EXPLORING THE CONCH AND ITS ABILITY TO SURVIVE EXTREME CONDITIONS

12/9/2016 Harnessing Nature to Enhance Survival

Rebecca Verveda

ENG G 105

Professor M. Eggermont

Schulich School of Engineering

Date of Submission: December 12, 2016

Exploring the Conch and its ability to survive extreme conditions

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Exploring the Conch and its ability to survive extreme conditions H A R N E S S I N G N A T U R E T O E N H A N C E S U R V I VA L

Challenge 1:

Sustainable Energy

Conversion for

Habitation on Mars

For any location to be

habitable to humans, energy is

necessary and essential. It is

required for heating, lighting,

refrigeration, cooking and

other essential basic functions

of society but it is also required

for machinery and electronics,

transportation, communications

and computing. The most basic

energy producer is the Sun

which provides a huge amount

of energy to Earth to sustain

living organisms.

In space, on Mars specifically,

the energy requirements per

person will be greater than on

Earth due to the need for

Environment Control and Life

Support Systems (ECLSS) (Mars

Settlement, 2013). One crucial

factor affecting the survival

Figure 1: Utilizing wind as a sustainable energy source

Mars has immense wind storms despite its thin atmosphere. These “Wind Trees” have tiny blades are housed within the leaf units of each tree. The blades turn inwards, letting the leaves turn in the wind (regardless of wind direction). They respond to wind as low as 2 meters per second and are silent. This is beneficial because sound is wasted energy and can be disruptive in urban environments. These structures could be used in places where people frequent, unlike traditional wind turbines which are very noisy and obtrusive (Byrne, 2014). (Image from Byrne, James (2014), Figure 1)

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rate of living organisms is access to water. The only known water on Mars is at its poles in the form

of massive ice deposits with an estimated volume of 1.2-1.7 x 10^6 km^3 and buried ice (Cockell,

C. S., 2014). To extract buried ice and to melt it and the ice at the poles to have water for survival

would take enormous amounts of energy.

In 2010, energy on Earth was attained from (in decreasing order) oil, coal, natural gas, biomass,

nuclear fission, hydroelectric and other renewables. 80% of energy used on Earth is sourced from

fossil fuels and less than 1% is obtained from other renewables such as solar, wind, wave, tidal,

geothermal and ocean thermal sources (Mars Settlement, 2013). Most of these conventional energy

sources are unavailable or undevelopable on Mars. What has potential for development is nuclear

fission, solar, wind or aerothermal. With increasing carbon dioxide levels in Earth’s atmosphere,

prompting climate change, more investments are being made into non-fossil fuel related energy

sources making the development of these technologies more economically viable.

While solar power is a potential option for an energy source, Mars has high velocity dust storms

that can block out the sun for months. Energy could be harnessed from the wind of these storms to

provide energy for the requirements of sustainable life. Wind turbines (Bluck, 2001) have the

potential to be the gateway into this solution as well as ‘hairy’ suits to harness the wind on Mars.

The development of sustainable energy conversion is an essential solution to make normally

inhabitable environments habitable for humans in space

Figure 2: Solar energy as a sustainable energy source

An example of sustainable energy conversion for barren environments are these “FERN”s

(Future, Energy, Renewable, Nature).They are semi-transparent solar panels that are designed to follow the movement of the Sun. The stalk is of a flexible material that imitates the stalk of a plant (Onishi, 2010). They are designed for the deserts in Dubai. They provide shelter from the Sun during the day while collecting energy for electricity generation. (Images from Onishi, Takuya (2010) Figures 5 and 1, respectively)

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Challenge 2: Habitable Structures in Extreme Environments

The Martian environment is completely uninhabitable by humans as known today.

Substantial alterations would have to be made for life to continue to survive once it has arrived.

When comparing environmental condition on Mars to those on Earth it is seen that there are many

differences that would be a factor in the survival rate of humans on Mars. Mars’ average

atmospheric pressure is 7.5 millibars while Earth’s is 1,013 millibars (Smith, 2016) meaning Mars’ is

only 0.75% the pressure of Earth’s. This influences human’s in the way we perceive sound, breathe,

as well as the states the fluids within our bodies are in. At low pressures the boiling temperatures

of certain substances decrease meaning they can convert from liquid to gas at lower temperatures

than on Earth.

The atmospheric components on

Earth are 77% Nitrogen, 21%

Oxygen, 1% Argon and 0.038%

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (Smith,

2016). Mars’ atmospheric

components are 95.32% Carbon

Dioxide, 2.7% Nitrogen, 1.6%

Argon, 0.13% Oxygen, 0.03%

Water Vapor and 0.01% Nitric

Oxide (Smith, 2016). The most

obvious issue with the proportions

of molecules on Mars is the

difference in percent of oxygen.

Mars has significantly less oxygen

than Earth especially considering

the reduced atmospheric pressure

which means there is less matter in

the atmosphere. Another less

obvious issue is the amount of

CO2. At Earth’s proportion of

0.038% CO2 we see a severe

threat to life on Earth with

increases in global temperatures,

destruction of ecosystems and loss

of species. There have been no

methods to combat this CO2

production or ways to store it.

Mars has 95% CO2 which could

Figure 3: Habitable Structures in Extreme Environments

A challenge is structurally sound and material/energy sufficient buildings for habitation. Particularly on Mars some major issues for these structures are: temperature regulation, oxygen supply, and structural integrity to withstand severe storms. This image is taken from Star Wars’ Mos Espa as a very primitive dwelling. As primitive as it may be, the domed structure is proved as one of the strongest shapes. It can therefore withstand major wind storms, like those on Mars. (Image from headbugz, 2012, Figure 1).

Exploring the Conch and its ability to survive extreme conditions

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cause an issue in sustaining life. It has also been modeled that Mars has been impacted by significant

acid rains which may have been produced when iron from surrounding rocks was picked up by

groundwater and underwent a chemical reaction to produce hydrogen atoms, increasing the acidity

of the water it was evaporated with (Thompson, 2010).

The average distance of Earth from the Sun is 150 million kilometers while Mars is, on average,

288 million kilometers away from the Sun (Thompson, 2010). Mars will receive less sunlight and this

causes lower surface temperatures. Earth’s average surface temperature is 14 degrees Celsius

while Mars’ average surface temperature is -63 degrees Celsius (Thompson, 2010). Where people

live must be energy efficient and insulating to protect its inhabitants. These extreme conditions on

Mars make it a challenging place for long-term relocation.

Figure 4: Habitable Structures in Extreme Environments

This image shows a “Hurricane-Proof” house in Florida. This home is a shell-like concrete structure sitting on the ground like half a sphere. More importantly, it has withstood four catastrophic hurricanes thanks to its one-piece concrete construction embedded with five miles of steel. This $7 million design was built after a previous home was destroyed by hurricanes Erin and Opal, and it can withstand 300mph winds (Rogers, 2011). Structures like these are typically made of extremely durable materials like concrete, steel and stone, and many have been engineered to respond and adapt to the punishing effects of a disaster. (Image from Rogers, 2011, Figure 1).

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Challenge 3: Navigation in Space

Initial navigation methods on Earth included using recognizable land formations as location

markers (as they do not change significantly with time), compasses (utilizing the Earth’s magnetic

field), and celestial body identification (using stars and constellations to pinpoint locations). In the

20th century, radio and sonar was developed and used as a navigation method when used with

beacons. The gyroscopic compass involves holding its position relative to the rotation of the Earth.

Once shipboard electricity was introduced, the gyroscopic compass could point to true north. This

was important because a traditional metal compass was less reliable on steel vessels. Today, Global

Position System’s (GPS’s) are used by utilizing the Doppler effect of radio signals sent from two or

more satellites (Penobscot Marine Museum, 2012). When contemplating navigation and Mars, there

are two major issues: Navigation through space (from Earth to Mars) and navigation on Mars (not

becoming disorientated when traversing the planet).

Unlike Earth, space does not have

predictable magnetic field lines, nor

discernable topographical features

that may be used to reference location.

When thinking about utilizing a

reference point, the fact that

everything is moving relative to each

other must be taken into consideration.

The Earth is rotating around the Sun,

the Sun around a galaxy, satellites

around their object of orbit and final

destinations are always moving.

The size of each object is vastly small

relative to the distances separating

them. When taking this into account

along with the fact that they are also

moving, calculating accurate path

trajectories becomes very difficult. On

Earth, the gravitational field of the

Earth and the Sun are the main

gravitational forces experienced.

However, in space the gravitational

fields of various other bodies (other

planets, stars, asteroids etc.) must be

considered as well. They each will

affect the object travelling through

space (like the Sun dictates the orbital

path of the Earth).

Figure 5: Navigation in Space This image shows a contour map that illustrates detailed information including water depths, rocks and shoal locations, structures (abandoned lighthouse), buoys, the area that dries out at low tide (intertidal zone), made in 1993 by the NOAA Coast and Geodetic Survey (Penobscot Marine Museum, 2012). The spacing between the lines shows how quickly the gradient of the surface changes. To draw this would have taken large amounts of time to physically review the features of the area to get accurate distances and depths. (Image from Penobscot Marine Museum, NOAA

Chart 13309 (1993), Figure 1)

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Utilizing methods like topographical features, celestial body identification, and GPS may be

effective way of navigating on Mars, however they require trial and error as well as “set up time”

for satellites to be positioned and topographical features to be mapped before they can be used.

A method that could be used upon arrival on Mars is crucial to initializing the habitualization of the

area.

Figure 6: Navigation in Space The Aerospace Robotics Laboratory (ARL) at Stanford University has developed a GPS pseudolite-based local-area navigation system for Mars rovers. They use bi-directional ranging GPS transceivers scattered over a local area which allows the rover to be located with respect to the local array (Stanford University, 2010). A pseudolite (“pseudo-satellite”) is a ground based radio transmitter that transmits a signal of a satellite navigation system. They act as a navigation satellite but operate from the ground. This technology expands existing navigation technology (satellites) to difficult environments, like indoors or areas where coverage of a satellite navigation system is poor (Stanford University, 2010).

(Image from Stanford University, 2010, Figure 1).

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CONCH

FUNCTION Withstands strong compressional forces

ORGANISM Queen conch Strombus gigas

BIOLOGIC STRATEGY

Conches, such as the Queen conch, are models of structural strength due to the way their shells form. Conch shells have a cross-lamellar structure consisting of lath-like aragonite crystals and an organic matrix. The lath-like aragonite crystals form plywood-like structures composed of three macro-layers. Each macro layer is composed of first-order lamellae which form second-order lamella, which then form third-order lamellae (Kamat, S., et al. 2000).. The organization of these crystals allows for the shell to have a hardness of 10-100 times that of it’s individual constituents (aragonite, organic layer) (Lin Y. M., et al. 2006). One lamella rotates is lamellar plane about an angle of 70-90 degrees with respect to that of its neighbouring layer (Kamat, S., et al. 2000). Damage zones develop around indentations which reflect the mechanical response of the crossed-lamellar microstructure. The crack deflection, crack bridging, crack branching and the fiber pullout are the main toughening mechanisms of the shell (Lin Y. M., et al. 2006).

MECHANISM

The organization of lath-like aragonite crystals in layers of lamellae rotated 70-90 degrees with respect to their neighbouring layers reduces brittleness, creating a strong, flexible structure.

Figure 7 SEM IMAGES OF THE FRACTURE SURFACE OF A SPECIMEN. A) FIRST AND SECOND ORDER LAMELLA INDICATED BY BLACK AND WHITE ARROWHEADS, RESPECCTIVELY. B) THIRD ORDER LAMELLA (after Hou, D. F. et al., 2004, Fig. 4)

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DESIGN PRINCIPLE

A material of first, second and third order lamellae that are organized in layers with orientations offset by 90 degrees that can withstand compressional forces,

is insulating and corrosion-resistant.

REFERENCES

Hou, D. F., et al., (2004): Conch shell structure

and its effect on mechanical behaviors.

Elsevier 25 (4), 751-756.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0142-

9612(03)00555-6

Kamat, S. et al., (2000): Structural basis for

the fracture toughness of the shell of the

conch Strombus gigas, in Nature 405, 1036-

1040. doi: 10.1038/35016535

Lin, Y. M., et al., (2006): Mechanical

properties and structure of Strombus gigas,

Tridacna gigas, and Haliotis rufescens sea

shells: A comparative study. Elsevier 26 (8),

1380-1389.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2005.08.

016

APPLICATION IDEAS Build habitable structures that are heat-resistant (insulative), corrosion-resistant, and load-bearing from this material

KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Protects organism within shell from predators and extreme environmental conditions Protects organism from strong external compressional forces

Figure 8

STRUCTURE OF MATERIAL WITH ROTATING LAYERS OF LATH-LIKE CONSTITUENTS

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HONEYBEE

FUNCTION Detect magnetic fields and uses them in navigation

ORGANISM Western honeybee Apis mellifera

BIOLOGIC STRATEGY

Honey bees, such as the Western honeybee, are models of a system for positioning and orientation due to the presence of superparamagnetic magnetite found in iron granules formed in their abdominal (Shuker, K., 2001). These are used in the mechanism of magnetoreception. The relative direction of flight of the honeybee to the external magnetic field affects the modules in their abdominal. Allowing them to orient themselves (Hsu, C-Y, et al., 2007). The magnetic fields of flowers also orient themselves relative to that of the Earth’s allowing honeybees to locate flowers for pollination (Hsu, C-Y, et al., 2007).

MECHANISM

Natural forming iron modules composted of superparamagnetic magnetite orient themselves

with respect to external magnetic fields.

Figure 9 MAGNETIC MAP HYPOTHESIS OF MAGNETRORECEPTION FOR ORIENTATION AND POSITIONING DURING FORAGING AND HOMING (after Hsu, Chin-Yuan et al., 2007, Fig. 7)

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REFERENCES

Hsu C-Y, Ko F-Y, Li C-W, Fann K, Lue J-T

(2007) Magnetoreception System in

Honeybees (Apis mellifera). PLoS ONE 2(4):

e395. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000395

Shuker, K., The Hidden Powers of Animals:

Uncovering the Secrets of Nature, Marshall

Editions, 1st ed. (2001), 45.

DESIGN PRINCIPLE

A device that utilizes superparamagnetic material to detect magnetic fields and can determine position and orientation with respect to the external magnetic

field.

APPLICATION IDEAS Determine location (position and orientation) relative to external magnetic fields in space or on Mars.

KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Detects food sources to be converted into energy for basic biological functions Allows orientation and positioning to navigate and communicate with hive

Figure 10 METHOD OF DEVICE TO DETECT EXTERNAL MEGNETIC FIELDS AND DETERMINE

ORIENTATION AND POSITION

Orientation of magnetic field at

various positions:

A

B

C

D Magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction travelled at point D

A

B

C

D

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TERMITES

FUNCTION Withstands strong compressional forces

ORGANISM Mound-building termite Macrotermes jeanneli

BIOLOGIC STRATEGY

Termite mounds, such as those made by the African mound-building termite, are extensive systems of tunnels and conduits that are built above a subterranean nest. These tunnels are connected to the nest via shafts, that serve as a ventilation system for the underground nest. The mound has many storage chambers that require precise temperature control. The architecture of the mounds keeps the temperature almost constant (Heimbuch, 2012). They are so well built that the mounds tend to outlast the colony of termites that built it (Gould and Gould, 2012). The basic building step involves making arches and domes, supporting a network of other arches and domes which provide most of the structural strength needed to support specialized chambers, ventilation shafts and insulating caves. They are self regulating structures that maintain oxygen levels, temperature and humidity (Termites, 2007).

MECHANISM

The arches and domes within the mounds provide structural strength by resolving forces into compressive stresses and eliminating tensile stresses to support extensive networks

of chambers, walkways and shafts.

Figure 11 CROSS SECTION OF TERMITE MOUND SHOWING TEMPERATURE CONTROLS AND ARCH/DOME STRUCTURES (after Termites, (2007), Fig. 4)

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REFERENCES

Gould, J. L., and Gould, C. G., Animal

Architects: Building and the Evolution of

Intelligence, Basic Books, First Trade Paper

Edition (2012), 142-144.

Heimbuch, Jaymi (2012) Nature Blows My

Mind! Miraculous Termite Mounds [Online]

Available:http://www.treehugger.com/natur

al-sciences/nature-blows-my-mind-miracles-

termite-mounds.html

Termites. (2007). In L. Mound, DK eyewitness

books: Insect. London, UK: Dorling Kindersley

Publishing, Inc.. [Online] Available:

https://search.credoreference.com/content/e

ntry/dkewinsect/termites/0

DESIGN PRINCIPLE

A structure that can withstand strong forces, regulate oxygen levels,

temperature and humidity.

APPLICATION IDEAS A habitable structure that will offer protection from the elements and keep its occupants comfortable.

KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Provides shelter from the elements and storage spaces (can withstand large external forces) Regulates temperature and humidity of living environment

Figure 12

DOME STRUCTURE TO WITHSTAND COMPRESSIONAL AND TENSILE FORCES

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KNIFEFISH

FUNCTION Produce and detect electrical impulses

ORGANISM Black ghost knifefish Apteronotus albifrons

BIOLOGIC STRATEGY

The knifefish, like the Black ghost knifefish, is

a model for use of electricity to navigate. It

can both produce and sense electrical

impulses. Electrogenesis occurs when a

specialized electric organ in the tail of the

fish generates electrical signals (Shuker,

2001). Electroreception occurs when sensory

cells in the fish’s skin detect the electrical

charge. Their electric organs create an

electric force field that surrounds the fish as it

swims. It is modified by the relative

conductivity of objects close to the fish. These

electrical fluctuations are detected and

interpreted by the fish through

electroreceptors embedded in its body. This

provides an electrical image that changes in

real time. This is effective when navigating in

low visibility environments or in the dark

(MacIver et al. 2010).

Knifefish emit their own continuous electrical

impulses. This allows the fish to determine the

presence of nearby objects by sensing

perturbations in timing and amplitude of its

electric field. The electric fields generated

by external sources are detected by

ampullary organs. This is called passive

electrolocation (MacIver, et al., 2010).

MECHANISM

The detection and production of electrical fields allows for an electrical image of objects

in near surroundings in low visibility areas.

Figure 13 KNIFEFISH ELECTRIC FIELD MECHANISM. IT DETECTS ANYTHING THAT COME WITHIN THE FIELD (from University of South Dakota, accessed Dec, 2016).

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REFERENCES

MacIver, M., Patankar, N., & Shirgaonkar, A.

(2010). Energy-Information Trade-Offs

between Movement and Sensing PLoS

Computational Biology, 6 (5) DOI:

10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000769

Shuker, K., The Hidden Powers of Animals:

Uncovering the Secrets of Nature, Marshall

Editions, 1st ed. (2001), 53-54.

University of South Dakota: Jamming,

Behavioral Neuroscience Summers [Online]

Available:

http://usdbiology.com/cliff/Courses/Behavio

ral%20Neuroscience/JAR/JARfigs/JARjarfig

s.html (Accessed on December 11, 2016).

DESIGN PRINCIPLE

A device that actively emits and electric field and detects perturbations within

it to determine the presence of objects in its immediate surroundings.

APPLICATION IDEAS A device to act as eyes at night or in low visibility conditions such as a windstorm

KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Navigation in the dark or low visibility areas Defense mechanism to detect when an external object nears

Figure 14 OPPOSITE CHARGES ATTRACT (LEFT) AND LIKE CHARGES REPEL (RIGHT). THE PRESENCE OF

A EXTERNAL CHARGE WILL PERTURB THE ELECTRICAL FIELD EMIITTED BY DEVICE.

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ORIENTAL HORNET

FUNCTION Absorption of sunlight

ORGANISM Oriental hornet Vespa orientalis

BIOLOGIC STRATEGY

The oriental hornet is a model for sustainable

energy conversion. They have an outer layer

(cuticle) that absorbs sunlight. The bands of

brown and yellow pigments harvest solar

energy. Each banded section has multiple

layers with the brown having about 30 and

the yellow have about 15 (Plotkin et al.

2010). The brown layer is covered in

grooves that act like pathways which help

direct light inward for better absorption. The

yellow layer is covered in oval-shaped

bumps that increase surface area for

absorption. Both sections exhibit

antireflection and light-trapping properties

which enhances the absorption of light in the

cuticle (Plotkin, 2009).

The sunlight that the hornets capture is

converted into electrical energy. There is a

voltage between the inner and outer layers

of the yellow stripe that increases in

response to illumination (Plotkin, 2009). This

energy is then used in physical activity and

temperature regulation as well as metabolic

functions.

MECHANISM

Ridge-like grooves direct sunlight to bumpy surfaces to collect sunlight to be converted into electrical energy to be used for digging or

metabolic processes.

Figure 15 BROWN AND YELLOW CUTICLES OF THE ORIENTAL HORNET THAT SHOWS RIDGES (BROWN) DIRECTING SUNLIGHT TO LARGER SURFACE AREA (YELLOW)

(from Plotkin et al., 2010, Figure 2-9).

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REFERENCES

Plotkin, M., et al., (2009): Some liver

functions in the Oriental hornet (Vespa

orientalis) are performed in its cuticle:

Exposure to UV light influences these

activities, in Comparative Biochemistry and

Physiology Part A (2009), 153 (2): 131-

135. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.01.016

Plotkin, M., I. Hod, A. Zaban, S. A. Boden,

D. M. Bagnall, D. Galushko, and D. J.

Bergman. (2010): Solar energy harvesting

in the epicuticle of the oriental hornet

(Vespa orientalis). Naturwissenschaften

97(12):1067-1076.

DESIGN PRINCIPLE

A material with a mixture of ridges to direct sunlight to be absorbed and bumps to increase surface area for sunlight to be absorbed to act as an efficient

solar panel for collecting energy.

APPLICATION IDEAS Solar panel that is efficient in absorbing sunlight and converting it to electrical energy for temperature regulation or mechanical tasks.

KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Enzymatic activity decreases when the hornet is exposed to light, conserving energy Provide energy for basic functions Moderate internal temperatures

Figure 16 RIDGE-LIKE LAYER (TOP) TO DIRECT SUNLIGHT TO BUMPY YELLOW AREA (BOTTOM) WITH LARGER SURFACE AREA TO ABSORB MAXIMUM SUNLIGHT

(from Plotkin, M., et al. (2009) Figure 2)

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Must be insulating

Grow a habitable environment

CONCH

challenge

strategy

strategy

challenge

Building material that is

arranged in plastic layers

Dome shaped

structure to protect

from external

pressures

Arrangement of macroscopic and microscopic structures

to produce strong structures

Strong shape

Must withstand compressional

and tensile forces

Flexible material that

can bend with pressures

design

design

Exterior surface

coating

Material with low thermal conductivity

(insulating)

strategy

design

Multi-layered

Elongate microstructures

to provide strength in

one direction

Layers alternate

orientation

Arches/curved ceiling to

provide internal structure

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Cracks penetrate every other first-order lamella, propagating between the favourably and unfavourably oriented lamellae (Non-catastrophic failure)

(from Kamat et al., 2000, Figure 3)

Elongate aragonite crystals allowing flexibility and producing lamellar layers. Oriented longitudinally. (from Zhang et al., (2014), Figure 6)

Rounded shape of the organism allows for greater resistance to compressional stresses.

The dome is one of the strongest structures.

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Dome structure for

maximum strength to

withstand storms

Unit cells consist of layers made up of

elongate constituents that are arranged

parallel to one another

Each layer is oriented 90 degrees to the

layers above and below it

Each elongate constituent is made up of

smaller, elongate particles that are parallel to

one another.

Each of these is oriented 90 degrees with

respect to the layers beside it.

Surface coating to prevent

corrosion

Building material is made up

of multiple layers of a ‘unit’ 3-

layer cell

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REFERENCES

Bluck, John (2001): Antarctic/Alaska-like wind turbines could be used on Mars. NASA Ames

Research Center [Online] Available:

https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2001/01_72AR.html

Byrne, James (2014) New silent Wind Tree Turbines Make Energy Production Beautiful [Online]

Available: http://inhabitat.com/wind-energy-made-beautiful-with-these-silent-wind-tree-

turbines/

Cockell, C. S., (2014): Trajectories of Martian Habitability. Astrobiology, 14(2), 182-203.

http://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2013.1106

headbugz (2012): “Star Wars” Tatooine sets still stand in Tunesian desert, lived in [Online]

Available: https://headbugz.wordpress.com/tag/list-of-star-wars-cities-and-towns/

Mars Settlement (2013): Energy on Mars [Online] Available:

https://marssettlement.org/2013/05/27/energy-on-mars/

Onishi, Takuya (2010): FERN (Future/Energy/Renewable/Nature) [Online] Available:

http://landartgenerator.org/blagi/archives/tag/biomimicry

Penobscot Marine Museum (2012): Navigation: the 20th Century to the Present [Online] Available:

http://penobscotmarinemuseum.org/pbho-1/history-of-navigation/navigation-20th-century-

present

Penobscot Marine Museum (2012): Chart Detail of Castine, NOAA Chart 13309 (1993) [Online]

Available: http://penobscotmarinemuseum.org/pbho-1/collection/chart-detail-castine

Plotkin, M., et al., (2009): Some liver functions in the Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) are

performed in its cuticle: Exposure to UV light influences these activities, in Comparative

Biochemistry and Physiology Part A (2009), 153 (2): 131-135. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.01.016

Plotkin, M., I. Hod, A. Zaban, S. A. Boden, D. M. Bagnall, D. Galushko, and D. J. Bergman. (2010):

Solar energy harvesting in the epicuticle of the oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis).

Naturwissenschaften 97(12):1067-1076.

Rogers, Stephanie (2011): 5 of the world’s most indestructible homes, Mother Nature Network

[Online] Available: http://www.mnn.com/family/protection-safety/stories/5-of-the-worlds-most-

indestructible-homes

Smith, Peter H.: Mars/Earth Comparison Table, University of Arizona [Online] Available:

http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/mars111.php (Accessed on December 9, 2016).

Standford University (2010): 3-D Mars Navigation using GPS Transceiver Arrays, Aerospace

Robotics Lab [Online] Available: https://web.stanford.edu/group/arl/projects/3-d-mars-

navigation-using-gps-transceiver-arrays

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REFERENCES CONTINUED

University of South Dakota: Jamming, Behavioral Neuroscience Summers [Online] Available:

http://usdbiology.com/cliff/Courses/Behavioral%20Neuroscience/JAR/JARfigs/JARjarfigs.html

(Accessed on December 11, 2016).

Zhang, H., et al., (2014): Stable isotope composition alteration produced by aragonite-to-calcite

transformation in speleothems and implications for paleoclimate reconstructions, in Sedimentary

Geology, 309: 1-14. doi: 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2014.05.2007