Explanations of Explanations of dysfunctional dysfunctional

behaviourbehaviour

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Different approaches have Different approaches have different assumptions about db different assumptions about db

– Behavioural Behavioural Db is learnt by conditioning or social Db is learnt by conditioning or social

learning learning

– Biological Biological Db has genetic cause or malformation of Db has genetic cause or malformation of

brain structures brain structures

– Cognitive Cognitive Problem with internal processing of Problem with internal processing of

information information

Different approaches have Different approaches have different assumptions about db different assumptions about db

Using these three areas can you explain the Using these three areas can you explain the following phobias using each approach: following phobias using each approach:

Fear of a specific object or situation such as: -Fear of a specific object or situation such as: -– Arachnophobia – Fear of spidersArachnophobia – Fear of spiders– Claustrophobia – Fear of enclosed spacesClaustrophobia – Fear of enclosed spaces– Aerophobia – Fear of flyingAerophobia – Fear of flying– Acrophobia – Fear of heightsAcrophobia – Fear of heights– Alektorophobia – Fear of chickensAlektorophobia – Fear of chickens– Androphobia – Fear of menAndrophobia – Fear of men– Carnophobia – Fear of meatCarnophobia – Fear of meat– Emetophobia – Fear of vomitingEmetophobia – Fear of vomiting– Phobophobia – Fear of phobias!Phobophobia – Fear of phobias!

Behavioural Explanations Behavioural Explanations

Behaviourists argue that abnormal Behaviourists argue that abnormal behaviour isbehaviour islearnt in the same way that all behaviour is learnt in the same way that all behaviour is learntlearnt

There are 3 learning theories that provide There are 3 learning theories that provide us withus withexplanations for phobias:explanations for phobias:

Classical conditioningClassical conditioning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning Social Learning theorySocial Learning theory

Watson and Raynor (1920) – Watson and Raynor (1920) – Little Albert and the White Rat Little Albert and the White Rat

Operant conditioning is learning from theOperant conditioning is learning from theconsequences of actions.consequences of actions.

Actions which have a good outcome through Actions which have a good outcome through positive reinforcement (reward),will be repeatedpositive reinforcement (reward),will be repeated

Actions where there is negative reinforcement Actions where there is negative reinforcement (the removal of something bad), will be repeated(the removal of something bad), will be repeated

Actions where there is no reinforcement tend to Actions where there is no reinforcement tend to die out or be extinguisheddie out or be extinguished

Operant Conditioning - Skinner Operant Conditioning - Skinner

Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement If someone is rewarded for showing a phobic If someone is rewarded for showing a phobic

reaction this could perpetrate the behaviour. reaction this could perpetrate the behaviour.

E.g. A child who is frightened by a barking E.g. A child who is frightened by a barking dog may get cuddles from their parents and dog may get cuddles from their parents and continues with this response every time they continues with this response every time they see a dog. see a dog.

The pattern of behaviour becomes The pattern of behaviour becomes entrenched and is by definition entrenched and is by definition unreasonableunreasonable

Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

When we get anxious around phobic When we get anxious around phobic stimuli heights, needles etc we avoid stimuli heights, needles etc we avoid them. them.

This prevents the anxiety and acts as This prevents the anxiety and acts as negative reinforcement. negative reinforcement.

Again the behaviour becomes Again the behaviour becomes entrenched.entrenched.

Operant Conditioning and PhobiasOperant Conditioning and Phobias

Behavioural Explanations Behavioural Explanations

These may operate alone or in These may operate alone or in conjunction with eachconjunction with eachother to explain the development of other to explain the development of a phobiaa phobia

Can you explain how these could Can you explain how these could cause any disorders in the DSM or cause any disorders in the DSM or ICD?ICD?

Watson, J.B., & Rayner, R.

Watson theorised, Watson theorised, emotional responses emotional responses exist in us because we exist in us because we have been conditioned have been conditioned to respond emotionally to respond emotionally to certain stimuli in to certain stimuli in the environment. ( We the environment. ( We learn our emotional learn our emotional reactions).reactions).

Watson believed that Watson believed that all human behavior all human behavior was a product of was a product of learning and learning and conditioning.conditioning.

Most psychologists, as Most psychologists, as well as public opinion well as public opinion in general, were not in general, were not ready to accept these ready to accept these new ideasnew ideas

So Watson set out to So Watson set out to demonstrate that demonstrate that emotions could be emotions could be experimentally experimentally conditionedconditioned

Watson theorised that Watson theorised that if a stimulus that if a stimulus that automatically automatically produces a certain produces a certain emotion in you (such emotion in you (such as fear) is repeatedly as fear) is repeatedly experienced at the experienced at the same moment as same moment as something else, it will something else, it will become associated in become associated in your brain with the your brain with the fearfear

We are not born to We are not born to fear rats, such fears fear rats, such fears are learned through are learned through conditioningconditioning

This formed the This formed the theoretical basis theoretical basis involving a subject involving a subject named “Little Albert”named “Little Albert”

The subject, Albert, was The subject, Albert, was recruited for this study at 9 recruited for this study at 9 monthsmonths

In order to see if Albert was In order to see if Albert was afraid of certain stimuli, he was afraid of certain stimuli, he was presented with a white rat, a presented with a white rat, a rabbit, an other white furry rabbit, an other white furry objects.objects.

At no time did this infant ever At no time did this infant ever show fear in any situation. show fear in any situation.

To determine if a fear reaction To determine if a fear reaction could be produced in Albert, a could be produced in Albert, a steel bar was struck with a steel bar was struck with a hammer behind him. This noise hammer behind him. This noise startled and frightened him and startled and frightened him and made him crymade him cry

Every time the white rat Every time the white rat came near Albert, he came near Albert, he would hear the loud noise would hear the loud noise and it would frighten him. and it would frighten him. This was repeated with This was repeated with other white furry objects other white furry objects (rabbit) This proved that (rabbit) This proved that the emotion of fear could the emotion of fear could be conditionedbe conditioned

After 31 days (rest period), After 31 days (rest period), he was presented again he was presented again with the white rat and was with the white rat and was still very afraid( learned still very afraid( learned emotional response emotional response persisted over time)persisted over time)

TerminologyTerminology Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - a stimulus that Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - a stimulus that

evokes an unconditioned response without any evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur).response to occur).

b) Unconditioned Response (UR) - an unlearned b) Unconditioned Response (UR) - an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning.that occurs without prior conditioning.

c) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral c) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

d) Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction d) Conditioned Response (CR) - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning.prior conditioning.

Watson’s Fundamental Watson’s Fundamental goals in this experiment:goals in this experiment:

a)a) To demonstrate that the To demonstrate that the Freudian conception of Freudian conception of psychology, that our psychology, that our behavior stems from behavior stems from unconscious processes, unconscious processes, was wrong.was wrong.

b)b) To demonstrate that all To demonstrate that all human behavior stems human behavior stems from learning and from learning and conditioning.conditioning.

This study proved that This study proved that emotional behavior could emotional behavior could be conditioned through be conditioned through simple stimulus response simple stimulus response techniques and also techniques and also launched launched behaviorism behaviorism

Their main point was that Their main point was that they had demonstrated they had demonstrated with little Albert that with little Albert that emotional disturbances in emotional disturbances in adults cannot always be adults cannot always be attributed to sexual attributed to sexual traumas in childhood, as traumas in childhood, as the Freudian view was the Freudian view was commonly interpretedcommonly interpreted

Fear in its extreme Fear in its extreme form, can produce form, can produce serious negative serious negative consequences known consequences known as as phobiasphobias

Many psychologists Many psychologists believed that phobias believed that phobias are conditioned much are conditioned much like Little Albert’s fear like Little Albert’s fear of furry animalsof furry animals

Watson’s research has Watson’s research has been incorporated into been incorporated into many recent studies many recent studies about the origins and about the origins and treatments of phobiastreatments of phobias

Kendler, Karkowski, Kendler, Karkowski, and Prescott (1999)-and Prescott (1999)- Evidence that the Evidence that the development of development of phobias may include a phobias may include a substantial genetic substantial genetic component. component.

““Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might to become any type of specialist I might select–a doctor, lawyer, artist, select–a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- chief, and, yes, even into a merchant- chief, and, yes, even into a beggar-man and thief, regardless of his beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, tendencies, abilities, vocations talents, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.” [Watson, and race of his ancestors.” [Watson, 1924, p. 10]1924, p. 10]

Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization

In addition to demonstrating that In addition to demonstrating that emotional responses could be conditioned emotional responses could be conditioned in humans, Watson and Raynor also in humans, Watson and Raynor also observed that observed that stimulus stimulus generalisationgeneralisation had had occurred. occurred.

After conditioning, Albert feared not just After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide variety of similar the white rat, but a wide variety of similar white objects as well. white objects as well.

His fear included other furry objects His fear included other furry objects including Raynor's fur coat and Watson including Raynor's fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard. wearing a Santa Claus beard.

Criticisms of the Little Albert Criticisms of the Little Albert Experiment Experiment

While the experiment is one of psychology's While the experiment is one of psychology's most famous and is included in nearly every most famous and is included in nearly every introductory psychology course, it has also introductory psychology course, it has also been criticised widely for several reasons. been criticised widely for several reasons.

First, the experimental design and process was First, the experimental design and process was not carefully constructed. not carefully constructed.

Watson and Raynor did not develop an object Watson and Raynor did not develop an object means to evaluate Albert's reactions, instead means to evaluate Albert's reactions, instead relying on their own subjective interpretations. relying on their own subjective interpretations.

Secondly, the experiment also raises many Secondly, the experiment also raises many ethical concerns. ethical concerns.

The Little Albert experiment could not be The Little Albert experiment could not be conducted by today's standards because it conducted by today's standards because it would be unethical. would be unethical.

What Ever Happened to What Ever Happened to Little Albert?Little Albert?

The question of what happened to Little The question of what happened to Little Albert has long been one of psychology's Albert has long been one of psychology's mysteries. mysteries.

Watson and Raynor were unable to Watson and Raynor were unable to attempt to eliminate the boy's conditioned attempt to eliminate the boy's conditioned fear because he moved with his mother fear because he moved with his mother shortly after the experiment ended. shortly after the experiment ended.

Some envisioned the boy growing into a Some envisioned the boy growing into a man with a strange phobia of white, furry man with a strange phobia of white, furry objects. objects.

What Ever Happened to What Ever Happened to Little Albert?Little Albert?

Recently, however, the true identity and fate Recently, however, the true identity and fate of the boy known as Little Albert was of the boy known as Little Albert was discovered. discovered.

As reported in As reported in American PsychologistAmerican Psychologist, a , a seven-year search led by psychologist Hall P. seven-year search led by psychologist Hall P. Beck led to the discovery. Beck led to the discovery.

After tracking down the location of the After tracking down the location of the original experiments and the real identity of original experiments and the real identity of the boy's mother, it was discovered that Little the boy's mother, it was discovered that Little Albert was actually a boy named Douglas Albert was actually a boy named Douglas Merritte. Merritte.

What Ever Happened to What Ever Happened to Little Albert?Little Albert?

The story does not have a happy The story does not have a happy ending, however. ending, however.

Douglas died at the age of six on May Douglas died at the age of six on May 10, 1925 of hydrocephalus, a build-10, 1925 of hydrocephalus, a build-up of fluid in his brain. "Our search of up of fluid in his brain. "Our search of seven years was longer than the little seven years was longer than the little boy’s life," Beck wrote of the boy’s life," Beck wrote of the discovery. discovery.

TaskTask

In bullet point write out the In bullet point write out the procedure/or you can use a cartoon procedure/or you can use a cartoon storyboardstoryboard

Explain reasons to why Little Albert Explain reasons to why Little Albert formed a phobia (10)formed a phobia (10)

Evaluate the study (15)Evaluate the study (15)