Factors influencing tthe planning of Agricultural Enterprises · 1.2 Soil status As part of the...

LLeeaarrnneerr GGuuiiddee PPrriimmaarryy AAggrriiccuullttuurree

FFaaccttoorrss iinnfflluueenncciinngg

tthhee ppllaannnniinngg ooff AAggrriiccuullttuurraall EEnntteerrpprriisseess

NQF Level: 3 US No: 116214

The availability of this product is due to the financial support of the National Department of Agriculture and the AgriSETA. Terms and conditions apply.

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Commodity: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Interpret Factors Influencing Agricultural Enterprises and Plan Accordingly

Primary Agriculture NQF Level 3 Unit Standard No: 116214 22

Version: 01 Version Date: July 2006

BBeeffoorree wwee ssttaarrtt…… Dear Learner - This Learner Guide contains all the information to acquire all the knowledge and skills leading to the unit standard:

Title: Interpret Factors Influencing Agricultural Enterprises and Plan Accordingly

US No: 116214 NQF Level: 3 Credits: 3

The full unit standard will be handed to you by your facilitator. Please read the unit standard at your own time. Whilst reading the unit standard, make a note of your questions and aspects that you do not understand, and discuss it with your facilitator.

This unit standard is one of the building blocks in the qualifications listed below. Please mark the qualification you are currently doing:

Title ID Number NQF Level Credits Mark

National Certificate in Animal Production 49048 3 120

National Certificate in Plant Production 49052 3 120

This Learner Guide contains all the information, and more, as well as the activities that you will be expected to do during the course of your study. Please keep the activities that you have completed and include it in your Portfolio of Evidence. Your PoE will be required during your final assessment.

WWhhaatt iiss aasssseessssmmeenntt aallll aabboouutt?? You will be assessed during the course of your study. This is called formative assessment. You will also be assessed on completion of this unit standard. This is called summative assessment. Before your assessment, your assessor will discuss the unit standard with you.

Assessment takes place at different intervals of the learning process and includes various activities. Some activities will be done before the commencement of the program whilst others will be done during programme delivery and other after completion of the program.

The assessment experience should be user friendly, transparent and fair. Should you feel that you have been treated unfairly, you have the right to appeal. Please ask your facilitator about the appeals process and make your own notes.

Are you enrolled in a: Y N

Learnership?

Skills Program?

Short Course?

Please mark the learning program you are enrolled in:

Your facilitator should explain the above concepts to you.




Your activities must be handed in from time to time on request of the facilitator for the following purposes:

The activities that follow are designed to help you gain the skills, knowledge and attitudes that you need in order to become competent in this learning module.

It is important that you complete all the activities, as directed in the learner guide and at the time indicated by the facilitator.

It is important that you ask questions and participate as much as possible in order to play an active roll in reaching competence.

When you have completed all the activities hand this in to the assessor who will mark it and guide you in areas where additional learning might be required.

You should not move on to the next step in the assessment process until this step is completed, marked and you have received feedback from the assessor.

Sources of information to complete these activities should be identified by your facilitator.

Please note that all completed activities, tasks and other items on which you were assessed must be kept in good order as it becomes part of your Portfolio of Evidence for final assessment.

EEnnjjooyy tthhiiss lleeaarrnniinngg eexxppeerriieennccee!!




HHooww ttoo uussee tthhiiss gguuiiddee …… Throughout this guide, you will come across certain re-occurring “boxes”. These boxes each represent a certain aspect of the learning process, containing information, which would help you with the identification and understanding of these aspects. The following is a list of these boxes and what they represent:

MMyy NNootteess …… You can use this box to jot down questions you might have, words that you do not understand,

instructions given by the facilitator or explanations given by the facilitator or any other remarks that

will help you to understand the work better.

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What does it mean? Each learning field is characterised by unique terms and definitions – it is important to know and use these terms and definitions correctly. These terms and definitions are highlighted throughout the guide in this manner.

You will be requested to complete activities, which could be group activities, or individual activities. Please remember to complete the activities, as the facilitator will assess it and these will become part of your portfolio of evidence. Activities, whether group or individual activities, will be described in this box.

Examples of certain concepts or principles to help you contextualise them easier, will be shown in this box.

The following box indicates a summary of concepts that we have covered and offers you an opportunity to ask questions to your facilitator if you are still feeling unsure of the concepts listed.




WWhhaatt aarree wwee ggooiinngg ttoo lleeaarrnn??

What will I be able to do? .....................................................……………………… 6

Learning outcomes …………………………………………………………………………… 6

What do I need to know? .................................................…..……………………… 7

Session 1 Natural resources required for production of crops................ 8

Session 2 Farming infrastructure............................................…………….. 22

Session 3 Stock required for the relevant enterprise.........................…… 28

Session 4 Crop production procedures………………………………………….. 39

Session 5 Harvesting crops………………..……………………………………….. 50

Session 6 Post harvest procedures....…………………………………………… 59

Glossary.................................................................................... 65

Am I ready for my test? ........................................................... 66

Checklist for Practical assessment.......................................... 67

Paperwork to be done.............................................................. 68

Bibliography............................................................................. 68

Terms and conditions ………………………………………………….. 69

Acknowledgements.................................................................. 70

SAQA Unit Standards




WWhhaatt wwiillll II bbee aabbllee ttoo ddoo?? When you have achieved this unit standard, you will be able to:

Qualifying learners are capable of interpreting the factors influencing agricultural enterprises and enterprise selection and production, and of planning accordingly.

In addition, they will be well positioned to extend their learning and practice into other areas of agriculture, specifically crop production and animal production systems.

This training will benefit the profession by equipping learners with adequate skills to have input into the interpretation of factors influencing enterprise selection and to production planning to improve productivity and performance.

Learners will understand the importance of the application of business principles in agricultural production with specific reference to enterprise planning.

They will be able to operate farming practices as businesses and will gain the knowledge and skills to move from a subsistence orientation to an economic orientation in agriculture. Farmers will gain the knowledge and skills to access mainstream agriculture through a business-orientated approach to agriculture.

LLeeaarrnniinngg OOuuttccoommeess At the end of this learning module, you must is able to demonstrate a basic knowledge and understanding of:

Role and function of soil and water samples, weather information, vegetation, infrastructure, livestock and crop characteristics, production cycles, records, markets, health and hygiene within production procedures.

Description, characteristics and properties of vegetation, infrastructure, weather, production cycles, markets within production procedures.

Livestock and crop characteristics.

Regulations and legislation related to production procedures.

Relationship of outcomes within unit standards in relation to each other and within production procedures.

Purpose is to ensure that the learner is able to consider all factors when deciding on what enterprise to establish.

Literacy and numeracy skills.

Communication and reporting skills.

Understand the procedures and principles that are followed to determine the viability of an enterprise.




WWhhaatt ddoo II nneeeedd ttoo kknnooww?? It is expected of the learner attempting this unit standard to demonstrate competence against the unit standard:

NQF 2: 116081, Identify and recognise factors influencing agricultural enterprise selection

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SSeessssiioonn 11

NNaattuurraall rreessoouurrcceess rreeqquuiirreedd ffoorr pprroodduuccttiioonn ooff ccrrooppss

After completing this session, you should be able to: SO 1: Interpret and categorise natural resources required for production of crops

11..11 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn Before one selects the area where you intend establishing a new farming enterprise, a number of issues have to be considered. Apart from the inherent production potential of the land, the effects that the practices and preparation will have on the natural environment must be determined.

A risk assessment has to be undertaken to determine whether the site or area in question is suitable for food production with regards to crop quality, food safety, worker health and safety and the environment.

Where risks are identified, an action plan must be drawn up to indicate which correcting strategies must be implemented. Factors that should be taken into account include soil, water, climate, vegetation, topography, location relative to markets, access on farm development logistics, farm layout etc.

11..22 SSooiill ssttaattuuss As part of the planning process, soils need to be characterized and soil-maps prepared that indicate the difference in soil types across the farm. Land preparation techniques can then be selected with the aim of maintaining soil structure and avoiding soil erosion. As part of the characterization, the soil fertility status can also be determined and a fertilisation programme be developed.

SSooiill SSuurrvveeyy

The first step in determining the suitability of fields for the production of a specific crop is to conduct a soil survey, examining the physical characteristics of the soil. The aim of a soil survey is to determine the degree to which a soil profile may deviate from the ideal profile required for your specific crop. Then one can determine the factors that must be rectified and how this can be done.




To conduct a soil survey, profile holes are dug on a grid pattern to cover all the fields as well as possible variation across a single field. The more heterogeneous the soil i.e. the more the soil varies across the area; the more profile holes will be required. One profile hole should not represent more than one or two hectares.

The following data should be recorded for each profile:

• Appearance, nature, depth and thickness of layers; • Presence of restricting layers in the upper 100cm; • Presence of stones, gravel and concretions; • Presence of internal drainage; • Lateral movement of clay water and salts; • Presence of symptoms of poor drainage; • Soil Parent material; • Potential Rooting depth; • Compaction • Structure

A soil survey is normally done by specialised soil scientists who will compile a report on the soil structure and texture. The report will include a soil map and a recommendation on soil preparation requirement for the specific crop. The specialist will normally also include recommendations for the specific crop you intend to produce. Such recommendations may not apply to all crops.

Soil samples for chemical analysis are normally taken in conjunction with the soil survey for evaluation and to establish the soil nutritional status. Such analyses will determine the chemical amelioration required for the crop.

SSooiill PPrreeppaarraattiioonn

Soil preparation, or profile modification, is an expensive process that can only be justified if there is a possibility to reclaim such costs. In the production of blueberries, a soil with high organic carbon content is required. This is costly, as in the most cases, additional organic matter has to be incorporated into the soil. Preparing soil for blue berries will be worth its while as these costs are recouped in time. The success of soil preparation is measured by the health and volume of the root system, the size of the leaf canopy and the volume of the crop.

The volume of the root system is directly related to the size of the leaf canopy. Proper soil preparation will therefore ensure that the trees in a newly planted orchard will fill its allotted space in the orchard in the shortest possible time.

AAiimmss ooff SSooiill PPrreeppaarraattiioonn

Chemical and physical profile modification include elements such as homogeneity, depth, bulk density, air content, pH, phosphorous and cations.

The soil profile can be modified in such a way that a homogenous layer is created. Differences in texture can be changed by partially mixing the different soil layers found on top of each other in a single field (by ploughing deep) to make it more acceptable for root penetration. The cultivation depth should be between 60cm and




70cm so that the effective root depth will be at least 50cm after the soil has settled again.

The chemical conditions in the profile can also be rectified most effectively during soil preparation. A chemical analysis will indicate how much fertiliser, such as lime, gypsum, super phosphate and potassium, should be added.

SSooiill PPrreeppaarraattiioonn MMeetthhooddss

The method of soil preparation depends on the occurrence of factors which will restrict root penetration. The most important factors are:

• Sequence of layers; • Depth of restrictions; • Nature of the restriction; • Internal drainage; • Texture of the layers; • Structural stability; and • Compacted layers

The most commonly used soil preparation methods are mixing and loosening, or ripping.

Mixing

Mixing is used when the soil survey indicates that a homogeneous rooting zone must be created. The other reason for mixing may be to incorporate the chemicals and fertilisers to optimise the chemical composition of the soil.

Loosening

Compacted soil may require loosening. A ripper-type plough can be used to loosen soil. Loosening is therefore referred to as ripping because of the use of a ripping tine.

Environmental Conditions for Soil Preparation

The water content of the soil during the preparation process is important and should be at about 50% of free water capacity (field capacity). If the profile is too wet, the tine or shear of the implement will only slice the soil and cause undesirable compacted clods along the contact area with the shear, referred to as smear action. If the profile is too dry, the soil will break up into large clods, which is also undesirable. Sandy soil should be prepared under drier conditions though.

Soil Preparation Machinery and Equipment

There have been many developments in the field of suitable implements for soil preparation. The equipment was developed to either mix and loosen, or only loosen the soil, depending on the specific requirement. The requirements for most of these implements are that they must be able to cultivate to at least




60cm soil depth and that the tractor, pulling the implement, must run on unprepared soil.

Other aspects that must be borne in mind in selecting implements are:

• The effective working depth of a tine is determined by deducting 20% of the tine length from the total length of the tine.

• The lower tip of the tine or shear almost invariably creates a sharp, compacted transition layer.

• The deeper the cultivation, the deeper the roots penetration. However, the deeper the cultivation the higher the cost of cultivation.

• If a wheel must run on prepared soil the cultivator must run over it. • Crawler tractors transfer approximately 90% of the tractors mass to the

drawbar, 2x2 wheel tractors approximately 75% and two-wheel tractors only 50%.

• A triangular wing fixed to the tip of the ripping tine will assist in lifting the soil, thereby improving the loosening process.

CChheemmiiccaall SSooiill PPrrooppeerrttiieess

Chemical soil properties include those associated with its nutritional status, the soil salinity and the soil pH or the degree of acidity.

In practice, it is easier and cheaper to add something to the soil than to remove anything in order to improve the chemical soil properties. It is for example much cheaper to add nutrient elements through fertilisation than it is to leach out excess salts.

Soils are seldom chemically homogeneous and also often change with depth. It is therefore essential to determine at what depth an undesirable chemical condition occurs. This applies particularly to the pH of the sub-soil. The undesirable chemically condition turn out to be less suitable in soil, the closer it is found to the surface. It is for this reason that soil samples are taken at various depths in the profile pit when a soil survey is conducted.

Total Salt Content

The total salt content is expressed as the resistance, in ohms per cm (Ω/cm), of a soil paste, or the specific conductivity, in milli-siemens per meter (mS/m), of a saturated sample. The table below provides an example of the general norms against which a soil can be evaluated for total salt content of soils for citrus production.




Suitability

Good Fair Poor Clay

Content (%) Resistance

(Ω/cm) Conductivity

(mS/cm) Resistance


(mS/cm) Resistance


(mS/cm)

Less than 10%

>700 <60 450-700 60-90 <450 >90

10%-20% >600 <80 350-600 80-130 <350 >130

20%-30% >500 <90 250-500 90-150 <250 >150

It is important to establish why the salt content of soil that is considered “fairly suitable” is high, as it may be possible to improve this at a relatively low cost. Being aware of the causes will also assist in developing production practices that will take this into account.

Sometimes suitability can be improved by relatively cheap methods, but even if it is possible, it remains a risk to plant citrus in such soil, unless it can be economically improved. To reclaim saline soil is usually very expensive.

pH

The acidity or alkalinity is measured as the pH of soil, using a pH scale, ranging from 1 to 14. A low pH value indicates a higher percentage of acid the soil. In practice, soil with a pH value of 6.0 to 7.5 (when water is used for a suspension) is classified as neutral. Soils with a pH value above 7.5 is classified as alkaline and those with a value below 6.0 as acid. Citrus can be grown successfully in soils with a wide range of pH values. However, the ideal pH is about 7.0.

The conditions in acid soils are favourable for heavy metal toxicity and phosphate fixation. Such soils contain high concentration of aluminium and manganese in solution. Aluminium in particular, is very phytotoxic, meaning toxic to plants and detrimental to root growth. Acid soils are normally well-leached, containing small amounts of basic cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium.

Acid soils can be reclaimed by liming. Liming materials must be thoroughly mixed with the soil and incorporated as deep as possible into the root-zone during soil preparation before planting.

At the other end of the pH scale, we find alkaline soils. High pH values are normally associated with high salt concentrations. Alkaline conditions result in a complex chemical situation with reduced availability of metal elements such as zinc, manganese, copper and iron.

Acidification of alkaline soils is possible, but seldom economically feasible. It can be accomplished commercially by applying acidifying nitrogen fertilisers such as ammonium Sulphate, sulphur, iron Sulphate and aluminium Sulphate, but this is




an expensive process. It is far better to adapt cultivation practices to prevent an increase in pH and an accumulation of salt.

Chloride, Boron and Sodium

Apart from the influence of total salts, high concentrations of elements such as chloride, boron and sodium interfere with the absorption of other elements and may become phytotoxic.

Chloride is the main form in which chlorine occurs in the soil. Although it is a nutrient element, it is of greater significance in practice for the detrimental effect of high concentrations on plant nutrition and soil properties. Fertilisers that contain chloride must be applied with due regard to the type of crop and the condition of the soil.

Boron is an essential element, but easily reaches toxic levels. Fertilisers that contain boron must also be applied with care.

Sodium is also a plant nutrient which, similar to chloride, is of greater significance on account of the problems it causes when it’s concentrations in the soil and water reach excessive levels. High concentrations of sodium in the soil interfere with the absorption of other cations, weaken the soil structure and bring about high pH levels. The side-effects of poor soil structure and high pH levels can be devastating and could render production practically impossible.

Sodium accumulation in soil is brought about by poor drainage and the use of water with high sodium content. Reclamation of sodium Stalinised soils is expensive and impractical in most cases.

11..33 WWaatteerr qquuaalliittyy Aspects of water quality that influence crop production include the concentration of specific ions and their ratios relative to each other. The following have the most decisive influence on water quality:

• Total dissolved salts; • Sodium adsorption ratio; • Concentration of boron and chloride; and • Bicarbonate concentration in relation to calcium and magnesium

TToottaall DDiissssoollvveedd SSaallttss ((TTDDSS))

Natural water contains a certain quantity of salts in solution. The quantity can be measured in terms of mg per litre, but also indirectly by means of the specific electrical conductivity (EC).

Crops differ greatly in their sensitivity to salt concentrations in the irrigation water. Crops such as Citrus are generally considered as salt sensitive.

The table below provides an example of the influence of Salt Concentration on Ruby red grapefruit. It provides details on the influence of salt concentrations in water on leaf drop and scorch for this crop.




Total Dissolved

Salts (TDS) (Mg/l)

Electrical Conductivity

(EC) (mS/m)

Sodium Chloride concentration

(NaCl) (Mg/l)

Incidence of Leaf Scorch

Number of Leaves Dropped

per Tree

1,000 156 500 Slight 1,000 1,600 250 1,000 Reasonable 1,800 2,300 360 1,500 Bad 5,800 3,500 550 2,000 Very Bad 7,000

The higher the TDS in the water, the more salts are to be applied during irrigation and the greater the potential for soil Salinisation. The soil salt content is closely related to the salt content of water.

During irrigation a certain amount of salts is also applied. During evaporation and water absorption by plants these salts may also become concentrated in soil. If subsequent irrigation does not remove some of these salts through leaching, a situation can develop in which the high salt concentration restricts production.

Leaching Requirement versus Salt Content

The table below provides information on the leaching requirement against the salt content of water to affect 90% and 100% production. As an example we use an EC of 125 mS/m. In order to achieve 100 % production, 17 % additional irrigation will have to be applied to allow for sufficient leaching of the salts. To ensure 90% of the normal production, 12 % additional water will be required.

Leaching Requirement (LR)(%) Electrical Conductivity

(mS/m) 100%

Production 90%

Production

75 10 7

100 13 9

125 17 12

150 21 15

175 26 18

200 31 21

225 36 24

250 42 27

275 48 31

300 55 35

It is essential that the quality of irrigation water is known so that the leaching requirement can be determined and provision be made for an additional volume of




water to accommodate leaching. Leaching is a necessary loss and management can influence the production appreciably. This aspect is also crucial for fertigation where fertiliser is applied through the irrigation water as mismanagement can cause high salt concentrations.

In the table below guidelines are given for the evaluation of irrigation water. It shows the values for total dissolved salts and electrical conductivity in terms of the possibility of soil Salinisation.

Total Dissolved Salts

(TDS) (Mg/l)

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

(mS/m)

Potential for Salinisation

0-150 0-25 None 151-500 26-75 Minor

501-1,500 76-225 Reasonable 1,500+ 225+ Major

SSooddiiuumm AAddssoorrppttiioonn RRaattiioo ((SSAARR))

An excess of sodium has a harmful effect on soil structure and also adversely affects water infiltration, aeration and root growth. It is necessary to determine the ratio of the concentration of sodium to that of calcium and magnesium, which is the sodium adsorption ratio. The sodium adsorption ratio will increase in proportion to the increase of sodium and therefore increase the possibility of salinization.

The sodium adsorption ratio and total dissolved salts are used jointly to classify water with regard to its suitability for use for irrigation.

BBoorroonn,, CChhlloorriiddee aanndd IIrroonn

Boron toxicity is experienced when irrigation water contains more than 1mg boron (B) per litre.

Chloride levels are assessed as follows:

• Less than 1.5 milli equivalent chloride per litre (me Cl/litre) for chloride free farming practices such as tobacco cultivation and production of beans, peas and lettuce

• Less than 3.0me/litre for most crops including citrus • Less than 5.0me/litre for chloride resistant crops such as Lucerne, barley and

beetroot

Another dissolved salt in water which can create problems is iron (Fe). At the relatively low concentration of 0.5 mg/litre, iron can cause blockages of small jets and drippers.

BBiiccaarrbboonnaatteess

When bicarbonates are exposed to the atmosphere, they carbonate and form insoluble salts with calcium and magnesium. Consequently, the concentrations of




calcium and magnesium fall and the concentration of sodium increases. The sodium adsorption ratio therefore increases because sodium carbonate is soluble.

11..44 CClliimmaattee The main climatic requirements for crops often form the basis of the decisions regarding area and cultivar to be planted. This decision will be based on a crop by crop basis and the requirements of individual crops need to be considered. In the case of citrus, higher quality fruit are produced in subtropical environments than in tropical environments. In the case of specialist crops such as Blueberries, significant cold winters are required to promote bud break, which will therefore determine a suitable area.

Annual crops, on the other hand, will produce at different times during the year, depending on the climate. In the Western Cape for instance, strawberries are produced from about January, whereas production will only start in June in the Brits area.

Growing certain crops in tropical regions may be complicated as the lack of a well defined summer / winter will result in blossoming taking place over an extended period of time, which in its turn, can influence the compliance of spray programs and also increases the harvest period.

In South Africa with its diverse climates, a wide range of cultivars are produced within a specific crop (e.g. potatoes and maize), allowing for such crops to be produced in almost all the provinces and throughout the entire year. Growers\farmers must therefore ensure that the correct cultivar is planted to suite that area.

CClliimmaattiicc FFaaccttoorrss IInnfflluueenncciinngg CCrroopp PPrroodduuccttiioonn

The climatic factors that play the most important role in enterprise selection are:

• Temperature • Day length and light • Rainfall and humidity • Wind • Hail • Temperature

Temperature is the single most important factor influencing crop production as it interacts with moisture and various other external and internal factors to influence all growth processes.

The concept of “heat units” outlines a broad measure of the energy budget available to plants. Heat units are therefore an index of the degree of day summations above a base temperature. The base temperature is the minimum growth temperature for a specific crop. Base temperatures vary, depending on the crop type. In the case of Citrus the base temperature is 13°C. Heat unit accumulation is strongly correlated




with growth rate and crop quality, provided that water and nutrients are not limiting factors. These units are used mostly for crops grown outdoors and over extended period time of.

Heat units (HU) can be calculated by adding the difference between the average monthly temperature and the base temperature and dividing this by the time period.

If we assume a base temperature of 13°C and a 30 day period this would be:

HU= (average monthly temperature – 13) x 30 days/30 days (month)

The heat units of different areas can be compared with known criteria for various cultivars, thereby helping to determine the climatic suitability of a specific area.

The criteria for citrus cultivars are provided in the table below:

Cultivar Period Heat Units (HU) 1,600-2,950 Navels

Jan-Apr 1,000-1,250 Lemons 1,100-1,500

1,600-2,200 Satsuma / Clementine Jan-Apr 1,000-1,150

Valencias 1,200-3,500 (wide tolerance)

Grapefruit 2,900-4,550

The heat unit concept has limitations and cannot be used in isolation, but is a useful guideline in determining suitability for crop production.

DDaayy LLeennggtthh aanndd LLiigghhtt

Crops respond to day-length in various ways. Sugarcane for instance requires 14 to 16 hour day-lengths to initiate flower formation for sexual reproduction. Citrus on the other hand responds to long day-lengths by increasing total vegetative production. For hops production, extended day-length is required. In most cases day light length are determine by the location of the fields where production is to occur. In some cases it may be profitable to increase day length artificially to ensure production. In the case of Hops production in South Africa, this is done by adding artificial light. During initial planting, lights, providing the additional light were installed. The ideal sunshine requirement for crops differs and this should be researched before a crop is established. The effect on flowering and fruiting as well as budding and vegetative growth must be looked at. In the case of citrus, flowering and fruiting is not influenced by day length.

Rainfall and Humidity

In South Africa the rainfall is normally not enough to provide sufficient water as required by many crops for commercial production. Consequently, these crops are irrigated and are then no longer dependant on rainfall, except where severe droughts can cause restrictions in the supply of water for irrigation purposes. In the




case of many traditional dry-land crops such as many cereals, the input costs have increased to the extent that dry land production is no longer profitable. In many instances the producers are forced to plant smaller areas under irrigation, thereby ensuring profitability.

Wind

The frequency, velocity and seasonal distribution of wind influence the suitability of a climate for crop production. The major influences of wind are:

• Hot winds cause excessive water loss through transpiration and can even cause the death of exposed vegetation through dehydration.

• Hot winds cause slower development of young plants. • Wind causes mechanical damage to plants\fruit where tissues are bruised

and fruits scarred. In the case of citrus, approximately 95% of wind blemishes occur within the first twelve weeks of petal fall during September (in the early areas) and January.

Hail

Hail mostly occurs in the northern production areas of South Africa which causes the perennial crops to blemish, making the fruit unsuitable for harvest. In the case of annual crops, the crop as a whole may be destroyed by hail.

Availability of Climatic Data

The Institute for Soil, Climate and Water has a central website for the weather station network in South Africa where climatic information is collected throughout the country, can be accessed. The web address is available from the institute.

To establish which weather station is the closest to the farm, the exact geographical position of the farm should be known.

Accurate positioning of individual points on the earth’s surface is made possible by reference to the geometrical system of latitude and longitude. Latitude parallels are drawn west-east around the earth and numbered by degrees north and south of the equator, which is designated as 0° latitude. Longitude meridians are drawn north-south and numbered by the degrees east and west of the prime meridian, 0° of longitude, which passes through Greenwich in England.

By referring to these coordinates and their sub-divisions of minutes, which is 1/60th of a degree and seconds, which is 1/60th of a minute, any place on earth can be located to within a few hundred yards.

For example, Bien Donne Research station in the Western Cape is situated at minus 33.84° latitude and 18.98° longitude and is 119 metres above sea level.

The type of climatic information which is required for enterprise selection and planning for as long a period as possible is the following:

• Average rainfall; • Relative humidity; • Average, maximum and minimum evapotranspiration; • Average, maximum and minimum wind speed and direction; and • Average, maximum and minimum temperatures




All the above mentioned information is available on an hourly, daily, monthly and yearly basis and the information can be accessed at all times.

11..55 TTooppooggrraapphhiiccaall DDaattaa Although topography refers to a wide range of factors, it is important for enterprise selection with regard to the lie of the land, its slopes and direction.

The slope of a surface can be described as the degree of difference from the horizontal line. It can be nearly level, gently sloping, strongly sloping, undulating or rolling. Soils with similar texture can differ a lot with regard to water absorption and erosion as result of differences in slope. Danger of erosion normally increases as the slope of the land increases.

The relationship between slope and suitability of land for crop production is determined by the relative importance of surface drainage, erosion, infiltration and cultivation. Other factors which could also influence the effect of slope on production potential are the type of crop, stability of the topsoil, intensity and duration of rainfall, as well as the method and type of irrigation.

An understanding of topography is critical for a number of reasons. To understand the topography of an area in terms of environmental quality, agriculture and hydrology, enhances the understanding of watershed boundaries, drainage characteristics, water movement and water quality.

Understanding topography also aids in soil conservation, especially in agriculture. Contour ploughing, which is the practice of ploughing along the topographic lines, is an established practice enabling sustainable agriculture on sloping land.

When planning orchards, an understanding of topography is important when deciding on placement of the orchard and row direction, keeping the effect of irrigation runoff and storm water management in mind. In the Western and Eastern Cape, the fruit in orchards on east-facing slopes will be earlier than on west-facing slopes. In windy areas, an orchard at the top a hill facing the prevailing winds will suffer much more wind damage than an orchard on the lull side of the hill.

Topography is also important in determining weather patterns. Two areas in fairly close proximity may differ radically in climatic characteristics, such as rainfall, because of elevation differences or position relative to a nearby hill or mountain range. It is also well known that topography can influence the occurrence or rate of hail on two neighbouring farms.

Knowledge of the possible effects of the topography on the development of a specific orchard or farm can therefore have a strong influence on the eventual profitability of the plantings.




11..66 VVeeggeettaattiioonn TTyyppeess There are two types of vegetation which one should be concerned of in terms of agriculture: namely indigenous and invasive vegetation.

Indigenous vegetation is defined as trees, under-storey plants, ground covered and plants occurring naturally in a specific area. Examples of these types of vegetation in South Africa are Proteas, Fynbos, Rhino Veld and Disas, a wide variety of succulents, Afro-montane and coastal forests, broadleaved forests in the Lowveld and grasslands.

Invasive vegetation is alien plants that have been brought into South Africa for their beauty, economic value, or for an ecological purpose. Invasive plants often do not have natural enemies and therefore tend to proliferate, thus competing with indigenous vegetation for food resources.

When the planning is done, a careful study must be made of the naturally-occurring vegetation in the area, including a demarcation between indigenous and invasive vegetation. All land-users, especially farmers, have a responsibility of maintaining indigenous flora as far as possible and eliminate invasive plant.

Please complete Activity 1:

At your place of work determine and record the following: 1. Determine the soil requirement for the crop that is grown on the farm where you work.

2. Collect soil samples for chemical analyses and to determine the type of soil.

3. Request the laboratory to provide a recommendation for fertilisers and ameliorant for this crop.

4. Calculate the volumes of fertiliser and ameliorants required to grow the crop.





1. Determine the water quality parameter that your crop required for optimal production.

2. Collect water samples and have a water sample analysed.

3. Compare the results to the requirements for your crop?

4. Identify any potential problems.

5. How would you correct existing problems, if any?


1. Determine the ideal topography and climatic conditions required for the crop produced at your place of work.

2. Pretend that you are required to develop and extra field of the crop.

3. Identify the ideal site on the farm for such expansion with reference to topography


1. Identify and plot all natural vegetation types that occur on the farm where you work.

2. Use the Acocks scale to determine vegetation type.

3. Now, identify the dominant tree, shrub, grass etc.

4. Determine the density and species diversity of any alien invader that may exist.

Concept (SO 1) I understand

this concept Questions that I still would

like to ask

Soil sampling results and recommendations for selection of the enterprise are interpreted and categorised

Results and recommendation of water samples are interpreted and applied.

Climatic weather forecasts required for the selection of the relevant enterprise are interpreted.

Topography data required for the selection of the relevant enterprise is interpreted and categorised.

Vegetation types relevant to the selection process are described.




SSeessssiioonn 22

FFaarrmmiinngg IInnffrraassttrruuccttuurree

After completing this session, you should be able to: SO 2: Categorise and maintain infrastructure for the selection of the enterprise

22..11 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn Infrastructure has an influence on the practical implementation of all the day-to-day activities on a farm and comprises the bare essentials required to operate a commercial farm. Infrastructure can be external or internal (on-farm).

External infrastructure is the responsibility of other people or bodies beside the farmer, such as Escom, Telkom, cellular networks as well as national and local government. External infrastructure includes electricity supply, access roads and railways to towns, cities and harbours.

Internal or on-farm infrastructures include structures which are built, erected or bought on or for the farm to ensure profitable production of high quality crops. Examples are stores and sheds, housing, water storage dams and tanks, roads on the farm, irrigation systems, fencing, vehicles and equipment.

22..22 TThhee RRoollee aanndd FFuunnccttiioonn ooff IInnffrraassttrruuccttuurree The starting point of a decision-making process whether to plant and develop i.e., a citrus farming unit in a specific area will always be the production potential of the farm, with climate, soil and water as the most important factors. Infrastructure, although important, will always be a secondary element in the decision-making process.

Infrastructure will therefore not necessarily be a determining factor in whether to establish a citrus farm, but it does play a very important role in the planning process as development of a cost effective infrastructure requires large capital inputs. The medium- and long-term planning demands, in terms of the cost of infrastructural development, that crops produced by new and replacement plantings should always be considered carefully. It plays an important role in the cash flow and profits generated by the farm.




Infrastructure supports the production process. The size of the farm or planned enterprise determines the extent of the infrastructure that is required.

A large farm needs a large internal infrastructure to support all the many activities in the production processes. The size may justify an own pack house with all the necessary equipment and manpower. A small farm on the other hand needs to make use of more external support as the extent of its activities may not justify high expenditure on internal infrastructure.

Other parameters are used when new or replacement fields are established on an existing farm. The most determining factors will be the utilisation of existing infrastructure and whether the chosen crop or cultivar will make a contribution to the current cultivar combination.

22..33 IInnffrraassttrruuccttuurree MMaaiinntteennaannccee Proper maintenance and repair of infrastructure on any farm is a requirement for success.

It is important to develop a culture of neatness and care around infrastructure and all production aids within the ranks of management and employees. This is easier said than done as it requires ongoing attention to detail, training, encouragement and monitoring from senior management by way of supervisors to all employees.

Maintenance and repairs to external infrastructure has to be done by formal requests or applications to the relevant service providers via their regional representatives or official organisations such as farmers associations and local and national government.

Internal (on-farm) infrastructure must be maintained according to a well-prepared, ongoing maintenance plan. It should account for all structures, roads, pumps and motors, electrical equipment as well as all vehicles and other farm equipment. The plan must also indicate whether maintenance and monitoring actions must be done on a daily, weekly, monthly, yearly or pre-seasonal basis.

A formal monitoring system indicating actions taken per item, execution dates and employer(s) responsible for execution must be in use to ensure that all actions are carried out in good time.




The table below provides an example of a preventative maintenance plan for internal infrastructure.

Infrastructure Preventative Maintenance

Infrastructure Item Preventive Maintenance Checks

Recommended Action in case of Deterioration

Access Roads • Storm water-drains are clear and sufficient.

• Potholes and other faults in the roads are repaired.

• Cracks in paving are marked and repaired

Report faults and deterioration to local road authority

Farm Roads • Storm waterways are clear and sufficient.

• Potholes and other faults in the roads are repaired.

• Clear storm water ways

• Repair faults and cracks as soon as possible before the condition of the road deteriorates more.

Irrigation and Water Supply Systems

See Irrigation System Maintenance Plan

Electricity Supply • Annually: get a competent person to inspect distribution boxes.

• Periodically: test earth-leakage and circuit-breakers.

• Periodically: inspect lightning conductors.

• Repair all possible problems and faulty equipment.

• Lightning conductors and earth spikes are prone to theft, replace as necessary.

Communication Systems. • Test communication lines. • Test batteries, power packs,

etc. • Inspect lightning

conductors.

• Report broken or poor lines.

• Replace battery and power packs with a short standby time.

Boundary Fencing • Visually inspect fence for broken lines, slack wires and unwanted plant growth.

• Test electrical fences for proper voltage on wires and the correct working of power suppliers.

• Repair the fence as needed.

• In the case of electric fences, the cause of voltage drop must be investigated and rectified.

• Look out for slacked wires and vegetation that can cause the fence to make a short.

Buildings and Housing Annually inspect: • Roof sheeting for leaks • Gutters for blockage • Plumbing for leaks • Interior / exterior surfaces

for cracks and peeling paint • Doors and windows to lock

Repair all problems as necessary. Make use of a competent plumber to repair plumbing.




and close properly Infrastructure Item Preventive Maintenance

Checks Recommended Action in

case of Deterioration Vehicles Follow detailed service plan

as recommended by the manufacturer, including aspects such as servicing intervals and preventative maintenance.

Repairs in line with the manufacturers recommendations.

Equipment Follow detailed service plan as recommended by the manufacturer, including aspects such as servicing intervals and preventative maintenance.

Repairs in line with the manufacturers recommendations.

Some infrastructural items are made up of a number of components and require a specific maintenance plan. Below is an example of a maintenance plan for irrigation systems.

Frequency Task Action Check block pressures Determine if within prescribed limits, if

not determine cause and correct Check emitter operation Look for clogged, broken or misplaced

emitters. Repair, replace, unclog or reposition emitters.

Check for leaks and water wastage Repair if found Flush primary filter Flush filters as prescribed

Daily

Check fertigation application Repair if not be within specifications Flushing of laterals Flush lines as prescribed Flushing of secondary filters Flush filters as prescribed Check the system pressure and flow Repair if not as per design Check the pump operation parameters Repair if not within prescribed

parameters Check block pressures for automated valves

Repair if not as prescribed

Check pump oil levels Correct if out of limits

Weekly

Inspect fertigation plant Look for damage and / or vandalism Visually inspect valves, water meters, and gauges

Look for damage and / or vandalism

Open and inspect filters Implement prescribed actions Check for leaks at pump pipe work Check for leaks loosing water and for

leaks through which the pump can suck air

Grease pump motor Follow actions as prescribed

Monthly

Perform CU tests Follow actions as prescribed Service valves and physically check correct operation

Follow actions as prescribed Annually

Thoroughly clean filters and replace sand in sand filters

Follow actions as prescribed




Frequency Task Action Change oil in pump Follow actions as prescribed Take a water sample at the end of lateral lines


Replace bearings and seals on pump and motor every five years.


Replace diaphragms on hydraulic valves every three years.


2-10 years

Replace poly pipe and nozzles every seven to ten years.


22..44 RReegguullaattiioonnss aanndd LLeeggiissllaattiioonn There are a number of laws which can be applied to infrastructure on farms. As far as the internal, or on-farm, infrastructure is concerned, the employer must, according to the Occupational Health and Safety Act, provide for the health and safety of persons at work and with regard to the use of plant and machinery.

This implies that the employer must ensure that all infrastructures that is utilised in the production process is in good condition and well maintained at all times, including the following:

• Dams must be approved and registered with the Department of Water Affairs.

• All buildings must conform to building regulations. • Electrical installations must conform to regulations and be constructed and

connected by qualified electricians. • All vehicles must be licensed and their operators suitably qualified and

licensed.

To export fruit to Europe and a number of other countries, the farm must be registered with EurepGAP which, amongst others, prescribe measures which has an effect on infrastructure, including:

• Inorganic fertilisers must be stored separately from other crop protection products, in a clean and dry sheltered area in such a way to prevent contamination of water courses.

• Crop protection products must be stored in a location which is sound, secure, fire-resistant, well-lit and away from other chemicals.

• The store must have facilities for measuring crop protection products as well as a clean-up kit (sand, shovel, broom etc.) in case of spillage.

• The crop protection product store must be locked and access to the products must be limited to workers with formal training in handling it.

• Adequate ablution and washing facilities must be available to workers within a realistic distance from their workstations.




Please complete Activity 5.

1. Identify the entire external and internal infrastructure on the farm where you work.

2. Identify the main service providers of external infrastructure.

3. Identify the internal infrastructure on the farm, its use and function and the value thereof.


Develop a Maintenance plan for maintaining an internal infrastructure at the farm where you work.


Determine the legislation relevant to all infrastructure at your place of work



like to ask

The role and function of infrastructure is described.

Maintenance requirements of the required infrastructure is defined and described.

Relevant regulations and legislation regarding infrastructure is interpreted and explained.

Relevant infrastructure required by the relevant enterprise is described.




SSeessssiioonn 33

SSttoocckk rreeqquuiirreedd ffoorr tthhee rreelleevvaanntt eenntteerrpprriissee

After completing this session, you should be able to: SO 3: Determine stock required for the relevant enterprise

33..11 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn The stock that is required for crop production refers to the crop production stock items required to produce the crop. Production stock that is used includes is plant material, agrochemicals, tools, machinery and equipment, maintenance items, fuel, and other consumables.

33..22 PPrroodduuccttiioonn aanndd SSttoocckk RReeqquuiirreemmeennttss In many cases, the production stock required for specific operations are quite simple to determine. When a new field or orchard is established, for instance, the numbers or volumes of plant material required is determined if the planting density is known. The volume or numbers required is then determined by multiplying the area to be planted (ha) by the density (kg/ha or trees per ha).

Similarly, the tools and equipment, irrigation equipment, soil preparation chemicals and equipment, and other requirements can be determined from the field or orchard plan and is usually calculated when the planning for the establishment of the field / orchard is done.

Determining the stock requirements for ongoing production is not as simple. The stock requirements depend greatly on the production practices and the production volumes. The ability to accurately predict stock usage and determining stock requirements is often only perfected over time and with experience, but having effective systems in place greatly enhances the process.

Various production reports and programs are handy tools in determining the requirements for a wide variety of production items. Production reports include:

Pest, disease and weed control program – including application dates, number of applications, dosage rates, monitoring information.

Fertilisation program - including application dates, number of applications, dosage rates, fertiliser recommendations.




Infrastructure maintenance plan – include general maintenance plan as well as specifics for specific equipment.

Production report

AAggrroocchheemmiiccaall SSttoocckk RReeqquuiirreemmeennttss

Agrochemicals include soil preparation chemicals, fertiliser, plant protection products, and herbicides.

Determining the stock required for soil preparation is calculated as part of the establishment planning process. The type and quantities depend on the method of soil preparation and on the nutritional status of the soil.

Once the field / orchard have been established, the ongoing agrochemical requirements can be determined from the spray programs and fertilisation programs that have been developed by experts. The programs are also used to determine the date on which items must be ordered to ensure that it will be delivered in good time and available when the needed.

The table below provides an example of a typical fertilisation program for an orchard on a citrus farm. Fertilisation programs may be developed, as is the case in the example, for individual orchards, for certain sections of the farms, or for the entire farm.

FERTILISATION PROGRAM – CITRUS

Orchard: Orchard 10 Size: 3.0ha Cultivar/Variety: Delta Valencias Trees per ha: 316

Fertiliser Quantity Time of Application Soil Applications g per tree Limestone Ammonium Nitrate (LAN) 500g July LAN 250g August LAN 250g September Potassium Chloride (KCL) 500g September Dolomitic Lime 4000g October Foliar Sprays g per 100l water Low Biuret Urea 1000g July Manganese Sulphate 200g October Solubor® 150g October




Using the example above, the fertiliser requirements can be calculated as follows:

Month Stock Item Calculation Total Requirement

LAN 500g x 316 trees /1,000 158kgJuly Low Biuret Urea

* 2,500l x 3.0ha = 7,500l 7,500l / 100 x 1,000g / 1,000

75kg

August LAN 250g x 316 trees /1,000 79kgLAN 250g x 316 trees /1,000 79kgSeptember KCL 500g x 316 trees /1,000 158kgDolomitic Lime 4,000g x 316 trees /1,000 1,264kgManganese Sulphate

* 2,500l x 3.0ha = 7,500l 7,500l / 100 x 200g / 1,000

15kgOctober

Solubor® * 2,500l x 3.0ha = 7,500l 7,500l / 100 x 150g / 1,000

11.25kg

The amount of spray material required per hectare for foliar applications varies, and is usually between 2,000 and 2,500 litres per hectare for mature trees. The fertilisation manager will be able to accurately indicate the amount required per hectare.

A system, possibility in the form of a spreadsheet, can be developed to calculate the fertiliser requirements for all the orchards in the above manner. Once the information has been consolidated, orders can be placed for the total fertiliser requirement for the farm. The fertiliser will normally be ordered for delivery in the month before the application must be made to ensure that the items are delivered on time.

Plant protection products refer to all the chemicals that are used in the pest and disease control program. The requirements for these stock items are calculated from this program.

The pest and disease control program typically indicates the amount of chemical required in grams per 100l. The amount of mixed spray material required per hectare depends on whether a light, medium or heavy cover spray will be applied, which the pest and disease control manager will be able to indicate. The amount of chemical required is calculated using the same method as above.

Recommendation for herbicide applications is given in litres per hectare or per square meter. The surface area that is to be sprayed is normally a percentage of the planted hectares, which is then used to calculate the quantity that has to be purchased.




The table below provides an example of herbicide requirements for an orchard.

Herbicide Requirements Recommendation: 5 litres herbicide per hectare Weeds on 40% of planted area Volume herbicide required: 130 x 20% = 52 ha x 5 = 260 litres

A system must be in place to calculate the requirements for the entire farm, and stock must be ordered in good time.

TToooollss,, MMaacchhiinneerryy aanndd EEqquuiippmmeenntt RReeqquuiirreemmeennttss

Machinery and equipment include items such as tractors, spray machines, herbicide carts, trailers, grass slashers, and so on. The type and quantity of machinery and equipment that is required depends on the size of the farm and the production practices that are employed, and is normally determined when the original planning for the farm is done. Machinery and equipment is not normally purchased on a regular basis, but may need to be replaced over time.

The type and number of tools that required also depends on the production practices and size of the farm. It will however include:

• Maintenance tools and equipment

• Gauges, metres and other measuring equipment

• Harvesting tools and equipment

• Plant manipulation tools and equipment

As an example of how tool requirements are calculated according to production records, we will look at the calculation of harvesting tool requirements. The stock items required for the harvesting process is calculated by using the production report.




The table below provides an example of bins and trailers that may be required for harvesting.

Production Cultivar Area

Planted Number of Trees Tons /

ha Tons *Bins **Trailers

Star Ruby 15ha 7,500 40 600 1,765 252 Navels 20ha 10,000 35 700 2,059 294 Amber Sweet 15ha 7,500 40 600 1,765 252 Delta 30ha 15,000 45 1,350 3,971 568 Valencia 50ha 25,000 50 2,500 7,353 1,051 Total 130ha 65,000 5,750 16,913 2,417

Each bin contains 340kg of fruit, meaning that that number of bins is calculated as follows:

Tons / 1,000 / 340

One trailer load is equal to seven bins, or 2,380kg fruit

Either the number of bins or the number of trailers will be calculated, depending on the harvesting systems employed on the farm.

The cultivars above are naturally not all harvested at the same time, even though the harvesting periods of some cultivars may overlap. By adding the respective harvesting periods, the peak requirement for workers and equipment can be calculated. The equipment that will be required includes clippers, ladders, picking bags, bins and trailers.

Maintenance Item Requirements

Maintenance items include spare parts, lubricants, and other items that are required to repair and maintain vehicles, equipment, machinery and infrastructure. The maintenance items that will be required in a specific period can be calculated from the maintenance plans that are put in place.

The number of spare parts that are required for the irrigation system, for instance, also depends on the age and general condition of the system. Extraordinary requirements, such as when a decision has been taken to replace all the emitters in specific orchards, must be communicated in time to ensure that the items are ordered and available.

Fuel Requirements

The fuel that is required depends on the production practises, the size of the production unit and the number of vehicles in use on the farm. The consumption of fuel varies between different times of the year, depending on




the activities on the farm, and this must be taken into account when the requirements are calculated.

Other Consumable Requirements

The types and quantities of other consumables required depend mostly on the production practices and the number of employees on the farm.

Protective clothing, for instance, is ordered according to the number of workers on the farm, and must be sufficient to ensure that workers have the opportunity to wash and clean their clothing regularly. Special protective gear is also required for operations such as spraying and this must be taken into account.

Pack house Stock Requirements

Pack house stock is not considered to be stock required on the farm, except if the farm has its own pack house. The stock required in the pack house is also calculated with the help of the production information, and this information must be communicated to the pack house as soon as possible.

In the table below, information is added to the production information that was used above to calculate the harvesting requirements, to form the basis of calculations the pack house stock requirement.

Pack out % Market

Cultivar Production (Tons)

Export Local Juice Export Cartons (15kg)

Local Units (7kg)

Juice Tons

Star Ruby

600 80% 5% 15% 32,000 4,286 90

Navels 700 55% 35% 10% 25,667 35,000 70Amber Sweet

600 70% 20% 10% 28,000 17,143 60

Delta 1,350 65% 25% 10% 58,500 48,214 135Valencia 2,500 60% 20% 20% 100,000 71,429 500Total 5,750 244,167 176,071 855

The pack house team can now calculate the stock required to fit in with the harvesting plan drawn up by the production team. Stocks include post-harvest chemicals, cartons, fruit labels, pallets, and identification stickers.

33..33 MMaaiinnttaaiinniinngg PPrroodduuccttiioonn SSttoocckk LLeevveellss While certain items, such as fertiliser and plant protection chemicals, are ordered only when they are required and in the quantities that are required, other items, such as maintenance items, fuel and consumables, are kept on hand at all times.




The decision on how much of these items to keep on hand takes a lot of consideration. Deciding on stock levels is about balancing two equally important factors.

Firstly, stock is money. The stock that is held at any given point cost money to buy, and it is now money that could have been earning interest or put to other uses. Stock items that do not have a direct impact on production should not be kept on hand.

Secondly, production should never be compromised or halted due to a shortage of critical stock items. Compromising the quality or safety of fruit is never worth the money that could have been saved by not keeping stock items on hand.

Another factor that must be taken into account is the availability of the stock items. If the items are purchased from a local supplier who can be depended on to deliver the items in a short time, it is not necessary to keep it on hand. If however it is highly specialised items that can only be ordered from suppliers that are not local with a long delivery time, at least some of the items should be kept on hand.

The following steps are useful in maintaining stock levels:

Step: Action: 1 Determine minimum stock levels for all items, i.e. the level below which

the stock item should never fall. For example: One can decide that there should never be less than 200l of diesel available on the farm.

2 Determine reorder levels for all stock items. The reorder level takes into account the delivery time for that specific item and the rate at which the item is used. For example: If you know that diesel is used on average at 100l per day, and that it will take three days for the supplier to deliver, the minimum reorder level should be set at 500l. Once it reaches that level, there is sufficient time to order the item and not fall below the minimum stock level.

3 Identify suppliers for all stock items in good time, including alternative suppliers that can be used if the regular supplier is not able to deliver. When purchasing an item of the first time, it is good practice to contact a few suppliers to determine who are able to reliably deliver the best quality item at the best price. Suppliers who are well established are often more reliable, but if they have a secure market, they may not offer the best prices. Keep the contact details of suppliers at hand.

4 Identify the persons who are authorised to order stock items and ensure that at least one of them are available at all times. Make sure that the suppliers are aware of who have been authorised, and that all authorised personnel have access to all the information required, including the contact details of preferred and alternative suppliers.




Management of stock is simplified if standardisation is applied wherever possible. If the same type of irrigation equipment is used in all orchards, stock control and supply is much easier. The same principle applies for instance to vehicles, tractors, trailer wheels and tyres.

33..44 MMaannaaggeemmeenntt ooff PPrroodduuccttiioonn SSttoocckk Systems for keeping track of stock requirements, ordering stock in time, controlling the issue of stock items, and monitoring current stock levels must be in place on all farms, and requires careful planning before the production unit is established.

While production stock items, such as agrochemicals, maintenance items, fuel and consumables are managed with the help of a stock control system, machinery and equipment are recorded in an asset ledger.

SSttoocckk CCoonnttrrooll SSyysstteemm

Stock control systems assist in monitoring the levels of the stock items on hand. Stock control systems can be computerised or manual. Computerised systems are generally more accurate and easier to maintain. There are a variety of software packages available to assist with stock control.

Any stock control systems must have the following components:

Purchasing – Information of stock purchases must be entered on the stock control system, including the date, invoice number, supplier, and cost price.

Issuing – The system must allow for the issuing of stock in a well-documented manner. Stock items must only be issued to authorised persons, and they must sign for the items when they are issued.

Current Stock Levels – From the purchases and issues the system must be able to calculate the expected current stock level. An added benefit is if the system can calculate the value at cost price of the items currently on hand.

During a stock take, also referred to as an inventory count, all the stock items on hand it counted. The actual stock levels are then compared with the expected levels as calculated by the system. Variances that are found may be due to insufficient control, incorrect bookings of purchases or stock issues, theft, or incorrect counting during the stock take.

Another added bonus to some computerised stock control systems is that stock take data can be processed in the system, which then produces a report that compares actual and expected stock levels.

Stock must be stored safely and kept in a well-organised manner for proper stock control purposes. It is very difficult to count unsystematic stock accurately and it will take considerably longer time to do the counting.




Stock control, especially of agrochemicals, is very imported in terms of EurepGAP requirements. These requirements must be taken in account when deciding which system to use.

AAsssseett RReeggiisstteerr

Assets are stock items that are kept for a long period of time, (i.e. Machinery and equipment) while fertiliser and spare parts are not assets, but stock. Fixed assets include equipment, machinery, vehicles, office equipment and furniture.

Assets are generally expensive items. It is therefore essential to have a system in place to keep track of these assets. An asset register, sometimes also referred to as an asset ledger, is a record of all the fixed assets on the farm, date of purchase, purchase\ cost price, depreciation rate and date of sale\trade in.

When the financial records of the farm are audited, the asset register is checked against the actual assets on the farm.

33..55 MMaannaaggeemmeenntt RReeppoorrttss aanndd FFiinnaanncciiaallss Management reports within any book year provide a summary of activities and results within that specific year and cover the progress in comparison to what was projected in the budget. Budgets usually cover the following:

• An overview of the previous years with regard to production, marketing, income and profit margins

• Projection of results foreseen in the new year

• Possible adjustments in approach to handle the unforeseen circumstances

• Capital investment for longer or shorter term improvements or an increase in production

• Projected results in production, income and profits

• Projected cash flow

Depending on the time of the year, management reports include progress with regard to all the aspects covered in the budget. It also highlights possible changes in production or the market with recommendations to handle the situation, as well as the effect these will have on income, profits and cash flow.




33..66 BBrreeaakkeevveenn AAnnaallyyssiiss Generally, breakeven analysis calculates (on a year-to-year basis) what the minimum on-farm income (before tax) should be to sustain all the production costs for the product or range of products. The direct production costs and income vary between cultivars and is recorded as such on a per hectare basis. Overhead costs, such as management and administration costs are difficult to allocate per cultivar and should be apportioned as a fixed cost on a per hectare basis.

In the case of a new planting\orchid, a breakeven analysis will determine the period in which the accumulative income will cover the investment and development costs of the planting. It is important that the breakeven point is reached as quickly as possible. The outcome of the process is therefore a product of the quality and cost of the inputs and provides an incentive to make the product development process as efficient as possible.

The personnel are encouraged to work together to produce a product that meets customer needs. This includes offering the product in an attractive sales channel at an attractive price and at a cost that enables the farmer to earn profits that will repay the development and investment cost.


1. Determine the major inputs that are required (at the farm where you work) specific to a crop that you work with (if more than one crop is produced).

2. Determine the volumes of these inputs that are required.

3. Are there any specific characteristics and requirements of the crop that has to be catered for (could be relevant to any aspect such as post harvest handling, specific market requirements, fertilisation requirements or water etc.)

4. Is the crop you are producing suitable to the farm where it is produced – look at aspects such as the layout of the farm, available resources, logistics and infrastructural requirements.

5. Compare the volumes produced and the available infrastructure; is this sufficient?




Concept (SO 3) I understand this concept

Questions that I still would like to ask

Basic production information within the enterprise regarding stock is interpreted.

Characteristics of specific livestock and crops for the relevant enterprise are described and interpreted.

The requirements of the livestock and crops for the relevant enterprise are determined and described.

The suitability of the livestock and crops according to available resources and maintenance required is determined.

MMyy NNootteess ……

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SSeessssiioonn 44

CCrroopp pprroodduuccttiioonn pprroocceedduurreess

After completing this session, you should be able to: SO 4: Define and interpret production procedures within the relevant enterprise

44..11 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn The Phenology or growth cycle of a crop plant is closely related to the production actions that are taken at various times during the production season. Such production actions are aimed at supplying the crop with the nutrients and water at the stages in its growth when it is required and to assist in protecting the crop through pest and disease control measures at the times when that is required.

Production actions are also influenced by the seasons. Irrigation for instance, is generally increased during the hot summer months and reduced during the winter months, adjustments which will depend on whether the production unit is located in a summer or winter rainfall area.

In general a production cycle includes the following:

Crop establishment; this includes planting, sowing seeds, seedling establishment, rootstock development, production of inlays, hardening off etc. Soil preparation, initial fertilisation etc. is included in the establishment phase. In orchards the cycle might start with other processes such as pruning.

Next, the crops go through a vegetative growth phase. During this phase the major upkeep activities are likely to include – fertilisation, weeding, monitoring for pest and diseases and control thereof. In leaf crops such as lettuce and cabbage, the harvested crop is the vegetative parts and here special attention is required to ensure that the crops are healthily maintained.

In crops where fruit is harvested, the next stage of development is the flower and fruit development phase. During this phase it is normally necessary to ensure that the correct fertilisers are applied to ensure good flower production. In some cases special leaf treatments or hormonal additives must be supplied.

The final phase is harvesting. This phase will include the necessary preparation for harvest, checking for harvest readiness etc. Harvest includes the handling of the crop for sale. Here aspects such as post harvest handling, treatment and packaging are important.




44..22 MMoonniittoorriinngg aanndd MMaaiinnttaaiinniinngg tthhee PPrroodduuccttiioonn CCyyccllee

It is a complicated and exacting process to maintain the production cycle in a manner that will promote the production of a high percentage of marketable crops. It demands intensive monitoring and expert inputs.

The elements involved in production of a crop of the required quality are the following:

• Healthy crop fields

• Correct production inputs applied at the right time

• Well trained personnel

• Appropriate and well-maintained equipment

• Well-designed information systems

• Sufficient funds to ensure necessary supplies

HHeeaalltthhyy CCrroopp FFiieellddss

Maintaining a healthy orchard for optimum production of quality fruit is based on the following:

• Good quality, well-drained soil

• Well prepared soil

• Good plant material

• A fertiliser programme based on soil and/or leaf analysis

• A well designed irrigation system and proper irrigation scheduling

• A balanced pest and disease control program

• Maintenance pruning to provide light penetration into the trees (tree crops)

• Proper sanitation programme is required to remove fallen and infected fruit continuously (fruit crops).

PPrroodduuccttiioonn IInnppuuttss

The proper timing of all actions involved in the production process is essential.

In order to obtain sufficient flower initiation, blossom and fruit set, (fruit crops) the nutrient status of the trees and moisture supply must be optimal. Fertiliser applications must therefore be carefully executed and irrigation scheduling done according to accepted methods to ensure sufficient available soil moisture.




The spray program for pest and disease control must also be well-planned, well-timed and cost effective to result in a clean and profitable crop.

Ensuring the correct and timeously production inputs depends on the following:

• Professional approach

• Well-trained management, supervisors and employees

• Planning and supervision

• Good recording and observation system

• Enough well-maintained and effective orchard equipment

• Stock availability when required

• Accessible technical knowledge and advice

TTrraaiinneedd PPeerrssoonnnneell

Trained employees (with the level of training appropriate to the task which has to be performed) are essential for successful production.

Training must be supported by ongoing mentoring, supervision and support to ensure that the tasks are well executed.

All training actions must be documented.

EEqquuiippmmeenntt

Mechanised tasks can only be executed properly when equipment, designed for that specific task and in good working condition, are used.

Consider the following examples:

The same principles apply to all equipment utilised in the production, harvesting and packing process.

IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn SSyysstteemm

A well-designed information system, which provides the required historical and current data on all aspects of the enterprise, forms the basis of a well-managed farm. Always remember: if you cannot measure, you cannot manage.

The information system should include financial information on costs and income, production figures per orchard, fertiliser and spray programs, weather data and

Doing light work with a tractor designed for heavy work is not cost-effective and may cause damage to the equipment. The opposite is also true; doing heavy work with a tractor designed for light work, resulting in major wear and tear on the tractor. Spray machines must be calibrated to deliver the required amount of spray mixture onto the target area or within the tree and be matched with a tractor that can deliver sufficient power for the task. At the pack house, the supply rate of fruit must match the capacity of the packing line to ensure efficient handling.




personnel matters. All production inputs have to be recorded and records must be available for scrutiny at all times.

Current food safety legislation and compliance for registration at EurepGAP requires a system which enables traceability back to the orchard of fruit delivered to the market.

FFuunnddss

Sufficient funds must be available to support the various production activities at all times.

In an enterprise where only seasonal crops are produced, income is only generated from about two to four weeks after fruit have been delivered to the market. For this reason, one should include other corps or cultivars to lengthen the period of income. Cash flow must be managed carefully to have the necessary funds available at all times. If funds are only received at the end of the season, the money should be used to cover debts, input costs and some should be kept for the new season’s inputs. This is especially important in tree crops with an extended turn-around time from initiation to harvest. This does not mean that financial planning for cash crops is not necessary.

44..33 OObbsseerrvvaattiioonn aanndd RReeccoorrddkkeeeeppiinngg Production cycles are influenced by a large number of factors. Analysis and records of both historical and current season’s activities and crop response must be kept to enable the farmer to plan and react in order to produce a marketable crop.

A culture of recordkeeping must be developed and kept intact to achieve and maintain the standards required. It must become a part of the everyday management and execution of all activities.

The recordkeeping system should be as simple as possible to encourage the employees to use and maintain it – it should not be seen as a hassle. Regular feedback to employees, indicating the results and use of the information gathered, is a motivation to bring about interest.

TThhee PPuurrppoossee ooff RReeccoorrddkkeeeeppiinngg

Observations made on a developing crop is aimed at monitoring the effect of cropping practices and weather conditions on the crop, as well as the pest and disease status throughout the growing season.

It is important to know what the results were of similar practices during previous years as well as the effect of varying weather conditions on crop development and quality. Recording rainfall, temperature, humidity, evaporation and wind velocity on a continuous basis is therefore essential.




Crop volume and quality will, for instance, affect the nutritional status of a crop as reflected by leaf analysis. Adjustments to the fertilisation programme are made to accommodate the change in nutrient status, according to known parameters and according to the reaction of the crop to previous adjustments. Historical and current records on crop volume, fertiliser applications and crop response are therefore necessary to develop an effective program.

Pest and disease status is monitored during a scouting system where trained employees go through the orchards regularly to inspect fruit and trees. The results are recorded to establish whether there is a build-up of specific diseases or whether the control measures are adequate.

Traceability is a major requirement of food safety legislation and is also required for EurepGAP registration. Traceability is the ability to trace the origins of produce from where the point where the consumer buys it, to the original point of origin. In many cases the crop must be traceable to its field/orchard of origin.

TTyyppeess ooff RReeccoorrddss

The following records are normally kept:

Records of pre-plant investigations which includes the environmental impact study, soil surveys, water quality assessments, a graph for managing runoff water and the soil erosion impact assessment.

Origin of plant material and nursery practices up to the point of delivery of plant material to the farm.

The qualifications of all consultants or staff recommending actions for establishment and production processes.

The numbers or names of all fields indicating the of year of planting, cultivar, rootstock, number of trees, planting density and size, historical yield information and the history of previous use or previous crop per field. This is especially important for shorter term cash crops, as it enables the development of cropping practices and follow-up crops.

Records of fertiliser and spray applications.

Test and calibration reports of all equipment utilised.

Proof of the training of workers that are required to perform tasks in the production process for each specific task.

Instructions given to workers in writing with acknowledgement that they understand the instruction.

Reports on execution of the instructions.

Pre-harvest monitoring of external and internal quality (also called maturity indexing) reports.

Harvesting records and details of pack house deliveries.




Cull analyses per orchard from pack house as well as records of internal quality.

Records of all post-harvest treatments and pack house procedures with indication of dates of delivery together with packing records.

IInntteerrpprreettaattiioonn ooff RReeccoorrddss aanndd RReeppoorrttss

Data reports on farms include reports on growth phenomena such as blossom dates and fruit drop, routine inspection of insect and fungal disease infestation, surveys on the extent of hail or other physical damage to fruit. The reports are compiled from data received from the fields that are collected by well-trained scouts. An efficient inspection and recording system is the cornerstone of successful farming.

Inspections assist in the following three ways:

Inter-seasonal decision making based on comparisons of results between seasons;

Intra-seasonal decision making based on fruit set, growth, pest and natural enemy trends; and

Immediate decision making based on intervention thresholds.

The accuracy of orchard inspections depends on the scouts. They must be well-trained in basic identification of pests, damage symptoms, natural enemies and any other phenomena they are expected to observe and record. Monitoring the work of the scouts is important to ensure that the information supplied after inspections is correct.

Orchard maps facilitate the organising of inspection systems, the interpretation of inspection data, and the subsequent execution of control operations. The maps can be used to record various aspects of orchard operations, the position of inspection sites or routes and fluctuations in pest or disease occurrence. Copies of the maps can be utilised to show the development of a particular pest or growth phenomena in a specific area.

Placement of inspection sites should be as prescribed for each specific problem so that the results will represent the actual condition in the field.

The results of each inspection should be recorded for permanent reference. Over time, regular inspection and the related written records will provide a good basis for fine tuning treatment thresholds for pests and other production, harvesting and crop projection requirements.

As an example, an inspection form used to record mealy bug infestation in an orchard is shown below.

Weekly inspections are conducted for the presence of mealy bug.

The calyx and sides of ten fruit on each of ten reference trees are inspected and the occurrence of mealy bug is then recorded.




A similar system can be used for many pests. When monitoring a disease, one would monitor the percentage increase of a disease’s signs or damage.

Sweet Street Farm

Name: Pete Orchard: Top house

Pest: Mealy bug Date: 7 November

Fruit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C S

1 C C S C 3 1

2 C C 2

3 C S 2 1

4 C 1

5 C C 2

6 C 1

7 C 1

8

9 C C S 2 1

Tree

10 C 1

Total 15 3

C = Calyx, S = Side of Fruit

44..44 MMaarrkkeett IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn The requirements of the target market influence the decisions on what to produce and the production practices that are employed. Production practices are mostly impacted in terms of market requirements that relates to food safety and quality.

A prime example in this sense is maximum residue levels (MRL). MRL’s are the residue of a given chemical that is allowed in or on a commodity when it is consumed. For the local market, MRL’s are legislated by the National Department of Agriculture which issues a list of MRL’s for all plant protection products that are used in crop production. If it is found that a consignment of fruit exceeds the MRL for a specific Plant protection product, the whole consignment will be rejected for export and action can be taken against the grower. The MRL’s differs for different markets and it is essential that these are known for the target market. Once the MRL for a target market is known, production practices can be followed accordingly to ensure that these MRL’s are attained.




The market information that is gathered (in order to assist with production planning and to decide what to produce) includes the following:

• Market preferences

• Expected income per unit in the various markets

• The cost chain of various markets

• Price fluctuation over the production season

• Quality requirements of the various markets (food safety, fruit size, internal and external quality)

•• Production trends in the local as well as overseas production areas.

MMaarrkkeett PPrreeffeerreenncceess

Different export markets have their own set of preferences for a fruit type. The Japanese market has, for instance, a specific preference for grapefruit and soft citrus while the American market prefers navel oranges and soft citrus.

The European market will absorb a good quality fruit in more or less any fruit type except white grapefruit, which again, is popular in Italy. The Scandinavian markets prefer fruit of a larger size spectrum than the Russian market, whereas the complete size spectrum can be marketed in the rest of Europe.

Fruit marketed in the Middle and Far East and Japan must be relatively blemish-free and have good colour. Waste fruit is heavily discounted in these markets.

Growers can access this information by studying trade publications and historical market information. It is normally easier to rely on market agents for this information as their knowledge of these preferences is imperative for success.

EExxppeecctteedd IInnccoommee ppeerr UUnniitt

The income per unit is determined by placement of an accepted fruit kind of the right quality at the right time at the right target market.

The selection of an area to establish a new enterprise or replacement of an orchard will always be determined by profit. The potential of the area or orchard to produce a highly marketable and profitable product will determine the final decision.

TThhee CCoosstt CChhaaiinn

The farm income for any product is determined by market price and the cost chain to the market. Elements included in the cost chain are transport, handling, pre-cooling and loading, shipping, discharge, transport to the market and market handling costs.

These elements differ for the various markets and play a large role in determining profitability of any farming enterprise.

Marketing in Japan and United States of America involves very strict and carefully monitored cold storage and in-transit sterilisation protocols which adds substantially




to the cost chain. In such cases a high market price is required for the offset to yield a profitable on-farm return.

PPrriiccee FFlluuccttuuaattiioonnss

Prices, on any market, are determined by supply and demand. All export markets are supplied by a number of countries, each with its own unique set of factors, which determines the price it, could accept to enable them to generate a profitable return.

The return is also heavily influenced by the quality of the product. In the case of citrus, South African citrus normally competes on most markets in the so called off-season. The “off-season” is that time of the year when local or neighbouring farmers cannot provide the product.

It is important, when projecting any price, to consider the price chain involved in supplying fruit to the target market. The cost of transport to the various harbours in South Africa varies between production areas. In-harbour costs of cold-storage and loading differ, depending on destination.

Only produce from the Western Cape is allowed into the United States as result of the phytosanitary exclusion of areas where bacterial black spot occurs.

When determining where to establish and what to plant in any of the established areas, the above factors have to be considered carefully to determine what the projected income and eventual profit margins could be.

QQuuaalliittyy RReeqquuiirreemmeennttss

The quality requirements of the various markets differ, but all markets require a sound, well-handled and safe product.

Food safety is legislated through the Agricultural Products Standards Act. This act prescribes all requirements for ensuring that food is safe for human consumption. The most significant prescriptions of the Act are maximum residue levels (MRL’s) for each plant protection product and traceability.

EurepGAP registration is a must for most European countries and the United States. This requires traceability of all actions throughout the production and handling chain right back to the orchard in which the fruit was produced.

PPrroodduuccttiioonn TTrreennddss

The volume of a product on the market is another price determining factor. Planting a citrus orchard is a long-term commitment, it is therefore very important to take notice of new plantings locally as well as in other citrus producing countries.




44..55 TThhee IImmppaacctt ooff MMaarrkkeettiinngg IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn oonnPPrroodduuccttiioonn PPllaannnniinngg

Production planning for crops should at all times be based on the net on-farm returns from the markets for the different types of crops which can be produced successfully in the area where the farm is situated. Anticipated prices for the various products from the markets, accessible to the produce from that specific area, are therefore important when planning starts.

The next step is to determine the produce quality requirements to grant entry into the various markets and to evaluate whether and how much of the required quality can be produced. This information will only be available from medium- to long-term information on the production and quality trends in the area and on the farm.

It is a fact that under normal circumstances high quality grapefruit can be produced in the Lowveld of Mpumalanga and Limpopo, but that navel oranges from the same area seldom attain the required quality to provide entrance to high income markets. On the other hand, navels from the Citrusdal area are normally of high internal and external quality and can be marketed in the United States of America with high returns back on farm.

Therefore, there are a host of production and marketing factors which influences the ultimate decisions on what to produce and which markets to target to achieve a profitable result.


1. Develop a production cycle for the crop produced at the farm where you work.

2. Look at observation reports and determined whether any interventions are required.

3. Ensure that all on-farm procedures are used.


1. Determine where the production records are kept.

2. Is there a written procedure that details how these records should be maintained?

3. Explain how these should be implemented.

4. In your opinion, are these implemented fully at your place of work?





1. Determine the target market for the crop being produced

2. Are there any specific requirements for quality and handling of the crop that should be adhered to?

3. Which measures is in place to ensure that these procedures are implemented on farm?

Concept (SO 4) I understand this concept

Questions that I still would like to ask

Production cycle procedures and maintenance thereof are defined and interpreted.

Production cycles according to observation reports are interpreted.

Maintenance of production records are interpreted and explained.

Market information affecting production of the relevant enterprise are interpreted and explained.

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SSeessssiioonn 55

HHaarrvveessttiinngg ccrrooppss

After completing this session, you should be able to: SO 5: Determine and apply harvest procedures within the relevant enterprise

55..11 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn Harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops\fruit from the fields/orchards. Harvesting marks the end of the production cycle. Some crops (tomatoes, citrus, cabbage etc.) are hand-harvested, whilst others (cherries and pistachio nuts) are harvested by using mechanical shakers. Most cereals are harvested by using combine harvesters. Harvesting a crop entails specialised techniques such as clipping, snap picking or cutting which should be taught to harvesting personnel prior to harvesting. The harvesting techniques may differ depending on the market. In the case of soft citrus for instance, export fruit are harvested using specialised clippers. For the local market these are snap-picked.

55..22 HHaarrvveessttiinngg PPrriinncciipplleess The principles of harvesting are:

Budget, plan and forecast.

Do not harvest before the crop has reached the required minimum standards.

Adhere to specific instructions e.g. withholding periods for agrochemical applications during harvest to maintain optimum food safety and crop quality.

Ensure health and safety measures of workers during harvest.

Manage costs, equipment and staff to maximise profit.

Harvesting: Harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops\fruit from the fields/orchards.




55..33 HHaarrvveesstt PPllaannnniinngg aanndd PPrreeppaarraattiioonn Proper planning and preparation for the harvesting process is essential to ensure that the process is executed well and in good time. Once the crop has matured, limited time is available for harvesting after which the crop can become over-ripe and will no longer comply with quality standards.

Planning and preparing for harvesting include the following:

Deciding on the harvesting methods that will be used

Crop estimates

Maturity indexing and crop monitoring

Personnel requirements and preparation

Equipment requirements and preparation

DDeetteerrmmiinniinngg HHaarrvveessttiinngg MMeetthhooddss

Before the rest of the planning and preparation can be done, a number of decisions have to be taken with regard to how the harvest will be executed. These decisions are in many cases taken simply on the basis of how the crop was harvested in the past. If it is however the first time that the fruit will be harvested, all the available options must be carefully considered.

The first decision that must be taken is relevant to the containers to be used. The following factors are taken into account:

The volume to be harvested. An exact crop estimate is not required but expected average yield per hectare must be taken into account.

The availability of equipment. Equipment such as picking bins can be rented but picking trailers usually require a capital investment. The availability of tractors must also be taken into account, as well as the need for flatbed trailers to transport bins. In some cases a pick-up would suffice and larger bins and trailers may not be necessary.

The distance and the condition of the roads from the field to the pack house.

The process capacity of the pack house and ability of workers when fruit is offloaded.

Some pack houses have the facilities to offload fruit from picking trailers, while others have facilities to tip bins.




The second decision to be taken is to select the harvest technique. Fruit may be more likely to be injured when snap picking is used as the workers grip the fruit harder, but snap picking is considerably faster than clipping. It is also more difficult to keep stems short when snap picking. Fruit destined for export should be picked with clippers to limit injury during harvest and while being transported, while snap picking is acceptable for fruit that is destined for processing. The picking of tomatoes destined to be sold in chain-stores will differ from the picking method of tomatoes destined for processing.

The third decision that must be taken is whether selective picking will be done. In some cases it makes sense to pick the export quality fruit first, followed by fruit suitable for the local market and processing factories.

Well-trained workers will select fruit in the orchard that comply with the external quality and size requirements for export fruit, leaving the fruit that obviously do not comply with these requirements on the trees. After the export fruit has been picked, a second team follows to strip the trees of the remaining fruit by means of snap picking, which is then sent straight to the processing plant. The advantage of this method is that the harvesting process is speeded up and intake costs at the pack house are reduced. It does however complicate the management of the harvesting process as it is possible that export quality fruit can be sent directly for processing if the workers are not well-trained.

Green house crops, such as tomatoes or cucumbers have a continuous harvesting process, meaning that picking takes place on a weekly basis and only harvest ready fruit is selected.

CCrroopp EEssttiimmaatteess

An accurate crop estimate is the basis for calculating equipment and personnel needed to harvest the crop within the normal picking period. The estimate must, apart from crop volume, also indicate projected size range per cultivar, external quality and estimated time of ripening.

There is no foolproof method for estimating the crop size as it can be influenced by seasonal variations, climate etc. However, it is possible to achieve reasonable accuracy by basing estimates on the following information:

• Accurate census

• Historical export percentages

• Seasonal variations based on field observations and information exchange with other growers in the area.

The initial estimates are generally made available to management and submitted to the pack house. It is used for preparation of budgets, marketing planning and the preliminary calculation of packing material requirements.

Fruit predictions are based on fruit diameter measurements determined at shorter intervals. A growth curve is then established and correlated with data from previous seasons.




MMaattuurriittyy IInnddeexxiinngg aanndd CCrroopp PPrreeppaarraattiioonn

Maturity indexing is the monitoring of internal and external development of the crop shortly before harvest. This is done in conjunction with the actions described above for crop estimates. The crop is picked and tested for internal quality at a period well before harvest. Aspects such as fruit colour may be judged and noted. The information can be recorded and maturity curves developed, which indicates the expected time to maturity and therefore the expected harvest date.

It is important that the crop is protected from pests and diseases (especially fruit fly) during the crop preparation stage and ensuring that pre-harvest intervals for plant protection products are adhered to.

PPeerrssoonnnneell RReeqquuiirreemmeennttss

The number of harvest workers and supervisors required during harvest is determined by the estimated crop size and the period in which the harvesting must be completed for each cultivar.

Such planning may be more complex for some crops and cultivars than for others. Harvesting soft citrus for instance, is complex because each of the cultivar types has different requirements. Harvest strategies may also differ due to different market requirements.

Another aspect to bear in mind, when determining the labour force, is the number of harvest hours that could be spent per day. The table below provides an example of the number of picking hours available per day for citrus harvested in the Western Cape and in the Lowveld. The table provides an indication of the differences in time available for harvesting during the picking season.

Picking Time

(Hours per Day) Month

Western Cape

Lowveld

March 7 6

April 6 7 May to July 5 8 August and September 6 8

The information in the table above is used to estimate the number of picking hours available to harvest the crop within the normal harvest period for different cultivars and for the entire production unit.

The table below provides an estimate of the average expected yield (t/ha) and the average harvesting rate (kg/picker/hour) for the various citrus cultivars to achieve this expected yield. One can then calculate the harvesting man-hours required per hectare by dividing the yield (kg/ha) by the average picking rate (kg/hour).




Cultivar Yield (t/ha)

Picking Rate(kg/hour)

Man-Hours (per ha)

Navels 40 170 235

Valencias 50 170 294 Lemons 55 85 647 Oroval / Marisol 45 80 563

Other Clementines 45 60 750 Satsumas 50 60-80 833

The number of harvesters per hectare can then calculated by dividing the total man hours needed for by the available picking hours, as in the table below.

Cultivar Harvest

readiness Effective Picking

Days

Available Picking Hours

Man-Hours per ha

Pickers Required

per ha Navels May / June

(6 weeks) 20 5h x 20d = 100 235 7.4

Valencias Aug / Sept (7 weeks)

25 6h x 25d = 150 294 2

Lemons April / June (8 weeks)

30 5h x 30d = 150 647 2.6

Marisol April (2 weeks)

7 6h x 7d = 42 563 13.4

Oroval May (2 weeks)

7 5h x 7d = 35 563 16.1

Other Clementines

May / June (5 weeks)

15 5h x 15d = 75 750 10

The number of supervisors or quality-controllers dependents on the number of harvesters required. The ideal number of pickers per quality-controller will range between 18 and 25. This ratio will decrease with an increase in the susceptibility of the fruit to injury.

Additional temporary workers are normally taken on during harvest and permanent workers are usually used as supervisors. Temporary workers are normally sourced from the surrounding community and are normally experienced in harvesting. Specialised harvesters may travel the region from one farm to the next with the aim of finding work as harvesters. One should always ensure that workers are trained in the specific harvest process required on farm. This also holds true for experienced and specialised harvest workers. Training of supervisors should take place at least three weeks before harvest and for pickers two weeks.

The necessity for maintaining safety and a good quality crop throughout the harvesting process must be emphasized to all temporary and permanent workers as




part of the training process, as well as the regulations and procedures with regard to worker’s health and safety.

It is also recommended to allow temporary workers, especially those that will be involved in the picking process for the first time, to familiarise themselves with the layout of the farm before the harvest starts. The availability of sufficient ablution facilities to accommodate all workers is essential.

Protective clothing must be issued to all workers. As a rule, workers are issued with overalls, gumboots, gloves and harvest tools where necessary. The clothing should be clean, neat and in good condition at all times.

Check that all tools and equipment are clean and serviced before the harvest starts. Picking bags must be clean and intact. Picking bags must have the same internal size when wages are paid according to the quantity bags picked per day. Ladders must be well maintained and strong enough to withstand daily handling and the weight of individual pickers. Clippers must be sharp to enable the picker to clip the stem according to instruction to prevent fruit from being injured during transportation and handling in the pack house. Picking trailers and bins must be serviced beforehand and cleaned thoroughly.

55..44 MMaaiinnttaaiinn FFoooodd SSaaffeettyy aanndd CCrroopp QQuuaalliittyy During harvest the quality and wellbeing of the fruit must be maintained at all times. The most important principles in this regard are:

• Pickers must know of the hygiene requirements for the safe handling of a crop.

• Pickers must keep their nails short at all times to prevent injury to fruit.

• Pickers must wash their hands regularly, especially after using the toilet.

• The stems of fruit must be short to prevent injury to other fruit during transportation.

• Pickers must not run with filled bags, as this can cause bruising to the crop.

• Crops must not be harvested while it is wet due to dew or if the humidity is high.

• Crops must not be left in the sun for too long before taken to the pack house.




55..55 HHeeaalltthh aanndd SSaaffeettyy Worker health and safety is prescribed and regulated by the Occupational Health and Safety Act. The Act prescribes what employers should do to create a safe working environment for workers and how workers should adhere to the health and safety policies and procedures in the workplace. The requirements of the Act were described in detail at a previous level.

Workers must be made aware of the possible dangers to their health and safety during the harvesting process, and specifically:

• When ladders are used, it must be placed securely against the tree canopy to prevent injury.

• When clippers and knives are used, it must be handled with care.

• Trailers and tractors pose a specific risk because they have moving parts.

• Harvesters must be warned of other production activities, e.g. spraying.

The employer must ensure that the workers have all the tools and equipment that they require to perform their tasks and that the tools and equipment is in a good working condition. The employer must furthermore ensure that workers are well-trained for the tasks that they have been given and that they are given clear instructions on what is expected from them. Developing and enforcing health and safety policies and procedures are also the responsibility of the employer.

55..66 HHaarrvveesstt MMaannaaggeemmeenntt Harvesting is a labour intensive process that has to be completed in a certain time frame. It is important that it is done correctly and with as little damage to the crop as possible. A whole season’s worth of effort and production inputs can go to waste if the crop is not harvested correctly.

During the harvesting process, continuous management input and control is required to ensure that the process goes according to plan. If a problem occurs, it must be addressed immediately and contingency plans must be in place to react to emergency situations.




Supervisors in the field must pay attention to the following:

Checklist

Action: Done? 1 Inspect the cleanliness and condition of ladders, clippers, picking bags,

containers etc., on a daily basis.

2 Inspect the pickers’ fingernails which must be short to prevent injuries to the crop.

3 Ensure that enough drinking water is available. 4 Monitor hygiene standards, including hand-washing after using the toilet.

Ensure that there is a sufficient supply of soap, clean water and towels to encourage the use thereof.

5 Supervise general harvesting and handling of the crop from the field to the container.

6 Monitor the quality of the harvested crop. Provide immediate feedback to the harvesters of both good and poor results.

7 Ensure that the harvesters do not run to empty the picking bags and that these are emptied carefully so as not to cause injuries to the crop.

8 Ensure that bins or trailers are not overfull when it is transported to the pack house.

9 Inspect all fallen or decayed fruit to establish the reasons for being sub-standard. Avoid careless picking as it is a direct loss of income.

10 Prohibit workers from picking up fallen fruit, even if the fruit is intact and was dropped by accident. Pathogens and other contaminants are found on the orchard’s ground service which can influence the fruit’s health.

11 All fallen and decayed fruit should be disinfected to reduce the possibility of pathogens being carried by fresh produce. Decay can also be caused by insects such as fruit fly and false codling moth which can re-infest fruit in unpicked orchards. Such fruit should be either mulched at the side of the orchard or buried under at least a metre of soil.

Harvesting records are kept as part of the harvesting process. Records of daily picking must be kept that include details of the orchard and the volumes picked. Management is enabled to monitor the harvesting process by using the information on the harvest records to ensure that progress is according to plan. If there is a noticeable drop in productivity, the reasons for this must be determined without delay.

If time is lost during harvesting due to bad weather, a strategy must be developed to increase the harvest rate or lengthen the harvest period. (Keep in mind that certain crops cannot be harvested while it is wet.)

Management must remain in contact with the pack house at all times to inform them of the progress that is being made and the planning for the foreseeable future.





1. What are the harvest procedures and requirements for the crop at you place of work.

2. Identify and explain each of the specific procedures/practices that you have to apply to on farm.


1. Determine the primary health and hygiene procedures that are followed at your place of work.

2. In your opinion, are these procedures sufficient?

3. Demonstrate\explain the procedures to a group member.


1. Which regulations and legislations are relevant to the crops and farming system as it is applied on your farm. (Market specifications, pesticides act, OHS, HACCP and EUPREGAP)



like to ask

The procedures for successful harvesting are determined and applied.

Harvest practices are recognised and explained.

Good health and hygiene principles are determined and applied.

Relevant regulations and legislation regarding health and hygiene are sourced and applied.




SSeessssiioonn 66

PPoosstt hhaarrvveesstt pprroocceedduurreess

After completing this session, you should be able to: SO 6: Compare and interpret post-harvest procedures within relevant enterprise

66..11 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn The post-harvest procedures take place immediately after the conclusion of harvest activities. This process includes cooling, cleaning, special treatments, sorting and packing. The quality and appearance of a crop starts to deteriorate as from the moment it is harvested. Post-harvest handling largely determines the final quality of the product on the market. Initial post-harvest storage conditions are critical to maintain quality. The optimum temperature and humidity for crop handling differs from one crop to the next.

The main post-harvest procedure for handling harvested crops is generally applied to crops (fruit and veggies) irrespective to the target market. There are a number of processes that the crop may undergo in the pack house that are considered to be part of the packing process. The crop may undergo the following processes in the pack house:

• Offloading fruit at pack house and product identification • Decay control practices • Washing • Grading • Labelling • Sizing, packing and marking • Palletising

The main requirements for post-harvest processes are:

• Post-harvest treatment chemicals • Packing material • Employees




66..22 PPoosstt HHaarrvveesstt PPrraaccttiicceess Before addressing post-harvest measures, it is important to stress that numerous post-harvest diseases and disorders that may result from pre-harvest practices and infections and have to be adequately dealt with to assist with successful post-harvest handling and control measures.

The post-harvest procedures as discussed are divided into the following focus areas:

Transport and handling from field to packing line

The packing line

Chemical treatments and waxing

TTrraannssppoorrtt aanndd HHaannddlliinngg

The most important factors in this procedure are:

• Crops should be delivered to the pack house with minimal delay after picking. • Trailers and bins must be clean and in good condition. • Tyres of trailers and vehicles should not be over-inflated. • Fruit must be covered on dust\dirt roads. • Transport at high speeds should be avoided. • If there is a delay between the arrival at the pack house and processing, the

fruit must be drenched with chlorinated water.

TThhee PPaacckkiinngg LLiinnee

• The conveyor belt must be carefully prepared prior to packing to ensure that it is mechanically sound to cope with the volume of fruit to be processed.

• Nozzles and pumps of high pressure spray equipment should be tested and if necessary replaced to ensure that the fruit is not injured.

• All areas through which fruit moves has to be inspected beforehand and regularly during the season for sharp and protruding points and objects which may harm the fruit.

• The supply volume of crop\fruit into the line has to be balanced between the line capacity, crop quality and the handling capacity of the workers at the various work stations.

• Juice and wax build up must be cleaned regularly. • A culture of neatness and cleanliness in and around the pack house and all

work stations should be developed.

CChheemmiiccaall TTrreeaattmmeennttss aanndd WWaaxxiinngg

• Only chemicals and waxes, approved by current local and overseas regulations regarding residue allowances, must be used.

• Water used must be of an acceptable quality. • Chemical concentrations must be accurately adhered to and monitored on an

hourly basis throughout the working day.




• Wax application must be at prescribed levels and monitored hourly. • Quantities used and inspection data should be recorded and processed for

control and further reference.

66..33 PPoosstt HHaarrvveesstt PPrroocceedduurreess ffoorr DDiiffffeerreenntt MMaarrkkeettss

The main markets for citrus fruit are:

• Export markets • Local fresh fruit markets • Processing (juicing)

Export markets have very high external and internal quality standards. Crops must comply with the specific requirements regarding colour, size, shape and it must be almost blemish-free. In addition, the internal quality standards also regulate aspects such as juice percentage and the sugar and acid levels, which determine the taste.

The requirements for the local fresh produce markets are not as strict and crops of a lower external quality can be supplied here. There are normally no specific requirements for the external quality of fruit that is sent for processing.

It is however important to remember that all crops, whether it is destined for export, local markets or processing, is destined for human consumption. All fruit crops must therefore be sound, with no decay or internal insect infestation (such as from fruit fly or false codling moth), must not be split or granulated and must not have possible contaminants or colorants on the external surface of the fruit which could affect the internal quality.

66..44 MMoonniittoorriinngg PPoosstt--HHaarrvveesstt PPrroocceedduurreess The only way to ensure that correct practices are followed during harvest is by means of a recordkeeping system which is enforced and monitored on an ongoing basis.

Tyre pressures must be tested and recorded at least at the beginning of every day. The condition and cleanliness of trailers and bins must be monitored on arrival at the pack house and at the orchard.

All actions and procedures in the pack house must be recorded. Regular inspections at work stations are imperative. Abnormalities must be recorded and communicated to supervisors and management.




66..55 HHeeaalltthh aanndd HHyyggiieennee PPrriinncciipplleess,, RReegguullaattiioonnss aanndd LLeeggiissllaattiioonn

The general health, safety and hygiene principles discussed in the previous chapter are also applicable for all post-harvest activities.

The Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 regulate the health and safety of workers using plant equipments and machinery. It also provides protection to people (other than workers) against hazards to health and safety arising out of activities of persons at work. The basic duties and responsibilities of the employer towards the employees in the work place are also applicable to all post-harvest procedure.

Apart from the legal requirements, registration for EurepGAP also requires a number of specific actions with regard to post-harvest handling of produce:

Checklist Action: Done? 1 A hygiene risk analysis should be performed at the produce

handling process which covers the complete process up to the point of dispatch to the market. The hygiene risk analysis should be well-documented although it is only categorised at a minor level for compliance.

2 Training of and instructions to workers regarding the hygienic way of produce handling must be recorded and acknowledgement signed by workers after receiving the training and instructions.

3 The implementation of the actions identified in the risk analysis should be visible, documented and monitored on a regular basis.

4 Water used for washing the final product should be potable and declared safe for use by the competent authorities.

5 Re-circulated water should be filtered. The pH concentration and exposure levels of disinfectants must be monitored regularly.

6 Water analysis should be carried out by an accredited laboratory. 7 All post-harvest treatments must be applied and documented as

prescribed by trained employees.

8 All the products (wax, detergents, etc.,) used to treat the fruit must be officially registered and permitted by the appropriate governmental organisation and allowed under the regulations of the country of destination.

Audits should be carried out (preferably by an external agency) on a regular basis concerning all the processes identified under the quality management system.




The results of the audits and corrective actions taken should be recorded and subject to ongoing management assessment or review of the effectiveness of the system.

The legislation on health and hygiene, as well as requirements for registration for EurepGAP and other systems, clearly states the conditions for employees and non-employees in a working environment. A well-documented risk analysis covering the complete process from production to dispatch should form the basis of determining actions and facilities to ensure a healthy work environment.

All actions and activities emanating from that should become part of a permanent management culture by means of training, monitoring and assessing in the organisation. If that is not the case and a lot of actions were, for instance, identified for EurepGAP registration but not followed up thereafter, old habits and practices will quickly become the norm again.

Examples of good practices and the effects of non-compliance are:

• Training and instruction must be documented. If this is not documented nobody will know who has received training or what instructions have been given.

• Employees must acknowledge training and their understanding of their instructions in writing. It is important to be sure that they comprehend the detail of the job they are required to do.

• Work stations and the environment must be measured to determine the effect it has on sight, hearing and fatigue. The quality of work and employee’s health can suffer if these aspects are not addressed.

• Regular audits of all processes must be conducted by independent staff or an external body. A fact: Regular staff members do not always recognise mistakes or deviations from procedures.

• Audit results and corrective measures must be recorded. It is important in the process of ensuring that actions were actually taken and determining recurring problems.





1. Discuss the post harvest handling of crops at the farm where you work.

2. What are the post harvest procedures that are used on farm?

3. Identify an explain the health and hygiene practices that are followed on the farm

4. Have you received training in these practices?

5. Are there procedures available on farm?



like to ask

The procedures for successful post harvesting are determined and interpreted.

Post harvest practices are recognised and explained.

Good health and hygiene principles are compared and interpreted.

Relevant regulations and legislation regarding health and hygiene are determined and applied.

MMyy NNootteess …… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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GGlloossssaarryy

Term Description

Agrochemicals Agrochemicals are all chemical substances utilised in pre- and post-harvest processes to produce horticultural products for fresh consumption.

Climate

Climate is the average weather, usually taken over a 30 year period, for a particular region and time period. Climate is not the same as weather, but is the average pattern of weather for a particular region. Climatic elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, hail-storms and other measures of the weather.

Infrastructure Infrastructure refers to services and facilities that support day-to-day economic activity, in this case a citrus production unit.

Market The market is a network in which buyers and sellers interact to exchange goods and services for money.

Market Demand Market demand is the total demand or request for a product by all consumers.

Microclimate Microclimate refers to the climate of a small site. It may differ from the climate large of the area due to aspect, tree cover (or the absence of tree cover), or exposure to winds.

Natural resources

Natural resources are the various elements in any given farming environment which will contribute to the production of a quality product on a profitable and sustainable basis, without detrimental effects on the environment.

Soil fertility Soil fertility refers to the nutrient content of the soil and its resultant ability of the soil to sustain plant growth.

Soil potential Soil potential refers to the ability of the soil to support plant growth and produce a good quality crop.

Weather

Weather is the specific condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It is measured in terms of factors such as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. In most places, weather changes from hour to hour, day to day, and season to season.




AAmm II rreeaaddyy ffoorr mmyy tteesstt?? Check your plan carefully to make sure that you prepare in good time. You have to be found competent by a qualified assessor to be declared

competent. Inform the assessor if you have any special needs or requirements before

the agreed date for the test to be completed. You might, for example, require an interpreter to translate the questions to your mother tongue, or you might need to take this test orally.

Use this worksheet to help you prepare for the test. These are examples of possible questions that might appear in the test. All the information you need was taught in the classroom and can be found in the learner guide that you received.

1. I am sure of this and understand it well 2. I am unsure of this and need to ask the Facilitator or Assessor to explain what it means

Questions 1. I am sure 2. I am unsure

1. Why should soil samples be collected

2. Why should water quality be determined

3. What is the benefit of weather forecasts to the farmer

4. Why is topographical information important in deciding on which crops to grow

5. Why is it important to identify natural vegetation occurring on your farm

6. What are the main components of farm infrastructure

7. Define Infrastructure Maintenance

8. What is production stock

9. What are production management systems

10. Why should a production cycle be monitored and maintained

11. Why is harvest planning important?




CChheecckklliisstt ffoorr pprraaccttiiccaall aasssseessssmmeenntt …… Use the checklist below to help you prepare for the part of the practical assessment when you are observed on the attitudes and attributes that you need to have to be found competent for this learning module.

Observations Answer Yes or No

Motivate your Answer (Give examples, reasons, etc.)

Can you identify problems and deficiencies correctly?

Are you able to work well in a team?

Do you work in an organised and systematic way while performing all tasks and tests?

Are you able to collect the correct and appropriate information and / or samples as per the instructions and procedures that you were taught?

Are you able to communicate your knowledge orally and in writing, in such a way that you show what knowledge you have gained?

Can you base your tasks and answers on scientific knowledge that you have learnt?

Are you able to show and perform the tasks required correctly?

Are you able to link the knowledge, skills and attitudes that you have learnt in this module of learning to specific duties in your job or in the community where you live?

The assessor will complete a checklist that gives details of the points that are checked and assessed by the assessor.

The assessor will write commentary and feedback on that checklist. They will discuss all commentary and feedback with you.

You will be asked to give your own feedback and to sign this document. It will be placed together with this completed guide in a file as part

of you portfolio of evidence. The assessor will give you feedback on the test and guide you if there are

areas in which you still need further development.




PPaappeerrwwoorrkk ttoo bbee ddoonnee …… Please assist the assessor by filling in this form and then sign as instructed.

Learner Information Form

Unit Standard 116214

Program Date(s)

Assessment Date(s)

Surname

First Name

Learner ID / SETA Registration Number

Job / Role Title

Home Language

Gender: Male: Female:

Race: African: Coloured: Indian/Asian: White:

Employment: Permanent: Non-permanent:

Disabled Yes: No:

Date of Birth

ID Number

Contact Telephone Numbers

Email Address

Postal Address

Signature:




BBiibblliiooggrraapphhyy BBooookkss::

Citrus Research International: Integrated Production Guidelines for Export Citrus – Research and Extension Services

Soil Science 314 Part 2, Class Notes, Department Soil Science, Stellenbosch University

Cabeton Consulting, Enterprise Selection and Planning, NQF Level 1 Learner Guide

TTeerrmmss && CCoonnddiittiioonnss This material was developed with public funding and for that reason this material is available at no charge from the AgriSETA website (www.agriseta.co.za). Users are free to produce and adapt this material to the maximum benefit of the learner. No user is allowed to sell this material whatsoever.




AAcckknnoowwlleeddggeemmeennttss

PPrroojjeecctt MMaannaaggeemmeenntt::

IMPETUS Consulting and Skills Development

DDoonnoorrss::

Citrus Academy

AAuutthheennttiiccaattoorr::

Prof P J Robbertse

TTeecchhnniiccaall EEddiittiinngg::

Mr R H Meinhardt

OOBBEE FFoorrmmaattttiinngg::

Ms B Enslin

DDeessiiggnn::

Didacsa Design SA (Pty) Ltd

LLaayyoouutt::

Ms N Matloa

All qualifications and unit standards registered on the National Qualifications Framework are public property. Thus the only payment that can be made for them is for service and reproduction. It is illegal to sell this material for profit. If the material is reproduced or quoted, the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) should be acknowledged as the source.

SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY

REGISTERED UNIT STANDARD:

Interpret factors influencing agricultural enterprises and plan accordingly

SAQA US ID UNIT STANDARD TITLE

116214 Interpret factors influencing agricultural enterprises and plan accordingly

SGB NAME NSB PROVIDER NAME

SGB Primary Agriculture

NSB 01-Agriculture and Nature Conservation

FIELD SUBFIELD

Agriculture and Nature Conservation Primary Agriculture

ABET BAND UNIT STANDARD TYPE NQF LEVEL CREDITS

Undefined Regular Level 3 3

REGISTRATION STATUS

REGISTRATION START DATE REGISTRATION END DATE

SAQA DECISION NUMBER

Registered 2004-10-13 2007-10-13 SAQA 0156/04

PURPOSE OF THE UNIT STANDARD

Qualifying learners are capable of interpreting the factors influencing agricultural enterprises and enterprise selection and production, and of planning accordingly. In addition they will be well positioned to extend their learning and practice into other areas of agriculture, specifically crop production and animal production systems. This training will benefit the profession by equipping learners with adequate skills to have input into the interpretation of factors influencing enterprise selection, and to production planning to improve productivity and performance. Learners will understand the importance of the application of business principles in agricultural production with specific reference to enterprise planning. They will be able to operate farming practices as businesses and will gain the knowledge and skills to move from a subsistence orientation to an economic orientation in agriculture. Farmers will gain the knowledge and skills to access mainstream agriculture through a business-orientated approach to agriculture.

LEARNING ASSUMED TO BE IN PLACE AND RECOGNITION OF PRIOR LEARNING

It is assumed that a learner attempting this unit standard will demonstrate competence against the unit standards or equivalent: • NQF 2: Identify and recognise factors influencing agricultural enterprise selection.

UNIT STANDARD RANGE

Whilst range statements have been defined generically to include as wide a set of alternatives as possible, all range statements should be interpreted within the specific context of application. Range statements are neither comprehensive nor necessarily appropriate to all contexts. Alternatives must however be comparable in scope and complexity. These are only as a general guide to scope and complexity of what is required.

UNIT STANDARD OUTCOME HEADER

N/A

Specific Outcomes and Assessment Criteria:

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1

Interpret and categorise natural resources required for the selection of the relevant enterprise.

OUTCOME RANGE

Natural resources include but are not limited to soil, water, climate, vegetation, topography and other.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

ASSESSMENT CRITERION 1

Soil sampling results and recommendations for selection of the enterprise is interpreted and categorised.


Results and recommendation of water samples are interpreted and applied.


Climatic weather forecasts required for the selection of the relevant enterprise are interpreted.


Topography data required for the selection of the relevant enterprise is interpreted and categorised.


Vegetation types relevant to the selection process are described.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 2

Categorise and maintain infrastructural requirements for the selection of the enterprise.

OUTCOME RANGE

Infrastructural requirements include but are not limited to fencing, housing and water supply, electricity, handling facilities, access and other.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA


The role and function of infrastructure is described.


Maintenance requirements of the required infrastructure is defined and described.


Relevant regulations and legislation regarding infrastructure is interpreted and explained.


Relevant infrastructure required by the relevant enterprise is described.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3

Determine stock required for the relevant enterprise.

OUTCOME RANGE

All livestock and crops required for the relevant enterprise.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA


Basic production information within the enterprise regarding stock is interpreted.


Characteristics of specific livestock and crops for the relevant enterprise are described and interpreted.


The requirements of the livestock and crops for the relevant enterprise are determined and described.


The suitability of the livestock and crops according to available resources and maintenance required is determined.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 4

Define and interpret production procedures within the relevant enterprise.

OUTCOME RANGE


ASSESSMENT CRITERIA


Production cycle procedures and maintenance thereof are defined and interpreted.


Production cycles according to observation reports are interpreted.


Maintenance of production records are interpreted and explained.


Market information affecting production of the relevant enterprise are interpreted and explained.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 5

Determine and apply harvest procedures within relevant enterprises.

OUTCOME RANGE

All livestock and crops required for the relevant enterprises.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA


The procedures for successful harvesting are determined and applied.


Harvest practices are recognised and explained.


Good health and hygiene principles are determined and applied.


Relevant regulations and legislation regarding health and hygiene are sourced and applied.

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 6

Compare and interpret post harvest procedures within relevant enterprises.

OUTCOME RANGE


ASSESSMENT CRITERIA


The procedures for successful post harvesting are determined and interpreted.


Post harvest practices are recognised and explained.


Good health and hygiene principles are compared and interpreted.


Relevant regulations and legislation regarding health and hygiene are determined and applied.

UNIT STANDARD ACCREDITATION AND MODERATION OPTIONS

The assessment of qualifying learners against this standard should meet the requirements of established assessment principles. It will be necessary to develop assessment activities and tools, which are appropriate to the contexts in which the qualifying learners are working. These activities and tools may include an appropriate combination of self-assessment and peer assessment, formative and summative assessment, portfolios and observations etc. The assessment should ensure that all the specific outcomes; critical cross-field outcomes and essential embedded knowledge are assessed. The specific outcomes must be assessed through observation of performance. Supporting evidence should be used to prove competence of specific outcomes only when they are not clearly seen in the actual performance. Essential embedded knowledge must be assessed in its own right, through oral or written evidence and cannot be assessed only by being observed. The specific outcomes and essential embedded knowledge must be assessed in relation to each other. If a qualifying learner is able to explain the essential embedded knowledge but is unable to perform the specific outcomes, they should not be assessed as competent. Similarly, if a qualifying learner is able to perform the specific outcomes but is unable to explain or justify their performance in terms of the essential embedded knowledge, then they should not be assessed as competent. Evidence of the specified critical cross-field outcomes should be found both in performance and in the essential embedded knowledge. Performance of specific outcomes must actively affirm target groups of qualifying learners, not unfairly discriminate against them. Qualifying learners should be able to justify their performance in terms of these values. • Anyone assessing a learner against this unit standard must be registered as an assessor with the relevant ETQA.

• Any institution offering learning that will enable achievement of this unit standard or assessing this unit standard must be accredited as a provider with the relevant ETQA. • Moderation of assessment will be overseen by the relevant ETQA according to the moderation guidelines in the relevant qualification and the agreed ETQA procedures.

UNIT STANDARD ESSENTIAL EMBEDDED KNOWLEDGE

The person is able to demonstrate a basic knowledge of: • Role and function of soil and water samples, weather information, vegetation, infrastructure, livestock and crop characteristics, production cycles, records, markets, health and hygiene within production procedures. • Description, characteristics and properties of vegetation, infrastructure, weather, production cycles, markets within production procedures. • Livestock and crop characteristics. • Regulations and legislation related to production procedures. • Relationship of outcomes within unit standards in relation to each other and within production procedures. • Purpose is to ensure that the learner is able to consider all factors when deciding on what enterprise to establish. • Literacy and numeracy skills. • Communication and reporting skills. • Understand the procedures and principles that are followed to determine the viability of an enterprise.

UNIT STANDARD DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOME

N/A

UNIT STANDARD LINKAGES

N/A

Critical Cross-field Outcomes (CCFO):

UNIT STANDARD CCFO IDENTIFYING

Problem Solving: relates to all specific outcomes.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO WORKING

Teamwork: relates to all specific outcomes.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO ORGANIZING

Self-management: relates to all specific outcomes.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO COLLECTING

Information evaluation: relates to all specific outcomes.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO COMMUNICATING

Communication: relates to all specific outcomes.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO SCIENCE

Science and Technology: relates to all specific outcomes.

UNIT STANDARD CCFO CONTRIBUTING

Self-development: relates to all specific outcomes.

UNIT STANDARD ASSESSOR CRITERIA

N/A

UNIT STANDARD NOTES

N/A

All qualifications and unit standards registered on the National Qualifications Framework are public property. Thus the only payment that can be made for them is for service and reproduction. It is illegal to sell this material for profit. If the material is reproduced or quoted, the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) should be acknowledged as the source.

Factors influencing tthe planning of Agricultural Enterprises · 1.2 Soil status As part of the...

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