on one. The questions cover a wide range of essay types like narrative, descriptive,

argumentative, expository and letter writing. For coherent and logical argument, it becomes

important that students first create the ideas, models, impressions or pictures of the story to

be written in their mind. Such mental visualization automatically organizes the

arrangement of the points (Boughman, 2007). The students should have a clear essay

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written in their memory before beginning the essay. An outline helps in structuring

students thoughts before the actual writing, to avoid the classic blank screen syndrome

(Boughman, 2007). When making the outline, the teacher should encourage students by

arousing their senses of visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory. Arousing the

students senses may be achieved through creative imagination. They can then be asked to

work paragraph by paragraph. A good outline before writing the actual essay reduces the

writing time. Pillai (2012) defines imagery as pictures or photographs; language that causes

people to imagine pictures in their mind or pictures of people in a work of art. Imagery in

this study is the use of the technique of creative imagination to form concept structures,

create scenes and events in the mind. It is speculated that imagery will enable students

write good narrative essays. Imagery can be brought about in different ways such as

viewing pictures, questioning, rehearsal, dreaming, to mention a few. It is not known which

form of imagery creation that will be effective in enabling students write good narrative

essay. However, in this study, the technique of imagery adopted are, viewing pictures

physically to create mental images and forming images in the minds eyes through

questioning. The use of imageries therefore, may improve students achievement and

interest in essay writing over the traditional method.

The mostly practiced method of teaching is referred to as traditional system, and

includes the lecture method. This is mostly used by public schools, (Bondelli, 2008). This

traditional method has many disadvantages that are counter-productive to real learning.

Bondelli (2008) noted that the traditional educational system focuses entirely on

intellectual, and ignores experiential learning. This method has an authoritarian nature, and

leads students to extrinsically rather than intrinsically valued education. The conventional

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method of teaching essay writing centers on giving instruction, reading of examples, that is,

sample essays, and writing practice (Jibowo,2010). Ogiegbaen and Iyamu (2006) revealed

that secondary school students in Nigeria do not learn English Language in environment

conducive for effective learning. It was noted that English language teachers in public

secondary schools in Nigeria still depend heavily on the traditional lecture method in

teaching English lessons, including essay. They hold strictly to prescribe textbooks,

bringing in debate and group methods of teaching occasionally. They do not use creative

imagination in teaching essay. Creative imagination technique involves guiding the

students to focus on positive images in their minds that will help them to write good essays.

Therefore, there is need to find out how imagery affects essay writing in secondary schools.

Expository essay aims at presenting completely and fairly other peoples view or to

report about an event or a situation. It is detailed explanation of a process, an idea or a

feeling (Ukwuegbu, 2004). Argumentative essay aims at proving that the writers assertion

about some phenomenon is correct and more truthful than others (Banjo, Ayodele & Ndahi,

1997). According to the authors, the art of argument is not an easy skill to acquire, and it

requires higher order reasoning, induction, drawing conclusion and applying them to the

case in discussion. Descriptive essay requires actual description of something, using

concrete and abstract images, and concrete and abstract ideas. The narrative essay on the

other hand, is writing about a succession of events or story, which may be factual or

imaginary (Ogbuehi, 2004). From the discussion of the different types of essays, it

becomes clear that essays rely heavily on imagery. This study is on narrative essay. Of all

the types of essay, the narrative essay is the most difficult to teach or learn to write

(Aragoni, 2011). It is also the essay type that poses problems most to students. For realistic

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narrative, the writer already has a plot; imagination and creativity that this study tends to

inculcate in students are not well represented.

Gender is a variable that plays important role in learning. Ashford, Lecrory and

Lortie (2001) refer to gender as varied socially and culturally constructed roles, qualities,

behaviour and so on, that are ascribed to women and men of different societies. According

to them, gender is the social definitions of male and female traits. It represents a socially

constructed concepts and not a fact of nature with specific biological imperatives. For this

study, gender is the behavioral, cultural and psychological characteristics associated with

boys and girls which may influence their achievement in essay writing. Filthaskil (2006)

studying differences in male and female communication wrote that men and women have

many different conversational rituals which might be as a result of influence of their

parents, age, class and gender. These influence their ways of talking and even writing.

Women tend to talk in certain ways, in order to be liked. Hraklhouskaya and konigsson

(2010) reported differences in male and female language use in group. Age, gender,

knowledge of English and cultural background were implicated. Therefore, there is need to

ascertain the influence of gender in essay writing when learners are taught using different

imagery techniques.

Personality characteristics like interest also play an important role in learning and

performance. Interest, as defined by Philip (2011) is a feeling or emotion that causes

attention to focus on an object or a process. For the interest of the learners to be drawn,

teaching methods and strategies should be geared towards grasping the interest of the

learners and maintaining the interest throughout the lesson. The traditional method of

teaching essay writing, that is, the lecture method, focuses on teaching students the steps to

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writings, and relies heavily on sample essays. This method, according to Tinzmann, Jones,

Bakker and Fennimore (1990), ignores experiential and creative learning, and focuses on

intellectual learning. Since essay is written from the authors personal point of view,

learning from other peoples essays may suppress the imaginative tendency in the learners.

By so doing, learning becomes dull and uninteresting.

Interest of the learners should be created and maintained to achieve optimal success.

Gosling, Rentfrow and Swann (2003) pointed out that, to create and maintain the interest of

learners, the teacher should among other techniques, use multiple sensory teaching and

learning aids, use variety of teaching techniques and base teaching on thinking. It is

therefore necessary to determine how imagery, which is a technique, influences interest in

essay writing.

Statement of the Problem

The global spread of the English language as one of the most far-reaching linguistic

phenomena of our time is already an established fact. It not only serves as Nigerians

official language, but also used for business transaction, teaching language and medium of

communication with the outside world. It is also the language of the press, satellite and

computer. These made it so important that it has remained a subject of constant

examination and analysis. That not withstanding, many students still have little or no

interest, and perform poorly in English language in Onitsha Education Zone, Anambra

State, Nigeria. This is due to a number of reasons, which include the use of inadequate

methodology in teaching. The methodology used in teaching essay includes giving

instructions, reading sample essays, dependence on textbooks and chalkboard as media for

disseminating knowledge. With these methods, the learners creativity and experiences are

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not considered. Learning here is based on other peoples views and experiences. Although

studies have been conducted to determine effect of imagery on comprehension, no study

has been done in Nigeria to examine the effect in essay writing. Thus, the problem of this

study is, the effects of imagery techniques and gender on secondary students achievement

and interest in essay writing in English language, in Onitsha Education Zone, Anambra

state, Nigeria.

Purpose of the study

The general purpose of this study is to determine the effects of methodology ( two

techniques of imagery and non use of imagery) and gender on students achievement and

interest in essay writing in English language. Specifically the study determined the:

1. effects of methodology on students achievement in essay writing,

2. effects of methodology on students interest in essay writing,

3. achievement of male and female students in essay writing,

4. interest of male and female students in essay writing ,

5. interaction effects of methodology and gender on students achievement in essay

writing,

6. interaction effects of methodology and gender on students interest in essay writing.

Significance of the Study

This study will be significant in so many ways. On the theoretical level, the results

of this study could illuminate some theories on imagery, thereby providing opportunities

for confirming them. It could question the validity of some theories and propositions.

Theories like dual coding theory, the visualization theory and the picture theory of reason

could be verified with respect to the results based on the variables of the study. Finally, the

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results of the study could provide useful information to researchers continuing in this line

of inquiry.

The findings of this study could help in training students to become creative

writers; creating vivid, clear and concrete descriptions in stories, novels, songs or poems,

when they are taught how to use imagery in essay writing.

The findings of the study could expose teachers to the needs of their students in

essay writing. It could help the teachers to make the teaching of essay writing interesting

and participatory by involving the students in the creation of scenes, events, concepts, and

even organizing the plots. The students when taught with imagery could become more

interested in essay lessons thereby becoming creative writers. Essay writing task could

improve students critical thinking abilities, and let them discover more knowledge.

Students writing skills could be improved generally, making failure in essay writing in

particular and English Language in general to become a thing of the past. The findings

could lead to the organization of workshops and seminars to get English language teachers

more equipped to use imagery to face the challenges of poor performance of students in

essay writing in particular, and in English language in general. Consequently, the findings

of the study could be beneficial to teachers in the planning of instruction. In the planning of

the scheme of work and lesson, teachers could incorporate the use of imagery as a part of

methodology and resources for improved learning.

Writers and authors of English textbooks could use the findings to update their

books on the methodology for effective teaching of essay to students. This could go a long

way in remedying the problems associated with mass failure of students in English

language.

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The findings could also lead to re-visiting and reviewing teacher education

curriculum to include the use of imagery technique in teaching essay writing to students.

Student teachers would be exposed to the use of this technique during training. On

graduation they would be equipped to use it to improve students performance in essay

writing.

Scope of the Study

This study was restricted to only SS 2 students of government owned secondary

schools in Onitsha North Education Zone, Anambra State, Nigeria. The students were

introduced to broad narrative essay that is personal, fictional, and non fictional narrative

essays, but specifically to fictional narrative essay. This is because it is the essay that poses

problems most to students. For personal and non fictional narratives, the writer already has

a plot because the stories are his experiences and other true stories. Fictional narrative

writing demands imaginative skills which can make the writer go beyond reality by

creating make - up stories in which whatever he wants to happen can happen. Here, the

writer creates plots that seem real to the reader. The modes of imagery used are picture and

visualization.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study:

1. What are the relative mean achievement scores of students taught essay writing

using imagery techniques (picture technique and visualization technique) and those

taught without them?

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2. What are the relative mean interest scores of students taught essay writing using

imagery techniques (picture technique and visualization technique) and those taught

without them?

3. What are the mean achievement scores of male and female students in essay

writing?

4. What are the mean interest scores of male and female students in essay writing?

5. What are the interaction effects of methodology and gender on students

achievement in essay writing?

6. What are the interaction effects of methodology and gender on students interest in

essay writing?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of

significance:

1. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught

essay writing using imagery techniques (picture technique and visualization

technique) and those taught without them.

2. There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of students taught

essay writing using imagery techniques (picture technique and visualization

technique) and those taught without them.

3. There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and

female students in essay writing.

4. There is no significant difference in the mean interest scores of male and female

students in essay writing.

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5. There is no significant interaction effect of methodology and gender on students

achievement scores in essay writing.

6. There is no significant interaction effect of methodology and gender on students

interest scores in essay writing.

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CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

This chapter reviews related literature of the study, which throws more light on the

problem under investigation. It is categorized into these sections:

Conceptual framework

English Language

Essay Writing

Imagery

Gender

Achievement

Interest

Theoretical framework

Cognitive Theories

Theories of Imagery

Theories of Essay Writing

Empirical studies

Summary of literature review

Conceptual Framework

The following are discussed here: The English Language, essay, imagery,

achievement, gender and interest.

English Language

English language is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon

kingdoms of England. It then spread into what was to become southeast Scotland, under the

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influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom, of Northumbria, (Boeree, 2004). Due to

economic, political, military, scientific, cultural and colonial influence of Great Britain and

the United Kingdom from the 18th

century through the British Empire, English has been

widely dispersed around the world. It has also become the leading language of international

discourse in many regions, Nigeria inclusive. The language is widely learned as a second

language and used as an official language of the European Union and many common

wealth countries as well as in many world organizations. Historically, English originated

from the fusion of languages and dialects, now collectively termed old English. These were

brought to the eastern coast of great Britain by Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) settlers with the

word English being derived from the name Angles (Serdechny , 2011). A significant

number of English words were constructed based on roots from Latin, because Latin in

some form was the lingua franca of the Christian church and European intellectual life.

English has been described as, the tool of tools in learning and all human

experience by Dewey, in Vygotskian Perspective on literary research (108). Dewey was

the twentieth century intellectual giant in philosophy of education. He argued that English

language acts as the true mechanical go-between to convey observations and ideas that

have prior and independent existence. Language therefore, expresses thought as pipes

conduct to and from, tanks in human environments.

The English language is without any doubt the most important legacy of the British

colonial masters to Nigeria. The implantation, acceptance and role of English in the body

politic of Nigeria started with it being adopted as the channel of instruction. With growing

importance of English language, many countries around the world today use it as first and

second language. It has become almost the worlds lingua franca of education, aviation,

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tourism, diplomacy, science, technology, commerce and industry. In Nigeria, English

language is a compulsory subject in primary and post primary schools (Ukwuegbu, 2004).

Examination bodies like Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB), the West

African Examination Council (WAEC), the National Examination Council (NECO) to

name a few, made English language compulsory in their examinations. English language to

Nigeria is a stepping-stone to the technological giants of the world. Therefore, the ability to

write good essay in English language is required of all students in Nigeria. Hence, the need

to find out whether the use of imagery technique in teaching essay writing would improve

students achievement and interest in essay writing.

Essay Writing

Among the four language skills, writing is one. The others are listening, speaking

and reading, but writing is the most difficult to be accomplished. It is easier to convey

thought through speech, which is a common mode of communication than through writing

(Beare, 2010). Listening can easily be done, even by a child when the interest is drawn,

while reading is usually faster and easier to learn than writing.

Essay writing is very important, not only for English language, but in the over-all

moulding of the students. It is used in writing all other subjects in the secondary school,

especially during examinations. The importance of essay writing is recognized in every

institution, even in primary schools where it is called composition. Essay writing ability

helps students to perform well in other subjects. Grayson (2010) observed that in any

examination where students are required to write essay type, any student who has the points

to write on, is sure of success.

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Recent developments concerning English language studies like reading and essay

competitions indicate renewed interest in this aspect of English language studies. Douglass

(2004) stated that even if a test is dominated by low-level thinking skills and questions, and

questions are posed in a multiple- choice format, the best preparation is not mindless

testing drills, but extensive student writing, accompanied by thinking, analysis and

reasoning.

The extensive writing can be seen in the different types of essays, which are: the

descriptive, expository, argumentative and narrative essays.

Descriptive writing is used in all modes of writing (expository, narrative and persuasive), to

create a vivid and lasting impression of the person, place or thing (Ukwuegbu, Okoro, Idris,

Okebukola and Owokade, 2004). Narrative essay includes many vivid sensory details that

paint a picture and appeal to all of the readers senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and

taste. Descriptive writing can also paint pictures of the feelings that are being described. It

makes use of figurative languages such as analogies, similes and metaphor to help paint the

picture in the readers mind. Descriptive writing, according to Ukwuegbu et al uses precise

language, and specific adjectives and nouns, including strong action verbs to give life to the

picture one is painting in the readers mind. Students can make use of prompts, to paint

better pictures. Descriptive prompts that can be used are:

- describe your favorite toy,

- describe your favorite food,

- describe a place you always wanted to visit,

- describes a perfect teacher, etc.

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Writing a descriptive paragraph can be broken down into manageable chunks for students.

This will help them write interesting essays.

Expository writing is another important type of essay. Banjo et al (1997) stated that it

involves detailed explanation of the subject, object or process. It presents a subject in detail

devoid of criticism, argument or development. It explains how things work or operates in

relationship with other things. Ida, James and, Parks (1986) pointed out that expository

essay requires some mental work, because in the explanation of a subject, it analyses it.

The writing is often done in the present tense because the process, concept or ideas being

explained are relevant at most time, if not all times.

Argumentation is yet another type of essay writing. Scholarship Online Degree

Writing Guide (2010) noted that the function of argumentative essay is to show, that ones

assertion (opinion, theory, hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or

more truthful than others. Proof becomes necessary when disagreement arises over an issue

or principle. This does not in any way negate the fact that some assertions are absolutely

true, devoid of any controversy. The art of argument, according to Ukwuegbu et al (2004),

requires a higher order reasoning, deduction, induction, drawing conclusions and applying

them to the case in discussion. It also requires the operation of inferring propositions not

known or admitted as true from principles and facts known, admitted or proven to be true.

It explains the writers logical reasoning from known to unknown. Since the essay has two

sides of an argument, it requires one to: prove a point, present a viewpoint, and balance the

two sides of the argument (Banjo et al 1997). Continuing, they pointed out that it is

important that a good argument should:

- be devoid of ambiguity. This entails not being controversial,

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- be based on good evidence. It should be based on facts that have been verified,

- not be personalized, but based on issue of the proposition,

- be arranged chronological so as to create coherence, and make for maximum

impression on the reader,

- require higher order reasoning, induction, making inferences and drawing

conclusions.

Narration paints a picture in words that tells what happened to a person, place or

thing. As a mode of imaginary writing, the approach, more than any other, offers writers a

chance to think and write about themselves (Ida et al 1986). A good narrative essay paints a

picture of a story, in such a way that it appears vivid to the reader. Visual knowledge

through mental imagery and visual thinking help in the making of powerful narrations.

Given a topic on narrative essay, teacher guides the students to draw a picture of what

could happen, using as much details as possible. Narrative essay is written in the past

because the story is assumed to have happened. Banjo et al (1997) stated that the story told

in narrative essay could be factual or imaginary, and requires sensory details to get the

reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story.

From the discussion of the different essay types, it does appear that imagery may

guide a writer in writing good essays. For instance, in Ernest Hemingways novel, A

Farewell to Arms, an abundant amount of imagery is used. It is a war novel, and in it, the

mind is a witness to the senses of sight, touch, smell, hearing and taste. All of these senses

in some way connect to the theme that runs through the novel. When Hemingways writing

style is examined in greater detail, one mentally views World War 1 and the effects it

generated.

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Again, in William Shakespeares Macbeth, various types of imagery and symbolism

instances that eventually lead to the downfall of the main character are depicted. Imagery

of all types are used in the novel to emphasize the theme of the story. Mental imagery is

used in expository essays with regard to motor performance, and operation of machines.

Argumentative essay is analytical in nature, and carries a strong message about the

object of argument (Banjo et al, 1997). The argument could result to acceptance or

complete outcast, and a misunderstanding. This especially evokes the five senses positively

or negatively, depending on the object of argument. For instance, clothes could have an

immense impact on the perception of people around, or perception of the persons wearing

them. Clothes people wear are usually very symbolic. Symbolism is a facility that is used to

express feelings.

Descriptive essay is an embodiment of different types of imagery. This is because

descriptive essay should contain enough details to help the reader form mental images of

the subject. For instance, writing a descriptive essay on how the storm blew in evokes the

sense of sound, describing sunset to a blind man evokes the sense of sight, describing an

aroma of coffee evokes the sense of taste, and describing the feel of a babys skin

evokes the sense of touch (Schneider, 2011).

Anderson (2005) showed how an imagery of Africa is created by two different

authors in Courads Heart of Darkness and Buchi Emechetas Destination Biafra. Achebe

(1973) reflected on the human tragedy of the Nigeria civil war in the poem, Christmas in

Biafra. In the poem, Achebe used plain language and stark imagery to create vividness of

the war. This enables those who were not there during the period of the war to have a clear

24

and vivid idea of what the war looked like. Since essays are embodiment of imagery, it has

become necessary to determine the effect of imagery in the writing of good essays.

Article is a written work published in a print or electronic medium. It is also part of

students essay writing examination. The subject of an article runs across all the types of

essay: argumentative, descriptive, and expository and narrative (Green, 2011). It may be

for the purpose of propagating a news, research result, academic analysis or debate. The

only difference is in the formats.

Letter writing is also part of the continuous writing students choose from. It has its

own format, which is different from, essay, but issues in essay could be used in letter

writing. Students are expected to adhere to the rules guiding good essays and basic rules of

grammar. This study is interested in essay writing, since students failure in English

language is partly as a result of poor creative writing. Traditionally, teachers make use of

sample essays in teaching; thereby limiting students own idea and view concerning stories.

Imagery

Imagery is defined by Nguyet (2011) as the ability to form mental images of things

or events. It is the description that appeals to one or more of five senses of sight (visual),

auditory (hearing), gustatory (taste), tactile (touch) and olfactory (smell). Pillai (2012)

defined imagery as a collection of images. It is the usage of details and descriptions in

order to create a sensory experience for the reader. Imagery or images are the elements in a

literary work used to evoke mental images; not only of the visual sense, but of sensation

and emotion as well. In modern philosophy, images are referred to as ideas, and ideas are

mental representations of images. Simpson and Edmund (1998) defined idea as transcript,

25

image, or picture of a visible object that is formed by the mind. It is also a similar image of

any objects whatsoever, whether sensible or spiritual. It is that which exists in the mind as a

result of mental activity, a thought or a concept. Ideas are construed as representational

images. From Image we get imagery, and imagery could be mental or visual.

In Stress-Relief-Tools Com (2011), different types of imagery are identified, and

each of them corresponds with each of the five senses, i.e. visual, auditory, kinesthetic,

olfactory and gustatory. According to it, good imagery engages all the five senses. In visual

imagery, one visualizes for example shapes, oak tree, sailing boat, computer and so on. For

auditory imagery, one imagines for instance, the wind blowing through the trees, the ring of

a telephone, water lapping on a lakeshore. For olfactory imagery, one could conjure up the

following smell: petrol, newly baked bread, or chlorine. Gustatory is taste, and one could

imagine the taste of sugar, salt, banana or lemon. Kinesthetic can be divided into senses of

touch, temperature, movement i.e. activity or feeling of ones body (angry, calm, happy, and

peaceful).

Nguyet (2011) pointed out that imagery falls into two categories: literal or concrete

and figurative or abstract. Concrete imagery is the use of descriptive words that involve

little or no extension beyond its literal meaning. While figurative or abstract imagery is the

language that describes qualities that cannot be perceived with the five senses. Imagery can

be seen in different literary works like essays (prose), poetry and drama. Imagery in poetry

is what the words of the poem make the readers see in their imagination. It is the colors,

sound and sometimes feeling evoked by the poem (wheeler, 2011).

Hall (1998) postulated that in prose writing, the writer should have a strong affinity

towards the person or place written about. It is the writers feelings and release of emotions

26

towards the person or place that will bring the wider sense to take over. This is the secret of

vivid imagery. More so, in drama, imaginary persons inhabit the literary work. Imagery in

drama according to Hall (1998) refers to the pattern of related details; and the story is also

imagery.

Academy for Guided Imagery (2009) equally brought in the idea of guided imagery,

which was referred to as a wide variety of techniques, including simple visualization and

direct suggestion, using imagery, metaphor or story - telling, fantasy exploration, game

playing, and dream interpretation in drawing an active imagination. Here the elements of

the unconscious are invited to appear as images that can communicate with the conscious

mind. This study would make use of guided imagery since the subjects are secondary

school students who are naive on the use of imagery in essay writing. The students will be

guided in the creation of scenes and events for the essays, and in organizing the plots for

the stories.

Imagery has a lot of vital roles to play in learning. Harry (2000) pointed out that

imagery facilitates long-term retention. This retention plays very important role in various

styles of teaching, in problem solving, and in learning of language. Imagery plays

important role in the learning of skills, especially the skill of language concepts, attitude

and values. This role is examined to identify points at which the sensory image becomes

crucial for understanding. The argument was that the arts as learned in general education

are used associatively or explicatively rather than replicatively or applicative. Their

function is to enrich the illusionary base, the store of images and the concepts that qualify

for inclusion in general education.

27

Imagery also plays the role of developing the image-language connection necessary

for accurate reading and comprehension (Katos, 2009). Without text, images cannot be

considered as language. How a learner views an object, text or symbol can affect written

and oral communication. The mental image of what we have seen may at times make

greater impact than auditory input.

Creativity involves two specific types of cognition called janusian and homostadial

processes. Rothenberg (1995) opined that creativity is enhanced through homostadial and

Janusian imagery, the fusion of pictorial stimuli. He supported this through his research

into the superimposition of visual stimuli. This was emphasized by Shepherd (1978) in the

importance of the voluntary manipulation of mental images. He believed that creativity

results from the emergence of an unconscious flow of imaginings.

It has also been discovered that mental imagery enhances athletic performance.

According to Evans (2008), Roger Federer, who is regarded by many as one of the best

athletes of all times makes use of imagery. According to Federer, the secret to his

excellence in tennis is imagery, which he implants into his training regimen. Mental

imagery which is also called visualization and mental rehearsal means forming images in

the mind in the absence of appropriate stimuli. In the creation of events, the person

imagines himself performing in the best of his ability.

Imagery functions as a mediator of self-awareness and it is significant in the

acquisition of self-information (Morin, 1998). It was pointed out that one of the social

mechanisms internally reproduced by some cognitive processes is the opportunity to see

oneself as one is seen by others. It is postulated that imagery internalized this social

28

mechanism because mental images empower us to literally see ourselves acting in given

ways as others could see us acting.

Imagery enhances motivation. Thomas (1999) believed that imagery plays a very

important, even pivotal role in both memory and motivation. According to him, it is

commonly believed to be centrally involved in visual- spatial reasoning and inventive or

creative thought. It also plays a crucial role in all thought processes and provides the

semantic grounding for language. From these roles of imagery, it is undoubtedly clear that

the importance of imagery in learning cannot be over-emphasized.

In this study, it is expected that through the use of imagery in teaching essay

writing, students will be able to learn the skills of English language and form concept

structures, which would enhance creativity. This can be done through a wide range of

classroom activities like use of images during teaching essay writing, guided expression,

students active participation in discussions and use of questions as cues. By so doing,

failure of essay writing in particular and English language in general would have been

reduced.

Gender

Gender is a variable that plays an important role in learning. It refers to the social

attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female. It is varied socially and

culturally constructed roles, qualities and behaviors that are ascribed to women and men of

different societies (Weiss 2001). The UN Office of the Special Advisor on Gender Issues

and Advancement of Women (2000) defined gender as a set of characteristics which

distinguish between males and females. Referring to the theories between male and female

gender, Francis (2010) stated that gender role consists of typical mode of behaviors

29

conceived by the society as norms for both male and female individuals. It further stated

that gender is a primary component of societal gender-sex system where biological and

physiological differences between male and female sexes are given social expressions.

However, Micawber (2010), opined that gender doesnt matter when we talk about

intelligence.

On the other hand the influence of gender on subject and results showed that girls

A-C pass rates exceeded that of boys in almost every subject especially English, design and

technology, modern foreign languages & literature. Girls out-performed boys in recent

years by 9-15% in these subjects (Gender and Subject Choice, 2010). It was argued that

females out-performed males especially in arts and humanities. It also stated that from

sociological points of view, girls on the average have superior linguistic skills than boys.

This was made possible because female are more likely to have been socialized by their

mothers and /or first school teachers to see reading as a feminine activity. They are

socialized also to recognize that securing employment in scientifically based subjects is

mainly for men. Hyde, Fennema and Lamon (1990) pointed out that reviews have

consistently concluded that males perform better in mathematics test than females, but

females outperform in arts and humanities. It is of interest to the researcher to inquire more

on the gender issue in relation to essay writing in English Language of Nigeria students.

Achievement

The two aspects of performance examined in this study are achievement and

interest. In Brainy Quotes (2012), achievement is defined as the act of accomplishing. It is

something accomplished successfully, especially by means of exertion, skill, practice or

perseverance. In essay writing at Senior Secondary School level, achievement is measured

30

by the students ability to achieve the purpose, be it to entertain, instruct, inform, admonish

or persuade.

Achievement is the noun of the verb, achieve. Achievement is measured by

students performance at a single point in time, and how well those students performed

based on a standard. Performance is the noun form of the verb; perform which means to

do, to carry out duty; to act in fulfillment of, and so on. Performance, in the light of this

study conceptualizes what a spoken or written text can bring about in human interaction.

ASPIRE Portal (2012) defined performance as measurement of some output or behavior.

Performance means accomplishment of a given task. Academic performance refers to how

students deal with their studies, and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given

to them by a teacher. Schvaneveldt, Miller and Berry (2001) stated that academic

performance is the ability to study effectively and see how facts fit together and form large

patterns of knowledge; being able to think in relation to facts. While academic achievement

is excellence in all academic disciplines in class as well as extracurricular activities.

Performance and achievement are related to learning because one can only perform what

has been learnt, and achievement is excellent performance.

In this study, the achievement of the students in essay writing was determined

through essay tests.

Interest

Interest is an important variable in learning, for without interest, learning will be

impeded. Philip (2011) defined interest as a state of curiosity or concern about, or

attention to something. It is a mental state evoked by something like quality, subject or

activity. It means to cause someone to become involved in something. Interest-driven

31

learning according to Peet (2010) means learning to do something because you need it in

order to do what you want to do. It means learning to read because one wants to discover

new things through the reading, or create mental pictures of a fantasy world, which

intrigues one.

Interest can also be brought about through reinforcement. Sutton, Richard and

Andrew (1998) stated that this type of interest in learning is shown so as to maximize

notion of cumulative reward. Such interest in learning can be seen in stimulus - based

optimization. Peet (2010) however stated that reinforcement and reward - driven interest in

learning can alter the probability of behaviors that precede them, as Thorndike captured in

his law of effect. Interest can be created in learners, for instance, if one is to close the eyes

and picture ones favorite teacher, one will find out that this is a very skillful way of

captivating ones interest. The power of imagination plays a crucial role in creating interest

in learners. This is called the interest approach, and it is very effective and widely

applicable (Benge and Harder, 2011).

The interest approach believes that learners interests are important in learning, and

that those interests play a critical role in the development of a persons thinking ability

(Benge and Harder, 2011). According to them learners interest existing in any given topic

flows into any other, as soon as a connection between the two is seen. It is therefore

necessary that the interest approach be adopted in teaching essay writing to students

through the power of imagination. This brings about a permanent learning. There appears

to be a connection between imagery and interest in essay writing. In this study, it will be

determined if the use of imagery will bring about enhanced interest of learners in essay

writing.

32

Achievement&

Interest

1. Imagery

Techniques2. Non-Imagery

The relationship between the various variables of the study is articulated in fig. 1

Fig. 1: The Conceptual Framework.

Essay writing is an important aspect of students learning. It is important not only

for success in English Language examination, but for students improved performance in

other subjects, and for one to fit in well into the globalized world. The need for success in

English language calls for techniques and methods to get students to achieve better, and

become interested in essay writing. This is because without interest, learning will not take

place. Essays are embodiments of imageries. To draw the interest needed for success in

essay writing, there is need to evoke the mental images innate in learners, which are not

explored. This may be done through the use of imagery in the teaching of essay writing.

Different techniques of bringing about imagery may lead to differences in achievement and

interest. Gender is another factor that has been implicated in students achievement and

interest.

Theoretical Framework

The following theories are relevant to the study:

33

1. Cognitive theories:

Cognitive load theory; Cognitive theory of multimedia learning;

Visual Perception theory,

- The Dual- Coding theory.

2. Theories of imagery:

- Quasi-Pictorial theory of imagery,

- Enactive theory of perception and imagery,

- Picture theory of reason,

- Theory of motor imagery,

- Visualization theory.

3. Theories of essay writing:

- Popular media and self-identity theory,

- The essay: theory and pedagogy for an active form.

Cognitive Theories

A cognitive theory as pointed out by Cherry (2010) is concerned with the

development of a persons thought process. It looks at how these thought processes

influence the way a person understands and interacts with the world. Fritscher (2009) stated

that the assumption of cognitive theory is that humans are logical beings that make the

choice that make the most sense to them. Pure cognitive theory largely rejects

behaviourism on the basis that behaviourism reduces complex human behaviour to simple

cause and effect (Fristcher, 2009). According to Piaget, the father of cognitive theory, two

major principles guide intellectual growth and biological development: adaptation and

34

organization (Bhattacharya and Han, 2008). For individuals to survive in an environment,

they must have to adapt to physical and mental stimuli. According to Bhattacharya and Han

(2008), assimilation and accommodation are both part of the adoption process. Piagets

organization principle refers to the nature of these adaptive mental structures. He suggested

that the mind is organized in complex and integrated ways. The simplest level being the

schemas, which means a mental representation of some physical or mental action that can

be performed on an object, event or phenomenon.

Sweller and his associates (1988) developed a cognitive theory called cognitive load

theory. The theory was developed out of several empirical studies of learners as they

interact with instructional materials. The theory was designed to provide guideline needed

to assist in the presentation of information to learners, to avoid over-loading or under-

loading the working memory. It is of the idea that our working memory has limited space

for the information it can hold, and the number of operations it can perform on that

information. This means that the learner should be encouraged to use his limited working

memory efficiently, especially when learning difficult task. Instructional designers should

therefore, find ways to help optimize the working memory. The principle of cognitive load

theory therefore is the relationship between the long term memory and the working

memory, and how instructional materials interact with the cognitive system (Ayres, 2006).

Schemas held in long- term memory, and how they are interrelated are described.

According to him, schemas held in long-term memory, acting as a central executive,

directly affect the manner in which information is synthesized in working memory. In the

absence of the schemas, instructional guidance must provide a substitute for learners to

develop own schemas.

35

Sweller explained that there are three types of cognitive load:

- Extraneous cognitive load,

- Intrinsic cognitive load, and

- Germane cognitive load.

Intrinsic cognitive load as described by Chandler and Sweller (1991) is the idea that

all instruction has an inherent difficulty associated with it, an instance is in essay writing.

This inherent difficulty may be altered by an instructor, but many schemas may be broken

into individual sub - schemas and taught in isolation. These bits will later be brought back

together and described as a combined whole.

Extraneous cognitive load, by contrast, is under the control of instructional

designers (Chandler and Sweller, 1988). The cognitive load is generated by the manner the

information is presented to learners i.e. the design. For instance in teaching a narrative

essay, an instructor could ask students to read sample essays, or teach them how to create

pictures of scenes, objects and places in their minds. This second method will go a long

way in making them to be original, and to bare out their minds. The learners do not have to

deal with extraneous, unnecessary information.

Germane cognitive load is the load dedicated to processing, construction and

automation of schemas (Sweller, 1988). Although intrinsic load seems immutable,

instructional designers can limit the amount of extraneous load, and build instructional

presentations and activities that encourage germane load. It does appear that the use of

imagery will decrease both extraneous and germane load, thereby facilitating essay writing.

Mayer (1998) also originated another type of cognitive theory called the cognitive

theory of multimedia learning. This theory very much comes in handy in this study. The

36

principle of the theory of multimedia states that, people learn more deeply from words and

pictures, than from words alone. The idea of this theory is not just adding pictures to words,

but Mayer stated that the goal is to design instructional media in the light of how human

minds work. The theory proposes three main assumptions when it comes to learning with

multimedia:

There are two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information

(sometimes referred to as dual-coding theory);

each channel has limited capacity (similar to Swellers notion of cognitive load),

learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating

information based upon prior knowledge (similar to working memory model).

Mayer noted that humans can only process a finite amount of information in

a channel at a time, and they make sense of incoming information by actively

creating mental representations. The roles of three memory stores were discussed,

thus:

The sensory memory store, receives stimuli and stores it for a very short time,

The working memory is where we actively process information to create mental

constructs,

Long term is the repository of all things learned.

Mayers cognition theory of multimedia learning presents the idea that the brain

does not merely interpret a multimedia presentation of words, pictures, and auditory

information in a mutually exclusive fashion rather these elements are selected and

organized, to produce logical mental constructs. From this theory, we clearly see the design

principle of providing coherent verbal, pictorial information and guiding the learners to

37

select relevant words and images, thereby reducing the load for a single processing

channel.

Visual Perception theory was propounded by Mcleod (2007). The principle of this

theory states that in order to receive information from the environment, we are equipped

with sense organs i.e. eye, ear and nose. Each sense organ is part of a sensory system which

receives sensory inputs, and transmits sensory information to the brain. The sensory inputs

are converted into perceptions of images like houses, trees, cars etc, and into sight, sound,

smell, taste and touch experiences. The perception processes depend on the perceivers

expectations, previous knowledge, and information available in the stimulus itself. Gregory

cited in Mcleod (2007) stated that a lot of information reaches the eye, but much is lost by

the time it gets to the brain. The brain then has to guess what a person sees based on past

experiences. The use of imagery technique may aid the brain to remember the lost

information.

Another theory that has great impact on the education system and on the present

study is the dual-coding theory. The theory was originated by Paivio Allan in 1971. The

emphasis on dual-coding theory, suggests processing of nonverbal and verbal information

in separate, yet specific compartments of the human brain (Sadoski & Paivio, 2001). The

theory precisely states that both visual and verbal information are processed differently and

along distinct channels, with the human mind creating separate representations for

information processed in each channel. Both visual and verbal codes for representing

information are used to organize incoming information into knowledge that can be acted

upon, stored and retrieved for subsequent use. These channels of visual and verbal codes

have limitations. Human beings have difficulty attending to multiple auditory and visual

38

cues simultaneously depending on expertise with the task, or prior knowledge with the

subject areas (Sadoski & Paivio, 1997).

Sadoski & Paivio (2001) stated that mental images are analogue codes, while the

verbal representation of words is symbolic codes. Analogue codes are physical stimuli we

observe in our environment. Paivio and Sadoski stated that these codes, as a form of

knowledge representations retain the main perceptual features of what is being observed.

Symbolic codes, also as a form of knowledge representations are chosen to represent

something arbitrarily, as opposed to perceptually.

The dual-coding theory as proposed by Paivio relates properly to the use of imagery

in instruction. This is because research has shown that memory for some verbal

information is enhanced if relevant visual is also presented, or if the learner can imagine a

visual image to go with the verbal information (Shinrigaku, 2000). In the same vane, visual

information can often be enhanced when paired with relevant verbal information, whether

real world or imagined (Anderson and Bower, 1980). The dual-coding theory also

improves on the dual-route theory of reading (Seidenberg and McClland, 1989). The dual-

route theory states that when reading written information, reader accesses orthographic and

phonological information to recognize words in the reading. Therefore, when writing an

essay the generation of mental images may provide access to both verbal and non-verbal

information, thereby enriching the essay.

Theories of Imagery

There are also theories of imagery that are worth referring to because they relate to

this study. The first of these theories is the quasi-pictorial theory of imagery. The theory

was propounded by Kosslyn in 1980. The principle behind this theory is that a quasi picture

39

or surface representation is constructed in the visual buffer based on description in the long

term memory. The minds eye then analyses it to bring out the required information. The

data, from which images may be constructed, are taken to be stored in the long term

memory in the form of deep representations and propositional description of the visual

scenes. On the basis of this data, pictures are constructed in the mind. When we form a

mental image, a quasi picture is constructed. Visual buffer therefore, is the functionally

defined surface on which quasi-pictures are constructed. This visual buffer acts as a stage

in perceptual visual information processing. Once the quasi-picture is established on the

buffer, it is available to consciousness as an image. The principal function of images in

cognition is to enable ready access to visuo-spatial features and relations that might be hard

to infer from propositional description. The use of imagery technique in teaching essay

writing may provide abundant store of quasi pictures on the buffer for future use as images.

Thomas postulated the Enactive theory of Perception and Imagery in 2010. He is of

the belief that perception is not mere passive receptivity, but a form of action by the

organism. According to him, the perceiving organism is not merely registering, but

exploring and asking question on its environment. The organism is actively and

intentionally seeking out the answer in the sensory stimuli that surrounds it. Imagery is

experienced when one acts the seeking of some particular information even though the

information is not expected to be there. This implies that we have imagery of something

when we go through the motion of looking at something and determining that it is that

thing even though it is not seen (Thomas, 2009). This theory supports imagery in essay

writing, because one can imagine and write a fictitious story, creating images and scenes to

vivify the story.

40

Nyiri propounded another theory, the picture theory of reason in 2001. He

postulated that pictures themselves do not have any meaning. They acquire meaning by

being put to specific uses, and by being applied to specific contexts. It then implies that

pictures make no meaning without verbal interpretation, and they help to create mental

pictures. Nyiri argued that visual symbols are very important in aiding a learner to create

images. By visual symbols, the theorist meant mental images as well as public pictures,

diagrams and models. Nyiri particularly aimed at demonstrating that the growing

abundance and increasing easy production of pictures on the screen radically improve the

capability to develop theories of visual imagery. It also helped to develop an understanding

of the central role of images in our cognitive economy. The theory equally supports

imagery in easy writing. As learners conjure up pictures of verbal processes, so also should

learners of essay writing conjure up pictures of the stories to be written in essays.

Mahoney and Avener originated the motor imagery theory in 1987. The principle behind

the theory is that imagery rehearsal duplicates the actual motor pattern that is being

rehearsed. Motor imagery is defined as a dynamic state during which an individual

mentally simulates a given action. This implies that the subject feels herself/himself

performing the action (Decety & Jeannerod, 1996). Again, stories imagined and mentally

rehearsed become easier to write as essay. This corresponds to the so called internal

imagery of sport psychologist. Motor imagery is widely used in sports training and has also

been employed as a research paradigm in cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology

to investigate the content and the structure of covert processes that go before the execution

of action (Decety and Ingvar, 1990).

41

Visualization is the ability to make images within the minds eye. Peryer originated

a visualization theory in 2010. The idea of this theory is that one can imagine mental

images with or without visual pictures, and plot stories in the mind with the images which

belong to one alone. People constantly make images of their aspirations, dreams, problems,

studies, and people we like and dislike. The minds ability to visualize is utilized in a

number of different fields such as sports psychology, goal attainment, healing and various

types of therapeutic work. According to Russel in Peryer (2010), it is through imagination

that men become aware of what the world might be. Imagination can also be called

visualization. According to the visualization theory, we often think in pictures, just as we

dream in pictures, and then use words as symbols to enable us communicate or describe

those pictures. Visualization is the basis of creativity and imagination, and is used when

plotting a story. It is like watching a movie in ones mind, a movie created by ones

imagination. Picture technique produces realistic images, but visualization technique

produces both realistic and fictional images (Harvey and Goudvis, 2006). In as much as

pictures can bring about visualization, it is the intention of the researcher to compare the

effectiveness of the use of pictures and questioning in creativity. It is therefore important to

encourage learners of essay writing to explore their potentials through the use of imagery.

The researcher intends to apply the picture theory of reason and the visualization

theory in this study because of their simplistic nature.

Theories of Essay Writing

The popular media and self - identity theory was propounded by David Gauntlett a

Professor of media and audiences 2004. This is another new approach in support of

imagery use in essay writing. Gauntlett (2004), explained his work with new creative

42

research methods, outlining some of the philosophy behind it, and discussing particular

case studies. Gauntlett postulated that visual expression and visual materials can be used in

a very planned and careful way to express clear thoughts. According to him, with visual

expression, one can put down lots of write-ups. In language usage, things have to be put

into certain order with connecting words. Certain ideas have to come before others, those

that come first having a link or causal relationship with later ones. From what Gauntlett

wrote, meanings are made in the minds of individuals, in their encounter with persons,

things and events. In essay writing therefore, the use of imagery technique may evoke the

pictures created in the mind of learners, thereby helping them to write good essays.

Theory and pedagogy for an active form was propounded by Heiker (2000). The

theory calls for re-examination of the traditional foundation of composition instruction. It

traced the origin of the essay in the 16th

century, and then examined the 20th

century

theories of the form to illustrate what constitutes the fundamental qualities of the essay.

The theory argues that we can only have one thought in our heads at a time; one thought

leads to another, and time flows in only one direction. This leads to writing that is well

developed and well ordered, consistent and methodical.

43

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia

Dual Coding Theory

Theories of Imagery

Theories of Essay Writing

Achievement in Essay Writing

Fig. 2: Theoretical Framework

Fig. 2 shows the relationship among the relevant theories. Close study of these groups of

theories: cognitive theory of multi-media, theories of imagery and theories of essay writing

brings out clearly one important thing. They advocate the use of imagery technique in

instructions in general and essay writing in particular hence, the need to find out the effect

of imagery in essay writing. Essay writing demands that people be imaginative. Imagining

can be facilitated by imagery technique which helps one to create pictures of events. Since

pictures are worth more than thousands words, meanings can be made out of them, and this

would facilitate learning. This process relates to dual coding theory of processing verbal

and visual information in separate but synergistic channels. Memory for some verbal

information is enhanced if relevant visual is also presented.

Empirical Studies

Wu, Yan (2008) in a study on Affordance of external representation in instructional design:

the Effect of Narrative and Imagery in learning, examined the primary functions of

44

narrative, and the relationship between narrative and mental imagery. The study proposed a

new framework to interpret semiotic resources. The study developed in the empirical

inquiry, a latent construct method to empirically test the effect of narrative in a real

learning situation. Data were collected from 190 library professionals who enrolled in three

sections (two in narrative and one in plain text) of an online course administered through

vista 4.0, and who completed the course and responded to several instruments. Essay data

(n=82 x 2) were analyzed using content analysis based on the narrative analysis framework

developed. The findings support the hypothesis about the functional effects of narrative

identified, and narrative is found to provide a favourable and positive learning context.

In order to investigate whether imagery has any relationship with recall,

comprehension and appreciation, (Sadoski, 1985), students were asked to read aloud stories

from basal readers, and then perform several comprehension and recall tasks, including

reporting any mental images they spontaneously experienced. Students from 3rd

, 4th

and 5th

grades were used in the study. In this study, oral reading miscues increased significantly.

During the story event, imagery was reported, confirming theoretical predictions that

intensive mental visualization may interfere with visual processing of print, and providing a

physiological correlate for the imagery report. In neither study were imagery report related

to standardized tests, cloze tests, or multiple-choice questions on the story. It was

discovered that imagery of a key event in the story was related to total recall and to deeper

level of comprehension such as recognition of the story theme. This study serves as a

sample of some key work and also provides a base for further study and research. It is

therefore important to find out if imagery of key events, scenes and persons in the students

essay may be recalled by the use of imagery technique in teaching essay writing.

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One of the purposes of Pressley (1976) study was to find out the effect of imagery

on recall of stories. He used a class setting of third grade students for the study. The

experimental groups were given practice on constructing images for progressively longer

prose passages (sentences, paragraphs and stories); and were shown slides depicting good

examples of images for the passages. The control groups were told to do whatever they

could to remember, and were not shown the slides. Both groups then read 950 words with

alternating printed and blank passages. The imagery group was reminded regularly to form

images on the blank pages, and the control group was reminded regularly to do whatever

they could to remember when they saw the blank pages. When the result was analyzed, the

imagery group outperformed the control group on a 24- item short answer test. The

weakness of this study is the constant reminding of the children to form images. Images

should be unconsciously formed. From the result of this study, imagery helped the students

to recall the stories. The use of imagery technique in teaching creative writing might also

help students to recall stories to be written in essays.

In Gambrell (1982) study, there were two control groups and two imagery or

experimental groups. The purpose was to determine the effect of mental images on recall.

The students were given short stories to read in segments. Before each segment, students

involved in the experiment, first and third grade students were told to make pictures in their

minds to help remember. The control groups were told to think about what they read in

order to remember it. After reading each segment, the students were asked a prediction

question. Their responses were scored for factual accuracy and number of accurate

predictions. In the result, the third graders in the imagery reported twice as many facts, and

made twice as many accurate predictions as controls. First grade imagery also out-

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performed control on both measures, but the differences were not statistically significant.

The reason for the lack of significance in difference, according to Gambrell is that, with

beginning readers, the burden of verbal processing may inhibit simultaneous formation of

images. The use of imagery technique in teaching creative writing could as well produce

better essay students.

In Long, Winograd, and Bridge (1989) study, fifth graders were used to determine

the relationship between imagery, interest and comprehension. The authors used think-

aloud methodology, and found out that imagery was spontaneously reported at 60 percent

of the think-aloud stops for a poem, a story and two exposition texts taken from school

reading materials for fifth graders. Using an individual difference measure, student had

been identified as high or low imagers. Imagery was reported by both groups at text points

predicted to evoke imagery such as sensory descriptions and passages containing figurative

languages, and at other points including climaxes. The researcher found no relationships

between reported imagery and performance on multiple-choice comprehension or

vocabulary tests. This shows that these other aspects were insensitive to the imaginary

mode of comprehension. The study also concluded that mental imagery occurs as a

spontaneous and consistent process in reading, and that imagery has relationship with

interest in reading. In the result, imagery has relationship with interest in reading.

Probably, the use of imagery technique in teaching essay writing may arouse the students

interest in essay writing.

Chen, Jung, Chang & Cheng, (2009) carried out a study to determine the anxiety

levels and the cognitive load while engaging in English listening and comprehension task.

The study explored the relationship among three variables: cognitive load, foreign language

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anxiety, and task performance. The authors of the study hypothesized that anxiety

consumes the resources of working memory, leaving less capacity for cognitive activities,

and meaning effectiveness. 88 non-English major students were used as participants. The

students enrolled in a 4-year program at a technical university in Taiwan. The foreign

language classroom anxiety scale was employed to examine their anxiety levels; while

cognitive load subject rating scale was used to measure their cognitive load while

engaging in an English listening comprehension task. The results clearly showed that the

students with higher foreign language anxiety also incurred a higher cognitive load.

Foreign language anxiety and cognitive load were in negative correlation with listening

comprehension. Students, who experienced more anxiety, incurred a heavier cognitive load

and received lower test scores. For learning to be effective therefore, teachers should

identify anxiety situations and provide supportive learning environment, so that learners

can devote their complete working memory resources to the learning tasks.

Libby, Schaeffer, Slemmer and Ebibach (2007), conducted a research using 146

Ohio state students, all of whom were registered voters. The students were asked to picture

themselves voting the next day from a third person visual perspective, as if they were

observers viewing their actions. Others were asked to see themselves voting in the first

person through their own eyes. They were then asked a series of questions designed to

assess their selfperspective as voters. 90% who imagined themselves voting from third

person perspective later reported that they did actually vote the next day, while 72% of

those who imagined themselves voting from first person perspective voted. Research

findings on visual imagery technique during the voting exercise then showed that registered

voters who used a simple visual imagery technique the evening before the 2004 election in

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Ohio were significantly more likely to vote the next day (Science daily, 2006). This relates

to the visual perspective people take when they imagine themselves creating images for

essays.

Silverstein, Ora, Tamir and Pinchas (1993) in the study on learning of Biology by

means of unguided viewing of television using two different symbol systems, discovered

that viewing television broadcasting presenting biological concepts resulted in significant

improvement in knowledge. By this result, the statement by literature on the psychology of

learning, that intelligent learning is the formation of concepts structures communicated and

manipulated by means of symbols is confirmed. Again, intelligent learning of essay writing

by formation of concept structures, creation of scenes and events for writing good narrative

essays could be acquired by the use of imagery technique.

Uzoegwu (1995) carried out a study on the effect of guided and non guided essay

teaching methods on students performance. Four schools, two boys and two girls schools

were used from Nsukka Urban Location. The researcher used essay writing test as

instrument for data collection. The findings of the study were that, there were significant

differences in the mean performance of students taught essay writing using guided and non-

guided methods. Moreover, there was no significant interaction between the teaching

method and gender on students performance in essay writing. Guided essay teaching

method was involved in this study. Since it had significance difference in the mean

performance of students, it may also have positive effect when used with imagery

technique.

Engelhard, Belita, and Stephen (1992) investigated the influence of mode of

discourse, experiential demand and gender on quality of students writing. Eight grade

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students who participated in statewide assessment of writing in 1989/1990 were used in the

study. Eighteen writing tasks were administered, classified by mode (narrative, descriptive

and expository) and by experiential demand (direct experience, imagined experience and

outside knowledge). A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted using five

dependent variables to assess writing quality (content, organization, style, sentence

formation, usage and mechanics) and three independent variables (mode of discourse,

experiential demand and gender). The result suggested that mode of discourse; experiential

demand and gender are significant predictors of writing quality. However, narrative writing

task elicited the highest rating, followed by descriptive and expository writing tasks. The

quality of writing was more highly rated for females than for males, although not very

significant. From the result, it shows that narrative writing could be written from direct

experience, received information and is an embodiment of imagination.

Summary of Literature Review

The literature reviewed so far has shown the importance of English Language, as

Language of the press, communication, commerce and education. It is one of the most

important subjects in the post primary school curriculum in Nigeria. For success in English

Language, student should be able to perform well in