Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection
46
Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses Carol A. Klee Editor Heinle & Heinle Publishers Boston, Massachusetts 02116, U.S.A. 5
Transcript of Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection
Faces in a Crowd:The Individual Learnerin MultisectionCourses
Carol A. KleeEditor
Heinle & Heinle PublishersBoston, Massachusetts 02116, U.S.A. 5
1
Copyright 1994 by Heinle & Heinle. No parts of this publication may bereproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, ormechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storageand retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Manufactured in the United States of America.
Heinle 8c Heinle Publishers is a division of Wadsworth, Inc.
ISBN 0-8384-6367310 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
New Directions in LanguageAnxiety Research
Dolly Jesusita Young
University of Tennessee
IntroductionIn the last few decades we have seen an increase in the research on affectivevariables in second language (SL) acquisition (Gardner and MacIntyre1993a). More recently the concept of language anxiety has gained increasedvisibility. The concept of anxiety in SL acquisition has achieved the statusof a precise technical notion, in contrast to the general concept of anxietyprevalent in the research. Since the classic synthesis of research on anxietyand language learning written by Scovel (1978), there have been impor-tant advances in our understanding of the role of this concept; a wealth ofmore recent research is now available. The purpose of this chapter is tooffer language department administrators, foreign language coordinatorsand instructors, and prospective teachers an overview of this new languageanxiety research and to suggest directions for future research in thisexpanding field of study.
The new research discussed here provides both anecdotal and empiricalevidence defining, describing, and establishing a paradigm for language anx-iety. The new insights provided by this research dating from the mid-1980sto today advance our understanding of language anxiety and hence providethe basis for better informed program and pedagogical decisions. Whetherwe direct a language program or teach in one, we are all researchers seeking
more effective and efficient ways to improve language learning.
3
1 6
4 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
Anxiety Definitions and InstrumentsIn most of the early studies on students' anxiety, researchers established theexistence of anxiety in the second language classroom and investigated itseffect on SL performance.' While some of this research suggested a relation-ship between anxiety and SL performance, other findings indicated no suchrelationship. Table 1 presents a sample of the early research on the effects ofanxiety on language learning and performance; among other things, thetable illustrates the contradictory results of many of these early studies.Within these studies, for example, anxiety was negatively correlated to onelanguage skill but not another (Swain and Burnaby 1976; Tucker,Hamayan, and Genesee 1976); it was related to one foreign language butnot another, and the direction of that relationship varied (Chastain 1975).In one study, the least proficient students scored the highest and lowest onan anxiety scale (Backman 1976). In another study, some anxiety actuallyenhanced learners' oral performance (Kleinmann 1977).
One problem with much of this research was that many of the studieshad different goals, objectives, definitions, and conceptual schemata, render-ing comparisons difficult. Some of the major issues making interpretationand generalization difficult included the following: whether the anxiety defi-nition and the observable behaviors chosen to measure it were harmonious;whether the type of anxiety (e.g., state anxiety, trait anxiety, test anxiety,facilitative or debilitative anxiety, communication apprehension) was appro-priate to the basic purpose of the study; and whether the research wasdesigned to examine anxiety alone or several other variables as well, includ-ing motivation, personality, self-esteem, or whatever. In essence, most of thisresearch did not adequately or consistently define anxiety, nor did it suffi-ciently explain how it was related to language learning.
MacIntyre and Gardner (1988) illustrated the wide variety of definitionsof the concept "anxiety" and their corresponding measurement (see Table 2and Appendix). These various types of anxiety did not completely encompassthe kind of anxiety experienced by language learners; as a result, more precisedefinitions and instruments were needed to identify and measure foreign lan-guage anxiety or specific aspects of it. Gardner developed a French ClassroomAnxiety Scale (FCAS)Revised (MacIntyre 1988), versions of which heused in early research and in many of his recent investigations (see Appendixfor FCAS). Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) developed the ForeignLanguage Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). Both scales have yielded dataon their construct validity and/or reliability (Gardner and MacIntyre 199313;
Horwitz 1986).2
Tab
le I
Res
earc
h on
Anx
iety
and
For
eign
or
Seco
nd L
angu
age
Lea
rnin
g up
to 1
985
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
(s)
Com
men
ts
Bac
kman
SLL
21 V
enez
uela
n un
iver
sity
Inte
rest
in f
orei
gn I
an-
(197
6)st
uden
tsgu
ages
Nee
d ac
hiev
emen
tA
ttitu
de to
war
d na
tive
spea
kers
Mot
ivat
iona
l int
ensi
tyIn
stru
men
tal o
rien
tatio
nIn
tegr
ativ
e or
ient
atio
n
Bai
ley
FLL
Lan
guag
e te
ache
rs le
arn-
Pers
onal
dia
ries
(198
3)in
g a
fore
ign
lang
uage
Plac
emen
t tes
t, au
ral
com
preh
ensi
on, a
ndte
ache
r ra
tings
of
oral
skill
s
The
leas
t pro
fici
ent
stud
ent s
core
d th
e hi
gh-
est a
nd lo
wes
t on
the
anxi
ety
vari
able
of
the
oral
inte
rvie
w te
st.
The
fol
low
ing
com
petit
ive
lear
ner
char
acte
rist
ics
may
incr
ease
anx
iety
abou
t lan
guag
e le
arni
ng:
outr
ight
sel
f-co
mpa
r-is
ons
to o
ther
stu
dent
s;em
otio
nal r
espo
nse
tose
lf-c
ompa
riso
ns; a
fee
l-in
g of
hav
ing
to "
outd
o"ot
her
stud
ents
; a p
reoc
-cu
patio
n w
ith g
rade
s an
dte
sts;
a d
esir
e to
ple
ase
the
teac
her
to m
eet
his/
her
expe
ctat
ions
or
gain
his
/her
app
rova
l.lJ
i
Tab
le 1
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Anx
iety
and
For
eign
or
Seco
nd L
angu
age
Lea
rnin
g up
to 1
985
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Ski l
l(s)
Com
men
ts
Bar
tzFL
LU
nive
rsity
stu
dent
s(1
974)
Bre
wst
er(1
971)
Sixt
een
Pers
onal
ityFa
ctor
s Q
uest
ionn
aire
FLL
392
mal
e ad
ult s
tude
nts
Sixt
een
Pers
onal
ityat
the
Def
ense
Lan
guag
e In
stitu
te
Cha
stai
nFL
L(1
975)
Uni
vers
ity s
tude
nts
begi
nnin
g Fr
ench
,G
erm
an, o
r Sp
anis
h
Fact
ors
Que
stio
nnai
re
Tex
t Anx
iety
Sca
le a
ndT
aylo
r M
anif
est
Anx
iety
Sca
le
Com
mun
icat
ive
com
pe-
tenc
e or
al/w
ritin
g
The
Def
ense
Lan
guag
eA
ptitu
de T
est,
cour
segr
ade
with
equ
al w
eigh
tgi
ven
to a
ll fo
ur s
kills
,an
d pr
ofic
ienc
y te
sts
Fina
l Gra
de
Lin
guis
tic a
bilit
y is
bes
tpr
edic
tor
of o
ral s
kill.
Low
anx
iety
Ss
scor
edbe
tter
in w
ritin
g.
Succ
essf
ul la
ngua
gele
arne
rs h
ad th
e fo
llow
-in
g pe
rson
ality
trai
ts:
pers
ever
ing,
inte
llect
ual,
anal
ytic
al, t
rust
ing,
eas
yto
get
alo
ng w
ith,
adap
tabl
e, o
utgo
ing,
reso
urce
ful,
imag
inat
ive,
crea
tive,
war
m, a
ndsp
onta
neou
s.
Cor
rela
tion
betw
een
anx-
iety
and
fin
al g
rade
hig
hin
all
3 FI
A, b
ut d
irec
-tio
n of
cor
rela
tion
not
cons
iste
nt w
ithin
or
acro
ss la
ngua
ges.
Som
ean
xiet
y ha
d po
sitiv
ere
sults
.
C
304
10th
and
llth
gra
defr
anco
phon
e st
uden
tsle
arni
ng E
nglis
h
223
fran
coph
one
stud
ents
lear
ning
Eng
lish
Eng
lish
clas
s an
xiet
yE
nglis
h us
e an
xiet
yT
hirt
y-on
e ad
ditio
nal
affe
ctiv
e va
riab
les
Gen
eral
ized
inte
rper
sona
l-iz
ed a
nxie
tyFr
ench
cla
ssro
om a
nxie
tyE
nglis
h te
st a
nxie
tyE
nglis
h us
e an
xiet
yE
nglis
h cl
ass
anxi
ety
Self
-rat
ing
of w
ritin
g,un
ders
tand
ing,
rea
ding
,an
d sp
eaki
ngT
hrea
t to
ethn
ic id
entit
yB
ehav
iora
l int
entio
n of
reen
rolli
ng in
Eng
lish
Sex
Deg
ree
of in
stru
men
talit
yD
egre
e of
inte
grat
iven
ess
Atti
tude
tow
ard
lear
ning
Eng
lish
Atti
tude
tow
ard
Am
eric
ans
Freq
uenc
y of
Eng
lish
use
Mot
ivat
iona
l int
ensi
tyN
o. o
f ye
ars
stud
ying
Eng
lish
No.
of
year
s la
ngua
ge s
po-
ken
at h
ome
Fina
l gra
deor
alE
nglis
h;Fi
nal g
rade
wri
tten
Eng
lish
Aur
al a
nd r
eadi
ng c
om-
preh
ensi
onG
ram
mat
ical
kno
wle
dge
IQ Stan
dard
ized
test
sco
res
of F
renc
hSt
anda
rdiz
ed te
st s
core
sof
Eng
lish
Lea
rner
s w
ho r
epor
t litt
lean
xiet
y ha
ve th
e fo
llow
-in
g ch
arac
teri
stic
s: u
seE
nglis
h of
ten,
spe
akm
ore
than
one
lan-
guag
e, a
re e
ager
to le
arn
Eng
lish,
and
hav
est
rong
Eng
lish
skill
s.
Stud
ents
who
per
ceiv
edth
emse
lves
as
com
pe-
tent
in r
eadi
ng, w
ritin
g,an
d un
ders
tand
ing
also
repo
rted
littl
e an
xiet
y in
spea
king
.
,1
Tab
le 1
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
hon
Anx
iety
and
For
eign
or
Sec
ond
Lang
uage
Lea
rnin
g up
to 1
985
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nM
easu
res
Setti
ng
Lan
guag
eSk
i 11(
s)
Com
men
ts
Dun
kel
(194
9)
Gar
dner
et a
l.(1
976)
Gar
dner
et a
l.(1
977)
FLL
24 u
nive
rsity
stu
dent
sIt
ems
on a
psy
chol
ogic
alte
st
SLL
1,00
0 ju
nior
& s
enio
rhi
gh s
choo
l stu
dent
s
SLL
192
univ
ersi
ty a
nd h
igh
scho
ol s
tude
nts
and
teac
hers
in a
fiv
e-w
eek
inte
nsiv
e Fr
ench
pro
-gr
am (
begi
nnin
g, in
ter-
med
iate
, and
adv
ance
dle
vels
)
Lan
guag
e ap
titud
eN
eed
achi
evem
ent
Eth
noce
ntri
smIn
tere
st in
FL
Pare
ntal
enc
oura
gem
ent
Inte
grat
iven
ess
Inst
rum
enta
lity
Eva
luat
ive
reac
tions
toth
e le
arni
ng s
ituat
ion
Mot
ivat
ion,
cou
rse
grad
e
Nee
d ac
hiev
emen
tE
thno
cent
rism
Fren
ch c
lass
room
anx
iety
Fren
ch C
anad
ian
attit
udes
Inte
rest
in f
orei
gn la
n-gu
ages
Inst
rum
enta
l ori
enta
tion
Inte
grat
ive
orie
ntat
ion
Lat
in p
lace
men
t exa
m
Dep
ende
d on
gra
dele
vel;
rang
ed f
rom
aur
alco
mpr
ehen
sion
, to
Can
adia
n A
chie
vem
ent
Tes
t in
Fren
ch, t
osp
eech
ski
lls, t
o gr
ades
Spee
ch s
kills
Con
clus
ions
sus
pect
due
to p
roce
dura
lwea
knes
s.
Gra
de 7
: r =
32
Gra
de 8
: r =
28
Gra
de 9
: r =
33
Gra
de 1
0: r
= 3
1G
rade
11:
r =
43
Anx
iety
incr
ease
s w
ithgr
ade
leve
l.
Anx
iety
dec
reas
ed w
hen
prof
icie
ncy
incr
ease
d.
00
Kle
inm
ann
SLL
39 E
SL u
nive
rsity
(197
7)st
uden
ts
Pare
nt e
ncou
rage
men
t to
lear
n Fr
ench
Atti
tude
s to
war
d le
arn-
ing
Fren
chA
ttitu
des
tow
ard
Eur
opea
n Fr
ench
peo
ple
Mot
ivat
iona
l int
ensi
tyD
esir
e to
lear
n Fr
ench
Ori
enta
tion
inde
xB
ehav
iora
l int
entio
n to
cont
inue
Fre
nch
Opp
ortu
nity
to u
seFr
ench
out
side
sch
ool
Eva
luat
ion
of th
e Fr
ench
teac
her's
rap
port
, com
-pe
tenc
e, in
spir
atio
nE
valu
atio
n of
the
Fren
chco
urse
Dif
ficu
lty o
f th
e Fr
ench
cour
seU
tility
of
the
Fren
chco
urse
Faci
litat
ing/
debi
litat
ing
Spee
ch s
kills
anxi
ety
Stud
ents
with
fac
ilita
tive
anxi
ety
did
not a
void
stru
ctur
es r
esea
rche
rspr
edic
ted
they
wou
ldav
oid.
..o
Tab
le I
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Anx
iety
and
For
eign
or
Seco
nd L
angu
age
Lea
rnin
g up
to 1
985
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
(s)
Com
men
ts
Pim
sleu
r et
al.
FLL
Juni
or a
nd s
enio
r hi
gh(1
962)
scho
ol s
tude
nts
Scot
t(1
986)
FLL
App
roxi
mat
ely
160
univ
ersi
ty s
tude
nts
atbe
ginn
ing
or in
term
edi-
ate
leve
ls o
f E
FL
Swai
n &
SLL
Chi
ldre
nB
urna
by(1
976)
Tuc
ker
et a
l. SL
LJu
nior
hig
h sc
hool
(197
6)st
uden
ts
Man
ifes
t Anx
iety
Sca
le
Aff
ectiv
e re
spon
ses
toor
al te
sts
Inte
llige
nce
and
prev
ious
lang
uage
exp
erie
nce
Gro
up o
r pa
ir o
ral
achi
evem
ent t
ests
of
cour
se m
ater
ial
Item
s on
a p
erso
nalit
yFr
ench
rea
ding
sco
res
mea
sure
/teac
her
ratin
g
Fren
ch c
lass
anx
iety
Fren
ch r
eadi
ng s
core
s
No
diff
eren
ce in
anx
iety
betw
een
aver
age
achi
ev-
ers
and
unde
r ac
hiev
ers
Ss ta
king
gro
up te
sts
wer
em
ore
nerv
ous
than
Ss
inpa
irs.
Fac
tor
anal
ysis
show
ed a
nxie
ty a
s on
eof
two
fact
ors
affe
ctin
gqu
estio
nnai
re a
nsw
ers.
r =
69,
p <
05
(for
imm
ersi
on s
tu. o
nly)
Sign
ific
ant n
egat
ive
corr
elat
ion
betw
een
read
ing
and
anxi
ety,
but
not b
etw
een
anxi
ety
and
oral
Fre
nch
Wes
tcot
tFL
LH
igh
scho
ol s
tude
nts
(197
3)
Witt
enbo
rnFL
LU
nive
rsity
stu
dent
set
al.
enro
lled
in F
renc
h or
(194
5)Sp
anis
h
Mot
ivat
ion,
apt
itude
,L
angu
age
peer
infl
uenc
e, a
nd te
stan
xiet
y
Item
s on
a s
elf-
repo
rt o
fFi
nal g
rade
stud
y ha
bits
Anx
iety
not
sig
nifi
cant
lyre
late
d to
lear
ning
Fren
ch
Neg
ativ
e co
rrel
atio
nbe
twee
n an
xiet
y an
dgr
ade
for
Fren
ch b
utno
t for
Spa
nish
12 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Mu lthection Courses
Table 2
Definitions of Anxieties
Test Anxiety:
Drive TheoryDrive theory is similar to Yerkes Dodson Law in which arousal could lead togreater information processing and enhanced performance; too much arousal,however, could lead to confusion, blocking out information, and decrements inperformance.
Facilitating/Debilitating AnxietyAnxiety is not always negative. Anxiety that improves performance is called facili-tative anxiety; anxiety that impairs performance is called debilitative anxiety.
State AnxietyState anxiety refers to an unpleasant emotional condition or temporary state.
Worry EmotionaliryWorry refers to cognition; emotionality refers to automatic reactions, such astrembling or perspiring. Worry impedes performance; emotionality does not.
Cognitive Attentional TheoryWithin this cognitive framework, anxiety is defined as a cognitive responsemarked by self-doubt, feelings of inadequacy, and self-blame.
Direction of Attention HypothesisTask-irrelevant preoccupations represent cognitive interference. The differencebetween performance of high-anxiety and low-anxiety students is due to theirattentional focus.
General Anxiety:
Communication ApprehensionCommunication apprehension is the fear or dread associated with communica-tion with another individual or individuals.
Social Evaluative AnxietySocial evaluative anxiety refers to fear, tension, discomfort, or anxiety experi-enced by individuals in social situations. Eventually social evaluative anxietyleads to reduced social interactions and less participation in conversations.
Trait AnxietyTrait anxiety refers to a stable propensity to be anxious. Trait anxiety is a perma-nent personality feature.
Table 2 is taken from MacIntyre and Gardner 1988.
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 13
The development of such measures of anxiety specific to the languagelearning process, in addition to improved research designs, has led recentlyto significant insights into the phenomenon referred to today as "languageanxiety."
The concept of language anxiety arose in the mid-1980s.3 The follow-ing is a discussion of the language anxiety research from that time forward(see Table 3 for a summary of this research). While much of this languageanxiety research has continued to examine the effects of anxiety on lan-guage learning and performance, some studies have expanded into investi-gations of related issues, including (1) theoretical models and frameworksof language anxiety in relation to other anxieties, (2) sources and charac-teristics of language anxiety through both quantitative and qualitativeanalyses, and (3) anxiety-reducing and coping strategies.
Effects of Anxiety on Language Learningand PerformanceMost of the research on language anxiety suggests consistently that anxietycan negatively impact performance in the SL. Young (1986), for example,reported a statistically significant negative relationship between anxiety andstudent oral performance.' Madsen, Brown, and Jones (1991) found a nega-tive relationship between anxiety and certain test types and grades. Trylong(1987) discovered that anxiety and course grades also exhibited a significantnegative relationship. Results from a study by Gardner, Moorcroft, andMacIntryre (1987) indicated that French production of vocabulary and anx-iety correlated negatively. Ely (1986) discovered a significant positive rela-tionship between discomfort in the language class and unwillingness to vol-unteer answers and poor student performance. Gardner et al. (1987)reported a significant negative relationship between anxiety and standardizedtests. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993b) found that among a broad spectrumof affective variables, language anxiety was the best predictor of languageachievement and of learners' self-ratings of proficiency.
Most of the research on language anxiety reported above compared anx-iety levels with such indicators as grades, oral test scores, teacher ratings,standardized tests, test types, vocabulary performance scores, self-ratings ofproficiency, and the like. Anxiety, however, has manifested itself in otherways. A study by Steinberg and Horwitz (1986) was the first to induce anxi-ety and show its more subtle effects. The authors asked learners in twogroups, an anxiety condition group and a nonanxiety condition group, to
Tab
le 3
Res
earc
h on
Lan
guag
e A
nxie
ty S
ince
the
Mid
-198
0s
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
s/A
bilit
y
Com
men
ts
Cam
pbel
l & F
LL
Ort
iz(1
991b
)
Beg
inni
ng f
orei
gn la
n-gu
age
stud
ents
at t
heD
efen
se L
angu
age
Inst
itute
Ely
FLL
Uni
vers
ity s
tude
nts
of(1
986)
firs
t-ye
ar S
pani
sh
Fore
ign
Lan
guag
e C
lass
Anx
iety
Sca
le (
FLC
AS)
Surv
ey o
f at
titud
es s
pe-
cifi
c to
the
fore
ign
lan-
guag
ecl
assr
oom
Lan
guag
e da
ss d
isco
mfo
rt
Lan
guag
e cl
ass
risk
-tak
ing
Lan
guag
e cl
ass
soci
abili
tySt
reng
th o
f m
otiv
atio
nA
ttitu
de to
war
d th
e cl
ass
Con
cern
for
gra
de
Prev
ious
lang
uage
stu
dyor
bac
kgro
und
Lan
guag
e le
arni
ng a
ptitu
deC
lass
room
par
ticip
atio
n
Ora
l flu
ency
Ora
l cor
rect
ness
Wri
tten
corr
ectn
ess
Stud
ents
wer
e al
mos
ttw
ice
as a
nxio
us in
thei
rFr
ench
cla
ss (
spea
king
and
liste
ning
) th
roug
hth
e co
urse
as
com
pare
dto
the
begi
nnin
g of
the
cour
se.
Lan
guag
e cl
ass
disc
om-
fort
(i.e
., an
xiet
y) w
as a
nega
tive
pred
icto
r of
lang
uage
cla
ss r
isk-
tak-
ing
and
soci
abili
ty.
Lan
guag
e cl
ass
risk
-tak
-in
g w
as a
sig
nifi
cant
pred
icto
r of
cla
ssro
om
part
icip
atio
n.C
lass
par
ticip
atio
n w
as a
sign
ific
ant p
redi
ctor
of
oral
cor
rect
ness
(at
one
leve
l).
Gan
scho
w,
FLL
Spar
ks,
And
erso
n,Ja
vors
ky, &
Skin
ner
(199
4)
Uni
vers
ity b
egin
ning
-FL
CA
S
leve
l for
eign
lang
uage
stud
ents
Mod
ern
Lan
guag
eA
ptitu
de T
est (
ML
AT
)L
angu
age
and
mem
ory
test
s:Fo
reig
n L
angu
age
Scre
enin
g In
stru
men
tN
elso
n-D
enny
Rea
ding
Tes
tT
est o
f L
angu
age
Com
pete
nce
Wid
e R
ange
Ach
ieve
men
t Tes
tR
evis
edW
oodc
ock-
John
son
Psyc
holo
gica
l Bat
tery
Woo
dcoc
k R
eadi
ngM
aste
ry T
estR
evis
edW
ritin
g sa
mpl
e
Res
earc
hers
fou
nd a
sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
eam
ong
high
-anx
ious
,av
erag
e-an
x., a
ndlo
w-
anx.
gro
ups
and
test
s of
lang
uage
com
pete
nce.
Res
ults
als
o in
dica
ted
asi
gnif
ican
t dif
fere
nce
amon
g hi
gh, a
vera
ge,
and
low
anx
. stu
dent
son
the
phon
olog
ical
mea
sure
s, a
nd a
sign
ifi-
cant
dif
fere
nce
betw
een
high
and
low
anx
. on
the
FL s
cree
ning
inst
ru-
men
t and
on
the
ML
AT
. Hig
h an
x. a
ndlo
w a
nx. w
ere
wea
ker
ator
al e
xpre
ssio
n an
d lis
-te
ning
com
preh
ensi
on.
Tab
le 3
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Lan
guag
e A
nxie
ty S
ince
the
Mid
-198
0s
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
s/A
bilit
yC
omm
ents
Gar
dner
,SL
Day
, &M
acIn
tyre
(199
2)
Gar
dner
,SL
Moo
rcro
ft,
& M
ac I
n ty
re(1
987)
49 in
trod
uctio
n-to
-psy
-ch
olog
y st
uden
ts n
otcu
rren
tly ta
king
Fre
nch
or w
ho h
ad n
ot ta
ken
it
Uni
vers
ity p
sych
olog
yst
uden
ts
Mot
ivat
iona
l int
ensi
tyD
esir
e to
lear
n Fr
ench
Atti
tude
s to
war
d le
arni
ngFr
ench
Inte
grat
ive
orie
ntat
ion
Atti
tude
s to
war
d th
ele
arni
ng s
ituat
ion
Fren
ch u
se a
nxie
tyFr
ench
cla
ss a
nxie
tySo
cial
des
irab
ility
Com
mun
icat
ion
appr
e-he
nsio
n
Stat
e an
xiet
yT
rait
anxi
ety
Fren
ch c
lass
anx
iety
Fren
ch u
se a
nxie
tyA
udie
nce
sens
itivi
tyT
est a
nxie
tyIn
terp
erso
nal a
nxie
tyPh
ysic
al d
ange
r an
xiet
yN
ovel
ty a
nxie
tyD
aily
rou
tine
anxi
ety
Voc
abul
ary
scor
esV
iew
ing
time
Wor
d pr
oduc
tion
Free
spe
ech
qual
ity
Res
earc
hers
fou
nd s
igni
fi-
cant
neg
ativ
e co
rrel
a-tio
ns a
mon
g an
xiet
y an
dm
otiv
atio
n an
d in
tegr
a-tiv
e m
otiv
atio
n. L
earn
ers
who
wer
e an
xiou
s ab
out
Fren
ch a
lso
tend
ed to
be
less
mot
ivat
ed c
ompa
red
to th
ose
who
wer
e no
tan
xiou
s. P
rese
nce
ofvi
deo
cam
era
did
not
succ
essf
ully
indu
ce a
nxi-
ety
in th
is s
tudy
.
Not
anx
iety
per
se
that
seem
ed to
pro
duce
anx
-ie
ty b
ut a
nxie
ty e
voke
dby
the
task
itse
lf, p
artic
-ul
arly
to a
task
with
limite
d op
tions
.
Uni
vers
ity-l
evel
Fren
ch s
tude
nts
with
5
year
s hi
ghsc
hool
Fren
ch
Fren
ch c
lass
anx
iety
(Lik
ert s
cale
and
sem
an-
tic v
ersi
on)
Fren
ch u
se a
nxie
ty(L
iker
t sca
le a
nd s
eman
-tic
ver
sion
)FL
CA
SA
ttitu
des
tow
ard
Can
adia
nsIn
tere
st in
for
eign
lan-
guag
eIn
tegr
ativ
e or
ient
atio
nFr
ench
cou
rse
eval
uatio
nFr
ench
teac
her
eval
uatio
nM
otiv
atio
nal i
nten
sity
Des
ire
to le
arn
Fren
chA
ttitu
des
tow
ard
lear
ning
Fren
chIn
stru
men
tal o
rien
tatio
n(L
iken
sca
le, s
ingl
e-ite
m s
cale
, and
sem
antic
vers
ions
for
the
abov
eva
riab
les
afte
r an
xiet
ym
easu
res)
Ori
enta
tion
Inde
x (r
atin
gof
4 it
ems)
Mot
ivat
ion
Inte
nsity
(10
item
s, m
ultip
. cho
ice)
Iden
tific
atio
n m
easu
rew
ith F
renc
h C
anad
ians
Fren
ch g
rade
sFr
ench
doz
e te
stFr
ench
wor
d pr
oduc
tion
Fren
chpr
ose
wri
ting
Obj
ectiv
e Fr
ench
pro
fi-
cien
cyFo
ur s
elf-
ratin
gs o
f
Fren
ch p
rofi
cien
cy:
Can
do S
peak
ing
Tes
tC
ando
Und
erst
andi
ngT
est
Can
do W
ritin
g T
est
Can
do R
eadi
ng T
est
Lan
guag
e an
xiet
y w
as th
ebe
st s
ingl
e co
rrel
ate
of
self
-rat
ings
of
prof
i-ci
ency
and
ach
ieve
men
t.It
cor
rela
ted
sign
ifi-
cant
ly w
ith a
ll ac
hiev
e-m
ent i
ndic
es e
xcep
t
grad
es.
Tab
le 3
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Lan
guag
e A
nxie
ty S
ince
the
Mid
-198
0s
Res
earc
her(
s) la
ngua
gePo
pula
tion
Setti
ngM
easu
res
Lan
guag
eSk
ills/
Abi
lity
Com
men
ts
Hor
witz
,FL
L75
stu
dent
s en
rolle
d in
tA)
Hor
witz
, &be
ginn
ing-
leve
l Spa
nish
l'C
ope
(198
6)cl
asse
s at
a la
rge
univ
er-
sity
Hor
witz
FLL
Uni
vers
ity-l
evel
lang
uage
(198
6)le
arne
rs
Koc
h &
FLL
Ter
rell
(199
1)
119
firs
t- a
nd s
econ
d-ye
ar S
pani
sh s
tude
nts
at a
larg
e un
iver
sity
FLC
AS
FLC
AS
Stat
e/T
rait
Anx
iety
Inve
ntor
yPe
rson
al r
epor
t of
com
-m
unic
atio
n ap
preh
en-
sion
Fear
of
nega
tive
eval
uatio
nT
est a
nxie
ty s
cale
Self
-rat
ing
of a
nxie
ty le
vel
Que
stio
nnai
re d
esig
ned
to a
sses
s st
uden
t atti
-tu
des
in th
e N
atur
alA
ppro
ach
clas
s
Sign
ific
ant l
evel
s of
anx
i-et
y ar
e ex
peri
ence
d by
lang
uage
lear
ners
, par
tic-
ular
ly in
res
pons
e to
thei
rfe
ars
of n
ot u
nder
stan
d-in
g al
l the
y he
ar, f
eelin
gle
ss c
apab
le th
an o
ther
stud
ents
, and
mak
ing
am
ista
ke in
the
lang
uage
.
Fore
ign
lang
uage
anx
iety
can
be d
istin
guis
hed
from
oth
er a
nxie
ty c
on-
stru
cts
and
can
be r
eli-
ably
ass
esse
d.
Mos
t Nat
ural
App
roac
hac
tiviti
es p
rodu
ced
low
leve
ls o
f an
xiet
y. S
ome
of th
ese
activ
ities
, how
-
00
Nat
ive
Eng
lish
spea
kers
enro
lled
in in
trod
uc-
tion-
to-p
sych
olog
yco
urse
s
Con
vers
atio
nFr
ench
adu
lt cl
asse
s
Fren
ch c
lass
anx
iety
Eng
lish
clas
s an
xiet
yT
rait
anxi
ety
Com
pute
r an
xiet
yT
est a
nxie
tyA
udie
nce
anxi
ety
Fren
ch u
se a
nxie
ty
Fren
ch u
se a
nxie
tyFr
ench
cla
ss a
nxie
tyPe
rson
al r
epor
t of
com
-m
unic
atio
n ap
preh
ensi
onFe
ar o
f ne
gativ
e ev
alua
tion
Tra
it an
xiet
ySt
ate
anxi
ety
Anx
omet
ers
Ess
ay in
whi
ch s
tude
nts
wer
e to
wri
te a
bout
an
expe
rien
ce in
usi
ngFr
ench
ski
lls d
urin
gw
hich
they
eith
er f
elt
very
rel
axed
and
con
fi-
dent
or
very
anx
ious
Pair
ed a
ssoc
iate
s(F
renc
hEng
lish
noun
pair
s)V
ocab
ular
y te
st
Dig
it sp
an te
st in
nat
ive
lang
uage
and
Fre
nch
Thi
ng c
ateg
ory
test
inna
tive
lang
uage
and
Fren
chSe
lf-r
atin
g of
abi
lity
todo
spe
cifi
c ta
sks
ever
, pro
duce
d so
me
anx-
iety
for
a s
izab
le m
inor
-ity
. Of
all t
he a
ctiv
ities
,on
ly o
ral r
epor
ts e
voke
dan
xiet
y fo
r a
larg
e m
ajor
-ity
of
stud
ents
.
Find
ings
indi
cate
dhi
gher
anx
iety
leve
ls f
orFr
ench
cla
ss th
an m
ath
or E
nglis
h (w
hich
wer
esi
mila
r).
The
ess
ays
abou
t an
anx-
ious
eve
nt ty
pica
llyde
scri
bed
a sp
eaki
ngta
sk. E
ssay
s in
whi
chst
uden
ts d
escr
ibed
aco
nfid
ent/r
elax
ed e
xpe-
rien
ce u
sual
ly d
escr
ibed
a sp
eaki
ng o
r un
der-
stan
ding
task
.
Tab
le 3
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Lan
guag
e A
nxie
ty S
ince
the
Mid
-198
0s
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
s/A
bilit
yC
omm
ents
Mac
Inty
reSL
Uni
vers
ity p
sych
olog
y&
Gar
dner
stud
ents
who
had
(199
1b)
Fren
ch in
the
Ilth
or
12th
gra
de
Fren
ch c
lass
room
anx
iety
Eng
lish
clas
sroo
m a
nxie
tyM
athe
mat
ics
clas
sroo
man
xiet
yG
ener
al te
st a
nxie
tyFa
cilit
atin
g Fr
ench
test
anxi
ety
Deb
ilita
ting
Fren
ch te
stan
xiet
yA
udie
nce
sens
itivi
tyPe
rson
al r
epor
t of
com
-m
unic
atio
n ap
preh
ensi
onFe
ar o
f ne
gativ
e ev
alua
tion
Tra
it an
xiet
yFr
ench
use
anx
iety
Anx
iety
in n
ovel
situ
atio
nA
nxie
ty in
rou
tine
situ
atio
nsA
nxie
ty o
ver
phys
ical
dang
erA
nxie
ty in
inte
rper
sona
lsi
tuat
ions
Dig
it sp
an te
stT
hing
cat
egor
y te
st in
both
Eng
lish
and
Fren
ch
Res
ults
indi
cate
that
lan-
guag
e an
xiet
y ca
n be
disc
rim
inat
ed f
rom
othe
r an
xiet
ies
and
that
lang
uage
anx
iety
can
nega
tivel
y im
pact
cog
ni-
tive
proc
essi
ng o
f SL
.
1,..) 0
Mac
Inty
reSL
& G
ardn
er(1
994)
Firs
t-ye
ar s
tude
nts
ofFr
ench
at l
arge
uni
ver-
sity
Situ
atio
ns in
volv
ing
soci
alev
alua
tion
Stat
e an
xiet
y
Eng
lish
cate
gori
esan
xom
eter
Fren
ch c
ateg
orie
san
xom
eter
Eng
lish
digi
ts a
nxom
eter
Fren
ch d
igits
anx
omet
er
Stat
e an
xiet
y m
easu
res
(the
anx
omet
er)
Dig
it sp
an te
st f
or in
put
stag
e
Pair
ass
ocia
tes
lear
ning
task
for
pro
cess
ing
stag
e
Thi
ng c
ateg
ory
test
and
self
-des
crip
tion
for
out-
put s
tage
Anx
iety
suc
cess
fully
indu
ced
by c
amer
a an
dat
eac
h of
the
stag
es
anxi
ety
corr
elat
ed n
ega-
tivel
y w
ith p
erfo
rman
ce.
Com
mun
icat
ive
task
sw
ere
muc
h m
ore
anxi
-et
y pr
oduc
ing
than
lear
ning
task
s.
Tab
le 3
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Lan
guag
e A
nxie
ty S
ince
the
Mid
-198
0s
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
s/A
bilit
yC
omm
ents
Mac
Inty
reSL
& G
ardn
er(1
994b
)
Firs
t-ye
ar F
renc
h st
uden
tsat
a la
rge
univ
ersi
ty
Mad
sen,
FLL
220
stud
ents
enr
olle
d in
Bro
wn,
&fi
rst-
and
sec
ond-
year
Jone
s (1
991)
Ger
man
cou
rses
at a
maj
or u
nive
rsity
Inpu
t anx
iety
Proc
essi
ng a
nxie
tyO
utpu
t anx
iety
Fren
ch c
lass
anx
iety
Fren
ch u
se a
nxie
tyFL
CA
S
Aff
ectiv
e R
eact
ion
Que
stio
nnai
re (
open
-en
ded
ques
tions
)de
sign
ed to
ass
ess
stu-
dent
rea
ctio
ns to
the
vari
ous
test
type
s
Wor
d sp
an te
stD
igit
span
test
T-s
cope
(id
entif
icat
ion
ofFr
ench
wor
ds o
r E
nglis
hw
ords
) fo
r in
put s
tage
Fren
ch a
chie
vem
ent t
est
Para
grap
h tr
ansl
atio
nPa
ired
ass
ocia
tes
lear
ning
for
proc
essi
ng s
tage
Thi
ng c
ateg
ory
test
Clo
ze te
stSe
lf-d
escr
iptio
n fo
r ou
t-pu
t sta
ge
Tes
t typ
es:
Dic
tatio
nO
ral q
uest
ions
Gra
mm
atic
al f
ill-i
nsG
ram
mat
ical
man
ipul
atio
nsE
nglis
h to
Ger
man
tran
slat
ions
Perf
orm
ance
qua
lity
nega
tivel
y co
rrel
ated
with
anxi
ety;
i.e.
, hig
h an
xiou
sle
arne
rs w
ere
less
flu
ent,
had
less
com
plex
sent
ence
s, a
nd h
ad p
oore
rpr
onun
ciat
ion
than
low
anxi
ous
stud
ents
.
Res
earc
hers
fou
ndsi
gnif
ican
t dif
fere
nces
inst
uden
t rea
ctio
ns to
test
type
s. T
he d
icta
tion
and
true
/fal
se c
ultu
re te
stty
pes
evok
ed th
e le
ast
amou
nt o
f le
arne
r an
xi-
ety
whi
le th
e tr
ansl
atio
n
t.) t.)
Mej
fas,
FLL
App
lbau
m,
App
lbau
m, &
Tro
tter
II(1
991)
429
colle
ge s
tude
nts
enro
lled
in b
asic
psy-
chol
ogy
and
284
high
scho
ol s
tude
nts
from
grad
es 9
to 1
2 ta
king
Eng
lish
Tw
o ve
rsio
ns o
f th
ePe
rson
al R
epor
t of
Com
mun
icat
ion
App
rehe
nsio
n (P
RC
A-
24),
one
for
spe
akin
gE
nglis
h an
d th
e ot
her
for
spea
king
Spa
nish
Ger
man
to E
nglis
htr
ansl
atio
nsT
rue/
fals
e G
erm
an c
ultu
re
test
type
pro
duce
d th
em
ost a
mou
nt o
f an
xi-
ety.
The
rea
ctio
ns to
the
oral
test
for
mat
beca
me
mor
e po
sitiv
eas
stu
dent
s ga
ined
pro
-fi
cien
cy.
Com
mun
icat
ion
appr
e-he
nsio
n w
as h
ighe
r fo
r
Span
ish-
spea
kers
(Mex
ican
Am
eric
ans)
than
Eng
lish-
spea
kers
.T
here
wer
e hi
gher
com
-m
unic
atio
n ap
preh
en-
sion
sco
res
for
fem
ales
than
mal
es. S
pani
sh-
spea
kers
had
hig
hest
com
mun
icat
ion
appr
e-he
nsio
n sc
ores
whe
n
spea
king
Eng
lish
orSp
anis
h, b
ut e
xper
i-en
ced
less
com
mun
ica-
tion
appr
ehen
sion
in th
edo
min
ant l
angu
age
than
the
SL. C
omm
unic
atio
nap
preh
ensi
on in
crea
sed
the
mor
e fo
rmal
the
cont
ext b
ecam
e.ts
..)C
.).)
Tab
le 3
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Lan
guag
e A
nxie
ty S
ince
the
Mid
-198
0s
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
s/A
bilit
y
Com
men
ts
Phill
ips
(199
2)FL
LU
nive
rsity
-lev
el th
ird-
sem
este
r Fr
ench
stu
-de
nts
Pric
eFL
L15
"an
xiou
s" f
orei
gn(1
991)
lang
uage
lear
ners
Sam
imy
FLL
& R
ardi
n
(for
thco
min
g)
FLC
AS
Ora
l int
ervi
ews
Ora
l int
ervi
ews
(in
the
nativ
e la
ngua
ge)
over
vari
ous
aspe
cts
of a
nxi-
ety,
e.g
., so
urce
s
Gra
duat
e st
uden
tsR
efle
ctio
npa
pers
ofm
ajor
ing
in T
ESO
L o
rst
uden
ts in
Com
mun
ityFL
EL
angu
age
Lea
rnin
gcl
asse
s ov
er a
6-y
ear
peri
od
Ora
l exa
mW
ritte
n ex
amT
each
er-r
anke
d gl
obal
prof
icie
ncy
of s
tude
nts
Res
earc
her
foun
d a
sign
ific
antly
neg
ativ
eco
rrel
atio
n be
twee
n th
eFL
CA
S an
d or
al e
xam
scor
es. S
tude
nts
with
high
er le
vels
of
lang
uage
anxi
ety
said
less
, had
few
dep
ende
nt c
laus
esan
d Fr
ench
str
uctu
res,
and
prod
uced
sho
rter
com
mun
icat
ion
units
.
Fear
of
publ
ic e
mba
rras
s-m
ent g
reat
est s
ourc
e of
lang
uage
anx
iety
.
Anx
iety
was
the
one
affe
ctiv
e va
riab
le m
ost
freq
uent
ly m
entio
ned.
Anx
iety
ste
mm
ed f
rom
past
unsu
cces
sful
expe
-ri
ence
s in
lang
uage
Stei
nber
gSL
LSp
anis
h-sp
eaki
ng a
dults
& H
orw
itzen
rolle
d in
ESL
cla
ss
(198
6)
You
ng(1
986)
Tes
t anx
iety
sca
le
Mul
tiple
aff
ect a
djec
tive
chec
klis
t
FLL
Uni
vers
ity-l
evel
stu
dent
sSt
ate
anxi
ety
inve
ntor
ym
ajor
ing
in F
renc
h,ite
ms
on F
LC
AS
Ger
man
, or
Span
ish
Cog
nitiv
e in
terf
eren
cequ
estio
nnai
reA
sel
f-re
port
of
anxi
ety
(on
a L
iken
sca
le)
Ora
l ski
lls
AC
TR
:s O
ral P
rofi
cien
cyIn
terv
iew
(O
PI)
Com
mun
icat
ive-
orie
nted
dict
atio
n te
st
Self
-app
rais
al o
f sp
eaki
ngpr
ofic
ienc
y
lear
ning
. Lea
rner
s al
som
entio
ned
a la
ck o
fan
xiet
y or
a r
educ
tion
ofit
with
Com
mun
icat
ive
Lan
guag
e L
earn
ing.
A s
igni
fica
nt d
iffe
renc
efo
und
betw
een
anxi
ous
grou
pan
d no
nanx
ious
grou
pfo
r qu
ality
of
resp
onse
sty
le. R
espo
nses
of a
nxio
usgr
oup
con-
tain
ed le
ss in
terp
retiv
e
info
rmat
ion.
Res
pons
esof
non
anxi
ous
grou
pw
ere
mor
e in
terp
retiv
e
and
subj
ectiv
e.
Stud
ents
wer
e m
ore
nerv
ous
duri
ng th
e O
PIth
an d
urin
g th
e di
cta-
tion
test
, but
no
sign
ifi-
cant
dif
fere
nce
betw
een
OPI
and
anx
iety
onc
eab
ility
was
con
trol
led.
Tab
le 3
(co
nt.)
Res
earc
h on
Lan
guag
e A
nxie
ty S
ince
the
Mid
-198
0s
Res
earc
her(
s) L
angu
age
Popu
latio
nSe
tting
Mea
sure
sL
angu
age
Skill
s/A
bilit
yC
omm
ents
You
ng(1
990)
FLL
135
univ
ersi
ty-l
evel
Span
ish
stud
ents
enro
lled
in f
irst
- an
dse
cond
-sem
este
rSp
anis
h co
urse
s at
ala
rge
univ
ersi
ty a
nd 1
09hi
gh s
choo
l stu
dent
sta
king
fir
st o
r se
cond
year
Spa
nish
Que
stio
nnai
re d
esig
ned
to id
entif
y in
-cla
ssac
tiviti
es a
nd in
stru
c-to
r ch
arac
teri
stic
s th
atev
oke
anxi
ety
Stud
ents
exp
ress
ed b
eing
mor
e an
xiou
s w
hen
they
wer
e fo
rced
tosp
eak
in f
ront
of
the
clas
s, w
hen
inst
ruct
ors
prac
ticed
ove
rt e
rror
corr
ectio
n, a
nd w
hen
they
cam
e un
prep
ared
to c
lass
.
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 27
describe pictures that had been selected specifically for their ability to elicitinterpretive and denotative speech. The more anxious learners offered lessinterpretive language than did learners in the nonanxiety condition group.
A few years ago, Phillips (1992) also investigated the relationshipbetween anxiety and the quality of oral performance in the SL. She foundstatistically significant negative correlations between scores on the FLCASand oral exam grades, and in addition found that students with higherlevels of language anxiety said less and produced shorter communicationunits and fewer target structures and dependent clauses than the studentswho experienced low levels of anxiety. MacIntyre and Gardner (1994b)reported similar subtle effects of language anxiety on learners' output.MacIntyre and Gardner (1994b, p. 300) reported that "anxious studentswere judged to have lower Fluency, lower Sentence Complexity, and less ofa French Accent."
Most of the studies discussed up to this point have examined therelationship between anxiety and some indicators of language output.'Recently, MacIntyre and Gardner (1991b) examined, from an informa-tion-processing perspective, the effects of language anxiety on input. Inthis study, anxiety was measured through a variety of anxiety-related tests(social evaluative anxiety, state anxiety, and language anxiety). The studyshowed that only language anxiety was associated negatively and signifi-cantly with French performance on the thing category test and a digit spantest6 in the SL versus the native language. These findings suggest languageanxiety negatively affects the processing of language input. If anxietyaffects input, this means that anxiety impedes a learner's ability to processnew language. In other words, it hinders language acquisition.
In a later study, MacIntyre and Gardner (1994a) examined the effectof anxiety on language performance at three stages of learning: input, pro-cessing, and output. This is the second study to attempt to induce anxiety,in this case with the presence of a video camera. For each experimentalgroup in this study, learners' anxiety increased with the presence of thecamera and their corresponding performance at all three stages decreased.The researchers (1994a, p. 16) argued that "anxiety arousal at earlier stagesof processing will create cognitive deficits that can be overcome only whenthe individual has an opportunity to recover the missing material, that is,return to the Input and/or Processing stages."
Knowledge of the debilitative effects of anxiety on learner perfor-mance is important for the design of pedagogical techniques to reducenegative emotions in SL learners and thereby increase the effectiveness and
28 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
efficiency of SL learning. The contention that language anxiety can nega-tively affect language input is alarming in that it reduces what a learner canhope to process as usable "intake" from what the instructor provides.
A recent study has offered further insights into language anxiety.Sparks and Ganschow (1991)7 contend that some learners experience highlevels of anxiety as a consequence of foreign language learning problemsthat are rooted in the learners' native language skills. They examined thenative language skills of unsuccessful SL learners or students who hadmanaged to avoid taking a SL and found weak language-based factors inthe native language, such as phonology and syntax, to be strong indicatorsof unsuccessful foreign language learning. The researchers posit that thelatent native language difficulties of some learners may not have beendetected over the years because of their ability to use compensatory strate-gies successfully in the native language. 'When these learners attempt toapply the same strategies in the SL situation, they are unsuccessful. Sparksand Ganschow urge the foreign language profession to investigate thenative oral and written language skills of learners who are experiencing dif-ficulty and anxiety in learning the foreign language.
To sum up research on the effects of language anxiety: (1) languageanxiety negatively affects SL performance (learner grades, oral proficiency,standard test scores, self-ratings of proficiency, etc.); (2) language anxietycan also negatively impact language learning (input and processing of theSL); and (3) high levels of anxiety in the acquisition of language may stemfrom difficulties in native language skills.
Theoretical Models and Frameworks ofLanguage AnxietyIn 1986 Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope proposed three conceptual foundationsunderlying language anxiety. They contended that it is derived from (1) aform of communication apprehension, (2) worry over frequent testingin alanguage classroom (although they were not sure if this anxiety was specificto the types of tests found in language classes or was a general test anxiety),and (3) fear of negative evaluation (academic and personal). Since then,studies by Young (1990, 1991), MacIntyre and Gardner (1989, 1991c),and Gardner and MacIntyre (1993b) support the tenets advanced byHorwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986). The components that seem to receive thestrongest support are those related to the communicative and social evaluativeaspects of the theory. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991c, pp. 105-6) posit
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 29
that "test anxiety, broadly defined, may be less important, though a rigor-ous investigation has yet to be made."
The research by MacIntyre and Gardner has made an impressive con-tribution to the theoretical framework of language anxiety. In one study,MacIntyre and Gardner (1991b) compare native English speakers' anxietylevels for French, English, and math classes. The French class producedsignificantly higher levels of anxiety than the other two classes. In anotherstudy (Gardner and MacIntyre 19936), these researchers administered arepertoire of instruments to assess a variety of affective variables using sev-eral form types (i.e., Likert scale, single-item scale, semantic version) inaddition to the FLCAS and various form-types of their French ClassAnxiety Scale. Their findings support the conceptual distinctions amongmost of the variables, including language anxiety. These results supportother studies of Horwitz (1986) and MacIntyre and Gardner (1989),which suggest that language anxiety is distinct from other types of anxiety.
From their review of the literature on the research methods and mea-sures of language anxiety, MacIntryre and Gardner (1991c) have proposedthe following hypothesis to explain language anxiety:
During the first few experiences in the foreign language, anxiety plays anegligible role in proficiency since, even if anxiety is present, it is not theforeign language anxiery that has been discussed to this point. Anxietyexperienced at this time would be based on trait anxiety, test anxiety, com-munication apprehension, novelty anxiety, etc., that are not necessarilyspecific to the language learning situation. Anxiety aroused in this context,as a result of early language experience, would best be called state anxiety.After several experiences with the second language context, the studentforms attitudes that are specific to the situationemotions and attitudesabout learning a new language. If these experiences are negative, foreignlanguage anxiety may begin to develop. As negative experiences persist,foreign language anxiety may become a regular occurrence and the studentbegins to expect to be nervous and perform poorly. (p. 110)
MacIntyre and Gardner cite a handful of studies that provide indirect sup-port of their hypothesis (1991c, p. 110) and point out that in these studies"favorable experiences and increased achievement reduced anxiety" and"gains in proficiency resulted in students having reduced levels of foreignlanguage anxiety" (p. 111).
Two studies by other researchers provide further evidence in supportof MacIntyre and Gardner's hypothesis. Campbell and Ortiz (1991b)administered the FLCAS and their Survey of Attitudes Specific to the
I
30 Faces in a Crowd. The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
Foreign Language Classroom to beginning adult foreign language learnersat the Defense Language Institute. They found that students were almosttwice as anxious in their foreign language class midway through the class asthey were at the beginning of the course.
In an examination of reflection papers of different students inCommunity Language Learning (CLL) classes over a six-year period,Samimy and Rardin (1994) found that learners consistently stated thattheir language anxiety stemmed from past negative language learningexperiences.
If we accept MacIntyre and Gardner's hypothesis, then it would becrucial that learners have favorable experiences in language learning earlyin the language learning process.
The research on theoretical models and frameworks of language anxietyis less extensive than the research on the effects of language anxiety onlanguage learning and performance, but several critical concepts emergefrom research in this area: (1) language anxiety is distinguishable from othertypes of anxiety and is situation-specific in much the same way as math anxi-ety or test anxiety isin other words, it is particular to the language learningcontext; (2) the communicative and social aspects of language classes are thestrongest components of language anxiety; (3) language anxiety may be theconsequence of negative experiences in language learning.
Sources of Language Anxiety in Quantitative andQualitative ResearchEmpirical research in language anxiety has more often than not taken theform of correlational studies (see Tables 1 and 3). While correlationalstudies have produced significant contributions to understanding theeffects of language anxiety, qualitative methods of analysis can offerinsights into language learners' anxiety that may often be undetected in aquantitative approach. Recent acknowledgment of the benefits of qualita-tive techniques (Glesne and Peshkin 1992; Nunan 1992) has sparked agrowing body of qualitative research that analyzes the students' perspec-tives on anxiety in language learning.
Through interviews (Phillips 1992; Price 1991), open-ended question-naires (Young 1991), and journals (Bailey 1983), language learners haveoffered their own perceptions of language anxiety. In addition, interviewswith language specialists have provided an understanding of language anxi-ety from the language instructor's point of view (Young 1992). While early
4' 3
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 31
quantitatively oriented analyses had not provided consistent results regard-ing the negative effects of language anxiety, qualitative examinations haveconsistently reported that "students feel that anxiety does matter" (Phillips1991, p. 2). Student voices tell us that certain aspects of language learningprovoke anxiety. As Phillips (1991, p. 2) argues, "from a psychological per-spective, then, the study of anxiety is important because what the studentsbelieve can affect their attitudes toward language class, language study ingeneral, even the target culture." Moreover, student attitudes and feelingsabout language learning affect decisions to continue past the lower divisionrequirements or to stop language study altogether.
Young (1991) examines the sources of language anxiety from an in-depth review of quantitative and qualitative research in this field (see alsoHorwitz and Young 1991). She identifies a number of primary sources oflanguage anxiety. Some are associated with the learner, some with theteacher, and some with the instructional practice. Young classifies them asanxieties stemming from (1) personal and interpersonal anxieties, (2) role-
related beliefs about language teaching, (3) instructorlearner interactions,(4) classroom procedures, and (5) language testing. The following outlineof these categories includes examples for each category:
A.
B.
C.
Anxiety stemming from personal and interpersonal anxieties1. low self-esteem2. competitiveness3. self-perceived low ability levels4. communication apprehension5. social anxiety (see Table 1)6. existential anxiety87. lack of SL group membership8. learner beliefs about language learning
Anxiety stemming from role-related beliefs about language teaching1. that some intimidation of students is necessary2. that the instructor's role is to correct students constantly3. that the instructor cannot have students working in pairs because
the class may get out of control4. that the instructor should be doing most
teaching5. that the instructor is like a drill sergeant
Anxiety stemming from instructorlearner interactions1. from the instructor's harsh manner of correcting student errors2. from students' fear of being incorrect in front of their peers
of the talking and
4. 4
32 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
3. from students' concerns over how mistakes are perceived in thelanguage class
D. Anxiety stemming from classroom procedures1. having students speak in the target language in front of the class2. giving frequent oral quizzes, listening comprehension in particular3. calling on students to respond orally and exclusively in the SL
E. Anxiety stemming from aspects of language testing1. test formats that evoke more anxiety than others, e.g., listening
comprehension, translation from SL to English2. overstudying for hours only to find that the tests assess different
material3. unfamiliar test tasks.
Young concludes that while instructors and learners can identify othersources of language anxiety, most of the evidence suggests that the sourcesare interrelated and may be, in part, a result of unnatural classroom proce-dures, such as correcting every student mistake, intimidating students, andbelieving that the teacher should be doing most of the talking. She calls forfuture research to document this contention.
Students repeatedly report oral communicative tasks (speaking) as thestrongest source of language anxiety (Horwitz et al. 1986; Phillips 1991,1992; Young 1990, 1991, 1992). Another source of anxiety identified byMacIntyre and Gardner is the task type. In their study (1994a), they askstudents to complete two tasks. Students take a "thing category test" thatlimits what students are permitted to say (see footnote 5). Only words thatare appropriate to a particular category are correct. Students experiencedmore anxiety performing the thing category test than a free speech task. Inthe free speech situation students had more options; it was not as if therewere specific "appropriate" answers. Students were allowed to repeat them-selves, repair misstarts, circumlocute, and talk about tangential information.They could, in other words, make use of different strategies in completingthe task and thereby alleviate some of their anxiety.
In this study by MacIntyre and Gardner (1994a), it appears that learn-ers were allowed to use the kind of strategic competence that Canale andSwain (1980) identified in their model of communicative competence. Thedifference in anxiery levels in this study may be explained by the circum-stance that the nonconstrained task is similar to real-life expectations forlanguage use (where strategic competence can facilitate communication),while the constrained (only-one-right-answer) task is more related to the
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 33
"rules" of the classroom environment, that is, the often artificial constraintsof language use in dassroom practices.
To sum up the research on sources of language anxiety; we can concludethat (1) quantitative data consistently indicates that learners experience anxi-ety in language learning; (2) language anxiety can stem from a variety ofsources; (3) speaking and the conditions under which learners speak are thestrongest sources of language anxiety; (4) learners can experience increases inanxiety when they are required to complete oral tasks with limited options
1
versus more open-ended oral tasks.1
1
Anxiety-Reducing and Coping StrategiesWhile a wealth of anxiety-reducing and coping strategies are overtlydescribed in a number of studies (Campbell and Ortiz 1991a; CopePowell 1991; Crookall and Oxford 1991; Foss and Reitzal 1988; KennedyVande Berg 1993; Young 1991), few of these have been empirical studiesthat have actually tested the effectiveness of anxiety-reducing strategies.
Young (1991) offers a variety of anxiety-reducing strategies for the cat-egories of sources she identifies in her review of the literature. Some ofthem originate from first identifying the source of anxiety and then makingrecommendations for removing or neutralizing that source. For example, ifstudents say that direct and overt error correction produces anxiety, then wecan expect that indirect error correction (modeling) would reduce languageanxiety. Other suggestions come from the students themselves, from suchsources as their diary entries, open-ended questionnaire comments, andoral interviews. And finally, a handful of suggestions are derived fromresearchers' conclusions over ways to reduce language anxiety. The follow-ing outline summarizes Young's (1991) suggestions.
A. Personal and interpersonal anxieties1. Have students recognize their irrational beliefs or fears through
tasks/group work/games that serve this purpose.2. Suggest that highly anxious students participate in some form of
supplemental instruction, e.g., a support group, tutoring, a lan-guage club.
3. Suggest students do relaxation exercises and practice self-talk.4. Discuss periodically with students reasonable commitments for
successful language learning.B. Role-related beliefs about language teaching
1. Develop a sensitivity toward your role as a language teacher,which includes being more of a facilitator than a drill sergeant.
34 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
2. Beliefs about language learning are often reflected in teacherbehavior; use videotaping or reciprocal class visits to facilitate theidentification and discussion of assumptions about languagelearning.
3. Complete the Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory (aquestionnaire designed to identity beliefs about language learn-ing). The results of this measure offer instructors insights intonotions, sometimes erroneous ones, about language learning thatthey bring to the classroom and pass on to students.
4. Become involved in language teaching workshops and languageteaching research for insights into current teaching practices andapproaches and for setting realistic expectations of what studentsshould be able to do at a particular level of language instruction.
C. Instructorstudent interactions1 Give students more positive feedback.2. Help students develop more realistic expectations.3. Maintain a good sense of humor.4. Try to adopt an attitude that mistakes are part of language learning
and will be made by everyone.5. Try to be friendly, relaxed, and patient.6. Offer students correct feedback though modeling, rather than
overcorrection.7. Emphasize the importance of conveying meaning as much as
grammatical accuracy.D. Classroom procedures
1. Emphasize more small group and pair work.2. Personalize language instruction.3. Tailor activities to the affective needs of the learnere.g., have
students practice their role-plays in groups before presentingthem to the class.
E. Aspects of language testing1. Test what you teach in the context of how you teach it.2. Provide pretest practice of test-item types.3. Award points for conveyance of meaning and not just for gram-
matical accuracy.
One recent empirical study (MacIntyre and Gardner 1991a) reveals astrategy that could help students enhance their self-confidence, and as aresult reduce their anxiety over SL skills. In this study students were asked
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 35
to write an essay either about an experience in which they were nervous orone in which they were relaxed in using their French skills. Those stu-dents who wrote about a positive experience expressed "more confidencewhile those writing an anxious essay showed less confidence with theirlanguage skills" (p. 303). MacIntyre and Gardner (1991a, p. 303) con-clude that "conceivably, students taught to emphasize their own successfulexperiences in the second language would come to perceive themselves asmore proficient language learners, increasing their self-confidence" andreducing their language anxiety.
In the study mentioned before where MacIntyre and Gardner (1994b)examined learner anxiety levels at three different stages (input, processing,and output), they found that "the combined effects of language anxiety at allthree stages may be that, compared with relaxed students, anxious studentshave a smaller base of second language knowledge and have more difficultydemonstrating the knowledge that they do possess" (p. 301). Interestingly,however, in the processing stage, anxious students were able to overcometheir anxiety if they were given sufficient time to study.
Other suggested anxiety-reducing strategies are linked to the languageteaching methods. Koch and Terrell (1991) report that most activities inthe Natural Approach are affectively oriented in that they attempt to pro-duce comfort rather than anxiety. Young (1993) offers evidence to supporttheir findings.
In Samimy and Rardin's (1994) examination of the reflection papersof students in Community Language Learning (CLL) classes over a six-year period, learners reported a lack of anxiety or a reduction in it withCLL. Students also mentioned increased motivation and a favorablechange in attitude toward the SL culture with CLL.
Computerized discussions also seem to be a promising way to reducelearners' anxieties. In computerized class discussions, students participatein a real-time electronic conversation in the classroom. The real-time,synchronous discussion eases learners' fear of error correction and allowsstudents freedom of expression with anonymity. Beauvois (1992) exam-ined the affective responses of language learners to classroom discussionson the computer and found that students repeatedly reported this type ofactivity as less anxiety-provoking than oral discussions in class.
To sum up the research in the area of anxiety-reducing and copingstrategies, we observe the following: (1) some suggestions for reducing lan-guage anxiety stem from research on the sources of language anxiety, otherscome from students' voices in questionnaires or interviews, and still others
36 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
from researchers' conclusions about how to reduce anxiety; (2) there are fewempirical studies that investigate the effectiveness of anxiety-reducingstrategies; (3) there may be some concrete practices that instructors, stu-dents, and administrators can adopt to help alleviate language anxiety, suchas giving students ample time to complete processing tasks, assigning themtasks that highlight positive language learning experiences, or supplement-ing oral discussions with class discussion on the computer.
Directions for Future Language Amiety ResearchWhile we have experienced an increase in research on language anxiety, wehave recognized it as a vital component of SL acquisition only in the last tenyears, and are therefore still in the process of understanding the concept.Continued research is necessary if we are to build a sound theoretical modelof language anxiety. For example, we need empirical investigations to testMacIntyre and Gardner's hypothesis that language anxiety occurs as a result ofnegative experiences in language learning. We need to know more about whatthose negative experiences are and how we can prevent or mitigate them.
It would be useful to examine more closely the relationship betweentest anxiety and language anxiety and the relationship among languageanxiety and other affective variables, such as self-esteem, motivation, andrisk taking. We need to investigate whether there are differences in lan-guage anxiety on the basis of minority and majority language groups, assuggested with communication apprehension in Mejias et al. (1991). Inaddition, further research is needed that investigates whether anxietyindeed decreases with language proficiency.
Research is also needed to explain further the contradictory findings ofearlier anxiety research and to resolve several other important issues: (1) therole and effect of language anxiety on the processing of language input; (2)the relationship between language proficiency and language anxiety; (3)further sources of language anxiety; and (4) the effectiveness of anxiety-reducing and coping strategies.
Research yet to be undertaken, but that needs to be included in thiscall for research, includes inquiries into the relationship between anxietyand the following: (1) learners' cognitive styles as opposed to instructors'cognitive styles; (2) teacher and student personalities; (3) learner cognitivestyles and global versus analytically oriented language textbooks; and (4)the degree of learners' literacy in the native language and SL speech. Theconcept of language anxiety would also be clarified by an examination of
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 37
its relation to other psychological phenomena particular to language learn-ing, such as Guiora's (1972) language ego and Clarkes's (1976) theory ofcultural assimilation.
Other areas of inquiry might include the relationship between anxietyand age, gender, grade levels, and type of language learning experience(intensive vs. regular language classes). Furthermore, we would benefitfrom knowing something about the relationship between SL anxiety andnative language forensics and the differences between SL anxiety and L3,L4 anxiety.
ConclusionThis decade will most assuredly witness a continued interest in research onaffective variables in SL acquisition because we now know that cognitiveand linguistic aspects alone do not make up a complete picture of the lan-guage learning process. My hope is that this synthesis of research will offerinterested professionals the insights they need to make well-informed cur-ricular and research decisions. If our goal is to increase student motivationand increase the effectiveness of SL learning, then understanding languageanxiety will lead us closer to that goal.
Notes1. Over thirty years ago, Robert Gardner was one of the first to examine
the role of anxiety in language learning. In his investigations of affec-tive variables in language learning, Gardner often assessed anxiety asone affective variable among others.
2. Other instruments used to measure aspects of anxiety in the languagelearning process include the Survey of Attitudes Specific to the ForeignLanguage Classroom (Campbell and Ortiz 1991a) and Young's (1990)Student Reactions to In-Class Activities.
3. The actual term "language anxiety," as used in this chapter, first appearedin print in the volume edited by Horwitz and Young (1991).
4. Once ability was accounted for, however, anxiety was not significant,suggesting that less proficiency results in more anxiety. But MacIntyreand Gardner (1991c, p. 108) point out that these results deservereconsideration because the particular analysis used in the study"ignores the difficulty of interpreting the residualized scores used in
50
38 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
partial correlation." If they are correct, then there was indeed a signifi-cant negative relationship between anxiety and students' oral profi-ciency scores.
5. See MacIntyre and Gardner (1991c).
6. The thing category test was in essence a vocabulary test. Studentswere, for example, asked to name everything that could be found in arefrigerator. The digit span test required students to hear a string ofsingle-digit numbers at a rate of one per second and to write themdown as soon as they heard them.
7. Also see Sparks, Ganschow, Javorsky, Pohlman, and Patton (1992)and Ganschow et al. (1994).
8. Jennybelle Rardin defines existential anxiety as a profound type of anxi-ety inherently built into the language learning process, particularly foradolescent and adults, that "touches the core of one's self-identity, one'sself-image." According to her, the learner's train of thought is somewhatas follows: "If I learn another language, I will somehow lose myself; I, asI know myself to be, will cease to exist" (quoted in Young 1992, p. 68).
Works CitedBackman, Nancy. 1976. Two Measures of Affective Factors as They Relate
to Progress in Adult Second-Language Learning. Working Papers inBilingualism 10: 100-122.
Bailey, Kathleen M. 1983. Competitiveness and Anxiety in Adult SecondLanguage Learning: Looking At and Through the Diary Studies. Inalssroom Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition, edited byHerbert W. Seliger and Michael H. Long, 67-102. Rowley, MA:Newbury House.
Bartz, Walter M. 1974. A Study of the Relationship of Certain Factorswith the Ability to Communicate in a Second Language (German) forthe Development of Communicative Competence. Ph.D. diss., OhioState University.
Beauvois, Margaret Healey. 1992. Computer-Assisted Classroom Discussionin the Foreign Language Classroom: Conversation in Slow Motion.Foreign Language Annah 25: 455-63.
Brewster, Elizabeth S. 1975. Personality Factors Relevant to IntensiveAudiolingual Foreign Language Learning. Ph.D. diss., University ofTexas.
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 39
Campbell, Christine M., and Jose A. Ortiz. 1991a. Helping StudentsOvercome Foreign Language Anxiety. In Horwitz and Young,153-68.
199 1 b. Toward a More Thorough Understanding of ForeignLanguage Anxiety. In Focus on the Foreign Language Learner, edited byLorraine A. Strasheim, 12-24. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook.
Cana le, Michael, and Merrill Swain. 1980. Theoretical Bases ofCommunicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching andTesting. Applied Linguistics 1: 1-47.
Chastain, Kenneth. 1975. Affective and Ability Factors in SecondLanguage Learning. Language Learning 25: 153-61.
Clarke, Mark A. 1976. Second Language Acquisition as a Clash ofConsciousness. Language Learning 26: 377-89.
Clement, R., Robert C. Gardner, and P. C. Smythe. 1977. MotivationVariables in Second Language Acquisition: A Study of FrancophonesLearning English. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 9: 123-33.
1980. Social and Individual Factors in Second LanguageAcquisition. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 12: 293-302.
Cope Powell, Jo Ann. 1991. Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety:Institutional Responses. In Horwitz and Young, 169-76.
Crookall, David, and Rebecca L. Oxford. 1991. Dealing with Anxiety:Some Practical Activities for Language Learners and Teacher Trainees.In Horwitz and Young, 141-50.
Dunkel, Harold B. 1947. The Effect of Personality on LanguageAchievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 38: 177-82.
Ely, Christopher M. 1986. An Analysis of Discomfort, Risktaking,Sociability and Motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning36: 1-25.
Foss, Karen A., and Armeda C. Reitzel. 1988. A Relational Model forManaging Second Language Anxiety. TESOL Quarterly 22: 437-54.
Ganschow, Leonore, Richard L. Sparks, Reed Anderson, James Javorsky, SueSkinner, and Jon Patton. 1994. Differences in Language Performanceamong High-, Average-, and Low-Anxious College Foreign LanguageLearners. Modern Language Journal 78: 41-55.
Gardner, Robert C., J. B. Day, and Peter D. Maclntyre. 1992. IntegrativeMotivation, Induced Anxiety, and Language Learning in a ControlledEnvironment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 14: 197-214.
5212) ES'' COPY AVM ABJ,
40 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
Gardner, Robert C., R. N. Lalande, R. Moorcroft, and F. T. Evers. 1987.Second Language Attrition: The Role of Motivation and Use. Journalof Language and Social Psychology 6: 29-47.
Gardner, Robert C., and Peter D. MacIntyre. 1993a. A Student'sContributions to Second-Language Learning, Part 2: AffectiveVariables. Language Teaching 26: 1-11.
1993b. On the Measurement of Affective Variables in SecondLanguage Learning. Language Learning 43: 157-94.
Gardner, Robert C., R. Moorcroft, and Peter D. MacIntyre. 1987. TheRole of Anxiety in Second Language Poformance of Language Dropouts.Research Bulletin No. 657. London, Ontario: University of WesternOntario.
Gardner, Robert C., P. C. Smythe, R. Clement, and L. Gliksman. 1976.Second Language Learning: A Social-Psychological Perspective.Canadian Modern Language Review 32: 198-213.
Gardner, Robert C., P. C. Smythe, and G. R. Grunet. 1977. IntensiveSecond Language Study: Effects on Attitudes, Motivation, and FrenchAchievement. Language Learning 27: 243-61.
Glesne, Corrine, and Alan Peskin. 1992. Becoming Qualitative Researchers.White Plains, NY: Longman.
Guiora, Alexander A. 1972. Construct Validity and TranspositionalResearch: Toward an Empirical Study of Psycho-Analytic Concepts.Comprehension Psychiatry 13: 139-50.
Horwitz, Elaine K. 1986. Preliminary Evidence for the Reliability andValidity of a Foreign Language Anxiety Scale. TESOL Quarterly 20:559-62.
Horwitz, Elaine K., Michael B. Horwitz, and Jo Ann Cope. 1986. ForeignLanguage Classroom Anxiety. Modern Language Journal 70: 125-32.
Horwitz, Elaine K., and Dolly J. Young, eds. 1991. Language Anxiety:From Them), and Research to Classroom Implications. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kennedy Vande Berg, Camille. 1993. Managing Learner Anxiety inLiterature Courses. French Review 67: 27-36.
Kleinmann, Howard. 1977. Avoidance Behavior in Adult SecondLanguage Acquisition. Language Learning 27: 93-107.
Koch, April, and Tracy D. Terrell. 1991. Affective Reactions of Foreign
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 41
Language Students to Natural Approach Activities and TeachingTechniques. In Horwitz and Young, 109-26.
MacIntyre, Peter D. 1988. The Effects of Anxiety on Foreign LanguageLearning and Production. M.A. thesis, University of WesternOntario, London, Ontario.
MacIntyre, Peter D., and Robert C. Gardner. 1988. The Measurement ofAnxiety and Applications to Second Language Learning: An AnnotatedBibliography. Research Bulletin No. 672. London, Ontario: Universityof Western Ontario. Washington DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Lan-guages and Linguistics (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No.ED 301 040,39p.).
1989. Anxiety and Second Language Learning: Toward aTheoretical Clarification. Language Learning 39: 251-75.
1991a. Investigating Language Class Anxiety Using the FocusedEssay Technique. Modern Language Journal 75: 296-304.
1991 b. Language Anxiety: Its Relationship to Other Anxietiesand to Processing in Native and Second Language. Language Learning41: 513-34.
1991c. Methods and Results in the Study of Anxiety andLanguage Learning: A Review of the Literature. Language Learning41: 85-117.
1994a. The Effects of Induced Anxiety on Three Stages ofCognitive Processing in Computerized Vocabulary Learning. Studiesin Second Language Acquisition 16: 1-17.
1994b. The Subtle Effects of Language Anxiety on CognitiveProcessing in the Second Language. Language Learning 44: 283-305.
Madsen, Harold S., Bruce B. Brown, and Randall L. Jones. 1991.Evaluating Student Attitudes toward Second Language Tests. InHorwitz and Young, 65-86.
Mejias, Hugo, Ronald L. Applbaum, Susan J. Applbaum, and Robert T.Trotter. 1991. Oral Communication Apprehension and Hispanics:An Exploration of Oral Communication Apprehension amongMexican American Students in Texas. In Horwitz and Young, 87-97.
Nunan, David. 1992. Research Methods in Language Learning. New York:Cambridge University Press.
42 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
Phillips, Elaine M. 1991. Anxiety and Oral Competence: ClassroomDilemma. French Review 65: 1-14.
1992. The Effects of Language Anxiety on Students' Oral TestPerformance and Attitudes. Modern Language Journal 76: 14-26.
Pimsleur, Paul, Ludwig Mosberg, and Andrew L. Morrison. 1962. StudentFactors in Foreign Language Learning. Modern Language Journal 46:160-70.
Price, Mary Lou. 1991. The Subjective Experience of Foreign LanguageAnxiety: Interviews with Anxious Students. In Horwitz and Young,101-8.
Samimy, Keiko, and Jennybelle Rardin. 1994. Adult Language Learners'Affective Reactions to Community Language Learning: A DescriptiveStudy. Foreign Language Annals 27: 379-90.
Scott, M. L. 1986. Student Affective Reactions to Oral Language Tests.Language Testing 3: 99-118.
Scovel, Thomas. 1978. The Effect of Affect on Foreign LanguageLearning: A Review of the Anxiety Research. Language Learning 28:129-42.
Sparks, Richard, and Leonore Ganschow. 1991. Foreign LanguageLearning Differences: Affective or Native Language AptitudeDifferences. Modern Language Journal 75: 4-16.
Sparks, Richard, Leonore Ganschow, James Javorsky, Jane Pohlman, andJohn Patton. 1992. Identifying Native Language Deficits in High-and Low-Risk Foreign Language Learners in High School. ForeignLanguage Annals 25: 403-18.
Steinberg, Faith S., and Elaine K. Horwitz. 1986. Anxiety and SecondLanguage Speech: Can Conditions Affect What Students Choose toTalk About? TESOL Quarterly: 131-36.
Swain, Merrill, and Barbara Burnaby. 1976. Personality Characteristicsand Second Language Learning in Young Children: A Pilot Study.Working Papers in Bilingualism 2: 115-28.
Trylong, V. L. 1987. Aptitude, Attitudes and Anxiety: A Study of TheirRelationships to Achievement in the Foreign Language Classroom.Ph.D. diss., Purdue University.
Tucker, Richard, Else Hamayan, and Fred H. Genesee. 1976. Affective,Cognitive, and Social Factors in Second Language Acquisition.Canadian Modern Language Review 32: 214-26.
55
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 43
Westcott, D. B. 1973. Personality Factors Affecting High School StudentsLearning a Second Language. Ph.D. diss., University of Texas.
Wittenborn, J. R., R. P. Larsen, and R. L. Mogil. 1945. An EmpiricalEvaluation of Study Habits for College Courses in French andSpanish. Journal of Educational Psychology 36: 449-74.
Young, Dolly J. 1986. The Relationship between Anxiety and ForeignLanguage Oral Proficiency Ratings. Foreign Language Annals 19:439-45.
1990. An Investigation of Students' Perspectives on Anxiety andSpeaking. Foreign Language Annals 23: 539-53.
1991. Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Environment: WhatDoes the Language Anxiety Research Suggest? Modern LanguageJournal 75: 426-37.
1992. Language Anxiety from the Foreign Language Specialist's
Perspective: Interviews with Krashen, Omaggio, Terrell, and Rardin.Foreign Language Annals 25: 157-72.
Young, Dolly J., and Rebecca L. Oxford. 1993. Attending to LearnerReactions to Introductory Spanish Textbooks. Hispania 76: 593-605.
Appendix
Anxiety MeasuresReference&
Affect Adjective ChecklistZuckerman, M. 1960. The Development of an Affect AdjectiveCheck List for the Measurement of Anxiety. Journal of ConsultingPsychology 24: 457-62.
Attitude toward the Language ClassEly, C. M. 1986. An Analysis of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociability,and Motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning 36: 1-25.
Classroom Anxiety Scalerevised by MaclntyreMacIntyre, P. D. 1988. The Effects of Anxiety on Foreign LanguageLearning and Production. Master's thesis, University of WesternOntario.
Concern for GradeEly, C. M. 1986. An Analysis of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociability,and Motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning 36: 1-25.
56
44 Faces in a Crowd: The Individual Learner in Multisection Courses
Debilitating Anxiety ScaleAlpert, R., and R. N. Haber. 1960. Anxiety in Academic AchievementSituations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61: 207-15.
Facilitating Anxiety ScaleAlpert, R., and R. N. Haber. 1960. Anxiety in Academic AchievementSituations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61: 207-15.
Fear of Negative EvaluationWatson, D., and R. Friend. 1969. Measurement of Social-EvaluativeAnxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 33: 448-57.
The Fear ThermometerWalk, R. D. 1956. Self Ratings of Fear in a Fear-Invoking Situation.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 52: 171-78.
French Class Anxiety ScaleGardner, R. C. 1985. Social Psychology and Second Language Learning:The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold.
French Use Anxiety Scale (R. C. Gardner)Gliksman, L. 1981. Improving the Prediction of Behaviours Associatedwith Second Language Acquisition. Ph.D. diss., University of WesternOntario.
Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety ScaleHorwitz, E. K., M. B. Horwitz, and J. Cope. 1986. Foreign LanguageClassroom Anxiety. Modern Language Journal 70: 125-32.
Language Class DiscomfortEly, C. M. 1986. An Analysis of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociability,and Motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning 36: 1-25.
Language Class Risk-TakingEly, C. M. 1986. An Analysis of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociability,and Motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning 36: 1-25.
Language Class SociabilityEly, C. M. 1986. An Analysis of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociability,and Motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning 36: 1-25.
Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA)CollegeMcCroskey, J. C. 1970. Measures of Communication-Bound Anx-iety. Speech Monographs 37: 269-77.
PRCATen (Grade 10 students), PRCA--Seven (Grade 7 students)McCroskey, J. C. 1970. Measures of Communication-Bound Anx-iety. Speech Monographs 37: 269-77.
New Directions in Language Anxiety Research 45
PRPSAMcCroskey, J. C. 1970. Measures of Communication-Bound Anx-iety. Speech Monographs 37: 269-77.
PRCALong Form, PRCAShort FormMcCroskey, J. C. 1978. Validity of the PRCA as an Index of OralCommunication Apprehension. Communication Monographs 45:192-203.
Social Avoidance and Distress ScaleWatson, D., and R. Friend. 1969. Measurement of Social-EvaluativeAnxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 33: 448-57.
Speech A/Trait Scale (Sample Items)Lamb, D. H. 1972. Speech Anxiety: Towards a TheoreticalConceptualization and Preliminary Scale Development. SpeechMonographs 39: 62-67.
Speech A/State Scale (Sample Items)Lamb, D. H. 1972. Speech Anxiety: Towards a TheoreticalConceptualization and Preliminary Scale Development. SpeechMonographs 39: 62-67.
The S-R Inventory of General Trait AnxiousnessEndler, N. S., and M. Okada. 1975. A Multidimensional Measure ofTrait Anxiety: The S-R Inventory of General Trait Anxiousness.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 43: 319-29.
Strength of MotivationEly, C. M. 1986. An Analysis of Discomfort, Risktaking, Sociability,and Motivation in the L2 Classroom. Language Learning 36: 1-25.
Suinn Test Anxiety Behavior ScaleSuinn, R. M. 1969. The STABBS, a Measure of Test Anxiety forBehavior Therapy: Normative Data. Behaviour Research and Therapy7: 335-39.
Taylor Manifest Anxiety ScaleTaylor, J. A. 1953. A Personality Scale of Manifest Anxiety. Journal ofAbnormal and Social Psychology 48: 285-90.
Test Anxiety ScaleSarason, I. G., and V. J. Ganzer. 1962. Anxiety, Reinforcement, andExperimental Instructions in a Free Verbalization Situation. Journal ofAbnormal and Social Psychology 65: 300-307.
Writing Apprehension MeasureDaly, J. A., and M. C. Miller. 1975. The Empirical Development of
53;
an Instrument to Measure Writing Apprehension. Research in theTeaching of English 9: 242-49.
Note I. Appendix taken from MacIntyre and Gardner 1988.
59
