FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS' VOTING BEHAVIOUR: THE CASE OF INTERNATIONAL

ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA (IIUM)

BY

MOHAMMED NUR' AYN AL-SUMATERANI BIN MOHAMMED AMIRUDDIN

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences

(Political Science)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

AUGUST2012

ABSTRACT

University students are future leaders of our country. However, most undergraduate students are not eligible to vote in_general elections except those in the final year who have reached the minimum age of 21 years old. This study is about the factors that influence IIUM students in their voting choices. The aim of this study is to determine the students' perception on voting and election and to consider what would interest the students to vote. This study benefits from data collected in a research project entitled "A survey of nation-building: Attitudes and expectations of university students in Malaysia" carried out by the Electoral Studies Research Unit, International Islamic University Malaysia in 2011. The findings suggest that all the factors studied in this

· research have a positive influence on students' interests to vote and these factors are important in their perception on voting. This study also .suggests that IIUM students have high interests to vote, therefore, it can assist the Ministry of Higher Education to evaluate the importance of students' perception on elections, and at the same time, assist political parties in deciding their focus during general elections.

11

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iii

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).

Tunku Mohar Tunku Mohd. Mokhtar Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).

M~h~~~···············

This thesis was submitted to the Department of Political Science and is accepted as a folfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).

. ' 1ruzzaman Head, Department of Political Science

This thesis was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requiremen · r the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science).

Abd. Majid f Revealed Knowledge

iv

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declared that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Name: Mohammed Nur'ayn Al-Sumaterani bin Mohammed Amiruddin

Signature: ...... . Date: ... IJ./2(/.?:~/~ ....... ..

V

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright© 2012 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All right reserved.

FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS' VOTING BEHAVIOUR: THE CASE OF INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA (IIUM)

I hereby confirm that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) holds all

rights in the copyright of this work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any form

or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of IIUM. No part of

this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted, in any form or by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Affirmed by Mohammed Nur'ayn Al-Sumaterani bin Mohammed Amiruddin

.... .1.~/1./ ~~ !.?-: ..... .

Signature Date

VI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Alhamdullilah to Allah for the strength and wisdom that have been given in me to finish this dissertation to fulfill the requirement of Master of Human Sciences (Political Science), Kulliyyah of Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University of Malaysia.

A thousand thanks to my supervisor, Dr. T~nku Mohar Tunku Mohd. Mokhtar, for his patience, guidance, opinion, cooperation and time that have enabled me to complete this dissertation. Thank you also to Dr. Muhamad Fuzi Omar, Dr. Muhamad Azman bin Shahadan, Professor Dr. Abdul Rashid Moten and Associate Professor Dr. Ishtiaq Hossain which have also helped me in through their guidance and information. Not forgetting to all Department of Political Science lecturers and colleagues that have helped me in during my time as an IIUM student.

To my beloved mom and dad .

•

Vll

TABLES OF CONTENTS

Abstract ••••••••••••••••••• •••·• .••••••.••••••••••••• •••••••••• •••••••• ••• ....................... 11

Abstract in Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... .. ..... 111

Approval page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1v Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. v Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. ...... ... .. vii Tables of Content .................. _......................................................... viii List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . ... .. .. ..... .. x List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. ... 1 1.1 Statement of problem ......................................................... 2 1.2 Justification of the study ...................................................... 3 1.3 Objectives of the study......................................................... 4 1.4 Literature review

Studies on elections in Malaysia ........... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Student activism and political participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9

1.5 Framework of analysis Candidate and party image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Media influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 Current issues . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . 14 Government policies ....................................................... 14

l.6 Hypothesis ...................................................................... 15 1. 7 Methodology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . ... 15 1.8 Chapter outline .................................................................. 16

CHAPTER 2: STUDENT ACTIVISM IN MALAYSIA AND ITS POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT

2.0 Introduction ..................................................................... 18 2.1 Student activism before Malaysia's independence ........................ 20 2.2 Student activism after independence ........................................ 23 2.3 University of Malaya Students Union (UMSU) ........................... 23 2.4 University of Malaya Malay Language Society ((PBMUM) ............ 29 2.5 National Association of Muslim Students of Malaysia (PKPIM) ...... 31 2.6 Present-Day student activism ................................................ 33 2.7 Conclusion ..................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DEMOGRAPHY

3.0 Introduction .................................................................... 39 3.1 Sampling ........................................................................ 39

vm

3.2 Instrument of analysis ......................................................... 39 3 .2 Research procedure ............................................................ 41 3.3 Statistical proposal ............................................................ 41 3 .4 Demography .................................................................... 42 3.5 Voter registration .............................................................. 48 3.6 Conclusion ..................................................................... 49

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS

4.0 Introduction ..................................................................... 51 4.1 The mass media ................................................................ 51 4.2 Support for political party .................................................... 53 4.3 Candidate and party image ................................ : . .................. 55 4.4 Government policies .......................................................... 60 4.5 Current issues ................................................................... 66 4.6 Conclusion ...................................................................... 74

CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION

5.0 Hypothesis analysis ........................................................... 77 5.1 Candidate and party image ................................................... 77 5.2 Media influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 81 5.3 Government policies ........................................................... 84 5 .4 Current issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 89 5.5 Summary

Candidate and party image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Media influence ............................................................ 95 Government policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Current issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5.6 Conclusion ..................................................................... 98

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... .. . . ..... ... ... . .. . ... .. . .. . ..... ... ... ... . . . . .. ....... .. ... . .... ...... 101

APPENDIX I: TABLES .................................................................... 105 APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................... 110

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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

3.1 Race 44

3.2 Courses taken in IIUM 45

3.3 Registered as a voter 48

4.1 Factors for respondents voting decision 55

4.2 Important characteristics in party and candidates 57

4.3 People's support for Barisan Nasional since 2008 general election 58

4.4 People's support for Pakatan Rakyat since 2008 general election 59 .

5.1 Model fitting result 77

5.2 Variables dropped from the full model 78

5.3 Parameter Estimates for Candidate and Party Image 79

5.4 Model fitting result 81

5.5 Parameter Estimates for Media influence 83

5.6 Model fitting result 84

5.7 Variables dropped from the full model 85

5.8 Parameter Estimates for Government policies 86

5.9 Model fitting result 89

5.10 Variables dropped from the full model 89

5.11 Parameter Estimates for Current issues 91

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

3.1 Gender 43

3.2 Age 43

3.3 Club member 46

3.4 Type of club joined 47

3.5 Factor influencing respondent to register as voter 49

4.1 Mass media usage in a week 52

4.2 Mass media level of trust 53

4.3 Mass media level of influence 54 . 4.4 People's support of political parties/coalitions 60

4.5 The federal government administrative system are based on the principles of democracy 62

4.6 The federal government is successful in lessening the incidences of corruption 63

4.7 The federal government is successful in administrating the nation fairly 64

4.8 The elections are free and fair 65

4.9 The public service's delivery system is transparent and efficient 65

4.10 The New Economic Model (NEM) is fair to all Malaysian 67

4.11 Malaysia's economic condition at the moment is satisfactory 68

4.12 The price of daily needs' items is reasonable 69

4.13 The federal government's subsidy rationalization effort would make the national economy more efficient and competitive 70

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4.14 Social issues such an abandonment of babies and "Mat Rempit" is at alarming level 71

4.15 The University and University College Act (UUCA) stifle students from being actively involved in society 72

4.16 The crime rate in the country is still not alarming 73

4.17 Respondent's perception in a year's time 74

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CHAPTER!

INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The 12th general election of Malaysia in 2008 produced significant and important

events in the history of Malaysia as for the first time, the opposition gained much

ground in this election. The Barisan Nasional only got a 51.4 percent of the votes, just

enough to form a majority government. Of those 10,740,227 registered and eligible

Malaysian voters, about 8,161,039 or roughly 76 percent went out to cast their vote in

the 2008 election, indicating a high political participation· of the people. 1

•

However, those numbers excluded around 70,000 students who could not vote

because of age limit. According to statistics, 51,517 students were registered in local

universities in 2005.2 That number has increased to 76,597 in 2009 indicating an

increase number of students in the society. The International Islamic University of

Malaysia (IIUM) is no exception. With 16,000 undergraduate students, it could

provide a significant impact towards the future administration of Malaysia. The role of

these youths cannot be denied as they are one of the elements in the nation's

development.

The perception of IIUM students could also be considered as a fragment of

what Malay university students in Malaysia perceive voting as a whole. Perception is

a process of assigning the meaning to stimuli. It involves the stimuli from the

1 Search for "Statistik Pilihan Raya" in <http://www.spr.gov.my>(accessed on 12th March 2012). 2 See "Jadual 2.4: Kemasukan Pelajar Peringkat Sarjana Muda Ke IPTA Mengikut Bidang, Tahun 2002 - 2007'', Kuala Lumpur, 2009, <http://www.mohe.gov.my/web _statistik/statistik_pdf_2008_ 05/ipta_2· 4.pdt> (accessed on 8th August 2009).

1

environment, organizing them and finally interpreting their meaning that would relate

to our daily lives. 3

In this case, the perception of students involve the organization of

meaning from an information (such as candidate and party image, media and

government) and finally interpreting them into either positive perception or negative

perception, depending on those stimuli.

Factors that are related to general election are tested on students. This is to

determine which, among these factors, influence them the most in their voting

behaviour. Their interest towards the factors is a big indication towards the progress of

Malaysia in the future.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In 2008, Barisan Nasional was seriously challenged by the opposition parties, and the

elections had shown how the mindset and politics of Malaysia have gone through a

changing phase whereby people did not simply vote because of the party's name, but

also on who represent them in the government.

Undergraduate students are not eligible to join the political world and political

parties when they are studying. According to the Act A295, University and University

Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1975 in Section 15, "no person, while he is a student of

the University, shall express or do anything which may be construed as expressing

support, sympathy or opposition to any political party ... "4 This means students are not

allowed to actively join any political party although according to Article 119 of the

Constitution, the eligible voting age for Malaysians is 21. Most of the final year

undergraduate students are eligible to vote.

3 Daniel M. Dunn, Communication Embracing Difference (Boston: Pearson Education, 2008), 57. 4 Government of Malaysia, Laws of Malaysia Act A295 University and University Colleges (Amendment) 1975 (Kuala Lumpur: Ketua pengarah percetakan dan diterbitkan dengan perintah, 1975), 3.

2

Because of the University and University Colleges Act (UUCA), students also

do not have the right to show any approval or disapproval of any political issue even if

they have their own opinion. In IIUM, the interaction between local and foreign

students makes IIUM students special as their exchange of information and

experiences of different government conducts could provide better insights as to what

is important in a government. Furthermore, labeled as an Islamic University, the

perception of what is good governance in Islam definitely be an advantage.

Thus, this study investigates the factors that would influence IIUM students in

an election and how they react to the world of politics and governance. The study does

not focus on the selection of voting choices by the students, but rather on students'

interest to vote. The study is expected to answer the following questions:

1. How do students perceive the voting and election process?

11. How do students perceive factors that are related to voting and elections?

iii. What is the student level of political awareness?

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This study is chosen for a number of reasons. An election is seen as the main focus in

deciding the future of the country and it is considered as one of the political events

that actually involves every citizen. Through elections, most candidates are being

subjected to early scrutiny with the manifesto that they carry. Therefore, the

perspective on general elections can change the mindset of the people of Malaysia and

this provide the basis for an interesting research as it would provide a prediction of

future electoral behaviour.

Students are future leaders being molded inside the comfort of intellectual

institutions like a university. They are taught how the world and the environment are

3

organised. Despite all these, Malaysian students are prohibited from joining the

political process due to the concern that it might interrupt their studies as well as

concern of its impact as it shown from the past. This policy is conducted in every

higher education institution including IIUM.

Besides that, as an Islamic university, it represents a umque interaction

between the government and the opposition party. IIUM is publicly funded by the

government and their teachings revolve around the fundamentals of Islam. In

Malaysia, for decades the main opposition for the government has been the Malaysian

Islamic Party (PAS) whose core also focuses on Islamic foundation. In addition, IIUM

undergraduate students in majority consist of malay students in all courses, thus

representing high level of malay students voting behav.iour pattern.

Therefore, the factors that may influence IIUM students would give a glimpse

of what is important to them in their voting behaviour. How much of the electoral

influences affect the students are the main focus of this study. Their young minds

certainly have vigorous ideas and as they are not yet involved in the political world,

they are most likely to be highly motivated to be part of this exciting world.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The tnain objectives of the study are:

1. To determine the students' perception on voting and election.

11. To determine and evaluate factors that influence students' interest to vote.

111. To determine students' political consciousness.

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1.4 LITERA TORE REVIEW

Studies On Elections In Malaysia

Malaysia is considered a democratic nation and as a state that is democratic, election

is an important instrument of political science that has to be studied. Research and

work on political participation in election are not new and have been done numerously

in many countries. Each democratic country in this world has different types of

election and party system in practice. A government could in itself divide the election

system into multiple directions in different countries and the change the effect

electoral system brings towards the formation of the party and voter selection. 5

It is however important to look first into the nature of the ruling party or the

government. An analysis of the interactions between the judiciary, executive and .

monarchy system has led to various forms of leaks in terms of checks and balances . . . .

within the government. 6 For example, in some of the cases which involve high

ranking ministers, the court institution sometimes is pressured in their judgments as in

the case of Anwar Ibrahim. The case was seen as an effort by the government to throw

out Anwar from his office. 7

Studies are also being done on the 'controlled electoral' carried out by the

government towards the opposition through the use of coercion, repression and

gerrymandering. 8 One of the tactics is the promise of development in the area but only

5 Giovanni Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (London: Macmillan Press LTD, 1994), 77. 6 Kershaw, Roger, "Shattered Symbiosis: The Road to Conflict between Malay Nationalism and Monarchy", International Asian-forum, Vol 24, (1993): 283 , David A. Wishart, "Malaysia: Dr Mahathir's Thinking on Constitutional Issues", Law Asia, (n.p., 1993): 48. 7Marzuki Mohamad, "Legal coercion, legal meanings and UMNO's legitimacy" in Politics in Malaysia, edited by Edmund Terence Gomez (New York: Routledge, 2007), 26. 8 Chandra Muzaffar, Freedom in Fetters: An Analysis of the State of Democracy in Malaysia, (Penang: Aliran Kesedaran Negara, 1986), James Gomez, Self Censorship Singapore's Shame, (Singapore: THINK Centre, 2000), Harold Crouch, Government& Society in Malaysia, (United States: Cornell University Press, 1996).

5

if the people elect the government's candidate; if the opposition wins, development

would cease to exist. 9

Another set of analyses focuses on the elite group of the government that

emerged during the rapid development of Malaysia in the 1980s. 10 During this time,

Mahathir Mohamad's effort to develop Malaysia was tainted by the subject of

cronyism which caused middle class Malays to feel dissatisfied in the distribution of

wealth; dominated only by those linked to high administration. Following these

studies are cases of money politics which were used to subdue shifting coalitions of

politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen, especially within the framework of the NEP

(New Economic Policy) introduced by the then Prime Minister. 11

Elections are traditionally associated with the effect of campaign and

candidates towards persuading voters to agree to the pr~positions given. 12 A study by

Globe has indicated three main interactions that are considered important in an

election: campaign, candidates and citizens. 13 The study also emphasizes the

importance of candidates during the election period. In this case, the author maintains

that voters' behaviour has only recently changed towards candidates. Before,

candidates did not have the ability to persuade voters on their own without the

consensus of the party or better labeled as 'party identification' .14

Following that is a study on party image playing a vital role in people's

decision to elect the governing state. The achievement and the ability of the party are

9 Ibid. 10 Johan Saravanamuttu, "The State, Authoritarianism and Industralisation: reflections on the Malaysia Case", Kajian Malaysia, vol. 5, (1987): 44. 11 Edmund T Gomez, Politics in Business: UMNO 's Corporation Investments (Kuala Lumpur: Forum, 1990), 47. 12Campbell. Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E.Miller and Donald E.Stokes. The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960). 13 Hannah Globe, "Inside the Echo Chambers: The Dynamic Interactions of Candidates, Campaigns and Citizens" (Master thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2009). 14 Ibid.

6

detenninants for the people in choosing the right party. 15 Malaysian political

environment mainly surrounded the image of the party and people chose because of

the party. This trend is derived from past political environment structures of the 1960s

where rural people chose UMNO because it was seen as a strong party and a good

government that provided facilities. Neighbors and families acted as the yard stick for

children and friends in influencing their vote. 16 However, again Globe has also shown

that people now also choose on the basis of the candidate that is· placed by the party

rather than just the party's image. 17

Furthermore, a different study insists that var10us factors influence the

decision which varies in its stability over time. Evaluations of candidate qualities and

government performance are distinctly short-term impact, capable of substantial shifts

from one election to the next. Party identification and ideology are much more stable

in the long term. A strong party would be able to dictate and withstand until the next

election, providing voters with more confidence in their choice. 18 Not many voters

change their party identification or ideology from one election to the next, and the

changes that do occur are often fairly small ones. While specific issues crucial in

candidates' elections can change dramatically, voters evaluate the candidates mainly

on the issues of policy. 19

Events occurring before general election also psychologically influence the

people that something is occurring in their government and they are studied closely.20

15Muhamad Nadzri Mohamed Noor, Politik Malaysia di Persimpangan. Praktik Politik dalam PRU 2008 dan Kontemporari (Petaling Jaya: SIRD, 2009), 24. 16 Marvin L.Rogers, Local Politics in Rural Malaysia.Pattern of Change in Sungai Paya (Colorado: Westview Press, 1992). 17Hannah, 12. 18 Donald D.Barry, Russian Politics : The Post-Soviet Phase, (New York: Peter Lang Publishing,

2002). 19Sobri Sudin Mohd. Hafidz Hussein, Globalisasi & Budaya Politik di Malaysia, (Sintok: Penerbit Universiti Utara Malaysia, 2006), 33. 200oi Kee Beng. March 8 Eclipsing May 13, (Singapore: !SEAS, 2008), Hannah, 12.

7

Example of these events prior to the 2008 electio_n incl_ude the rally of Bersih which

consisted of 64 NGOs and 5 political parties that demanded electoral reforms and the

rally of Hindraf organization which demanded a better social life for the Indian

community. Besides that, there were also cases of major events involving ill conduct

and conspiracy such as the Altantuya case, VK Lingam video tape and also the sex

scandal involving the Minister of Health.

During the 2008 general election, one catalyst was labeled as the cause for

how the election results turned out; that is the use of the media by the government and

the opposition party. The government used the media's fullest capability by utilizing

the nation's television, newspapers and radio stations to promote and propagate their

campaign issues. The use of these traditional media is restricted to the government

only and was guaranteed by a minister who commented that the government is the one

sponsoring the media and so the opposition has no right to use them. 21

For the opposition, having been prevented from using the traditional media,

they turned to new methods of campaigning. The use of information technology (IT)

and the Internet had certainly brought out a surprising result for the opposition. The

use of new technology in Malaysia's general election is not totally new, as it has been

used in America's general election, first in 1996 and then more integrally in 2004.22

Furthermore, the population is more engaged by redirecting their information sources

towards the Internet rather than the traditional media as it is considered more reliable.

According to a study, around 57 percent of the people aged between 21 and 29 used

the internet to gather information and news in the United States.23 Malaysia statistic

21Muhamad Nadzri Mohamed Noor, Politik Malaysia di Persimpangan. Praktik Politik dalam PRU 2008 dan Kontemporari, (Petalingjaya: SIRD, 2009), 14. 22Diana Owen, "The internet and youth civic engagement in the United States" in The Internet and politics, edited by Sarah Oates, Diana Owen and Rachel K. Gibson (Oxon: Routledge. 2006), 22. 23 Ibid.

8

are no different. From a number of 37.9 percent of Internet user in 2005, the number

rise to 62.8 percent in 2008, almost double in just three years.24

Elections involve multiple interactions between the people, government,

media and many more. Studies on these interactions have also produced various

outcomes and brought out new understanding of what an electorate means to the

elector and how important an election that represents democracies is. But at the same

time, manipulation of the election game seems to be so common that it indirectly

advocates the meaning of democracy. All those factors which influence voting

behaviour are usually directed towards the ruling party. Still, which factor that truly

gives the most impact is still unidentified as the factors collide with each other to

produce a single outcome in an election.

Student Activism and Political Participation

While most studies on elections focus on general electorate, this study concentrates on

students' perception on voting. Students are young adults who are normally passionate

about the surroundings. The image of the government would reflect the interests of the

students where by the desire to change the world is ever present in their young and

vibrant hearts. However, a research in America has shown that 73 percent of non­

voters are aged between 18 to 44 years old.25 This gives the impression that students

have low interest in elections and political environment including lack of interest in

choosing a government. Taking into consideration Muhammad Abu Bakar's statement

24 See "Malaysia internet usage stats and marketing report" ,2010, http://www.internetworldstat.com/asia/my.htm (accessed on 13 Mei 2010). . . . . 25 Jack C. Doppelt and Ellen Shearer, Nonvoters: America's No-Shows, (Cahfomia: Sage Pubhcat1ons,

1996), 17.

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that the movement of students in the world is universal in nature, it could be

generalised that students in Malaysia also have low interest in elections.26

Student involvement is in fact a major occurrence in some countries. Japan,

one of the countries that has a high level of education and literacy, has a population

that is mostly college and university based students. A sample involving college and

university students is often large; sometimes they overshadow that of the nation as a

whole. India also faces the same situation as a country that· has the fastest IT

university development; students tend to multiply and occupy various regions in the

country. This implication indicates that the population of student grows as the world

gets more developed; Malaysia is no exception. This could eventually lead to student

activism as they gain more ground. 27

Student activism was common in Malaysia in the past. During the early 1970s,

according to Muhammad Abu Bakar, university students put some pressure on the

authorities through demonstrations, dialogues and debates. It was later when the

government felt that this could lead to a bigger scenario that the University and

College University Act was introduced in 1971. This certainly did not happen only in

Malaysia, but according to Moreno, student activism also happened in the University

of California during the early 1970s which left a profound effect until today. These

movements which evolve around the aspect of education have lead to a milder

environment in the surroundings as well as better student quality today. But some of

. 26Muhammad Abu Bakar, Mahasiswa Menggugat: Satu Analisa dan Peninjauan Dari Da/am Terhadap Kegiatan Mahsiswa-mahasiswa Negeri lni, (KL: Pustaka Anta'ra, 1973). 27See University cooperation in India: Report of the National Seminar, (New Delhi: International Cooperative Alliance, Regional Office for Asia & the Pacific, 1991 ).

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the past activism still leaves a trace of hope for the younger generation to pick up

where they have left.28

In India however, the perception that university students are generally

'naturally aggressive' and their ability to express their opinion without severe

penalties have contributed to the existent of politicization of campus; a feature that

distinguishes Indian universities and colleges from most of other countries'

counterparts. High degrees of interaction between student leaders ·and politicians have

been the cause for the stable student movement which contributes to the fact that this

interaction forms a symbiosis link between students and politicians.29

The level of activism usually can be defined by the level of activity

participated by that individual in the university. In fact, according to Beck and

Jennings, activism can be traced back to the high school year where previous

involvement in high school activities could either directly or indirectly influence

people into joining the political sphere later.30 In Geake's study there was also a

mention of Parent Civic Orientation Model which basically studies the involvement of

parents in influencing the participation of their children through everyday discussion

and engagement in politics and the result was at par with the theory. Thus it could be

considered that both parents and social activity could· be the sources of ·students'

political involvement.

In conclusion, studies on the nature of the government have led to multiple

studies on its relationship with the electoral system being used in the country. The

electoral manipulation played by the government through repression and coercion is to

28 Marisol Moreno, "Of the Community, For The Community": The Chicana/a Student Movement in California's Public Higher Education, 1967-1973, (University of California: UMI, 2009). 29K. S. Jomo, Student Political Activism, An International Reference Handbook, ed.Philip G. Altbach, (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1989), 150. 30Beck, P.A. & Jennings, M. K, "Pathways to participation", American Political Science Review, Vol. 76,(1982): 94-108.

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make sure that theoretically, democracy is upheld while power is maintained by the

government. Because of this, the opposition would always be at a disadvantage. All of

these factors which influence the voting selection would definitely have an impact on

students. Students in Malaysia, however, are not allowed to be involved in politics.

But before 1971, student activism had certainly shaken the politics of the country

through rallies and demonstrations. Thus, as future elites of the country, their

perception as to what influence them in their electorate conduct would be important in

elections.

1.5 FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS

Based on the literature review, we can suggest that there are four elements that are

most highly regarded as the major factors that influence voting behaviour of students.

These elements are:

Candidate and Party

Media Influence

Current Issues

Government Policies

i. Candidate and party image

Influence Students voting behaviour

There have been many times where a party would be able to fill the gap

left by the candidate during the election but the trend has moved to a

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