Explain the following Explain the following quotequote

““The life unexamined is not worth living” The life unexamined is not worth living” ~Socrates~Socrates

How does this quote apply to psychology?How does this quote apply to psychology?

What is psychology and how What is psychology and how has it developed?has it developed?

Students will:Students will:

Know: Know:

-Definition of psychology (≠ study of -Definition of psychology (≠ study of mind)mind)

-Scientific method used by psychologists-Scientific method used by psychologists

-Ethical limitations on psychologists-Ethical limitations on psychologists

-Correlation does not imply causation!!! -Correlation does not imply causation!!!

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

Psychology is the Psychology is the science of brain science of brain processes and processes and behaviorbehavior

From the Greek; psyche = From the Greek; psyche = “soul”“soul” + logos = + logos = “science”“science”

Greek symbol “Psi” Greek symbol “Psi”

How did we go from How did we go from “science of the soul” to “science of the soul” to psychology?psychology?Scientific understandingScientific understanding of behavior has been of behavior has been

limited by limited by scientific knowledgescientific knowledge which has which has been limited by been limited by scientific equipment.scientific equipment.

Of each theorist ask:Of each theorist ask:

What equipment did they have then?What equipment did they have then?

How did it limit knowledge?How did it limit knowledge?

How did limited knowledge limit How did limited knowledge limit understanding?understanding?

What is the Early What is the Early History of History of Psychological Thought?Psychological Thought?

Greeks Greeks – how does the “soul/mind” give rise to how does the “soul/mind” give rise to

memory, sensation, movement, etc.memory, sensation, movement, etc.– where is the “soul/mind” locatedwhere is the “soul/mind” located

Descartes (1600s)Descartes (1600s)– dualism (mind/body problem)dualism (mind/body problem)

how does physical matter give rise to thought, how does physical matter give rise to thought, sensation, etc.sensation, etc.

– mechanistic view (e.g., reflexes)mechanistic view (e.g., reflexes)– pineal gland as the interface between soul and pineal gland as the interface between soul and

bodybody

What is the Early History What is the Early History of of Psychological Thought?Psychological Thought?

Plato (427-347)Plato (427-347)Plato was interested in moral Plato was interested in moral

philosophy and despised philosophy and despised natural philosophy (that natural philosophy (that is, science) as an inferior is, science) as an inferior and unworthy sort of and unworthy sort of knowledge.knowledge.

Believed we are born with Believed we are born with complete knowledge complete knowledge within our soul.within our soul.

Learning – a process of inner Learning – a process of inner reflection to discover the reflection to discover the knowledge within us.knowledge within us.

What is the Early History What is the Early History of of Psychological Thought?Psychological Thought?Aristotle (384-322)Aristotle (384-322)

– Knowledge acquired Knowledge acquired through experience.through experience.

Four Laws of Four Laws of AssociationAssociation– Law of SimilarityLaw of Similarity– Law of ContrastLaw of Contrast– Law of ContiguityLaw of Contiguity– Law of FrequencyLaw of Frequency

What is the Early History What is the Early History of of Psychological Thought?Psychological Thought?Descartes (1596-1650)Descartes (1596-1650)

– Mind body dualismMind body dualism– ReflexesReflexes– Behavior controlled by Behavior controlled by

the mind or will.the mind or will.

Dualistic notion of human Dualistic notion of human behavior suggested at behavior suggested at least some components of least some components of behavior could be behavior could be scientifically investigated.scientifically investigated.

History of Psychology

Phrenology: Franz Gall (1758-1828)

First Psychologists First Psychologists (late 1800s-early 1900s)(late 1800s-early 1900s)

Wilhelm Wundt

“father of experimental psychology”

- first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, 1879

- studied reaction time to simple and two-choice stimuli

The Early Era and The Early Era and Roots of PsychologyRoots of Psychology

PsychophysicsPsychophysicsEarly psychologists, doing research on Early psychologists, doing research on

sensation and sensory experience, sensation and sensory experience, noticed interesting aspects of the noticed interesting aspects of the functioning of the senses.functioning of the senses.

The Early Era and The Early Era and Roots of PsychologyRoots of PsychologyCharles DarwinCharles DarwinThe origin of species (1859)The origin of species (1859)The descent of man (1871)The descent of man (1871)

In his presentation of compelling evidence that In his presentation of compelling evidence that humans and other animal species were related, humans and other animal species were related, Charles DarwinCharles Darwin leads to leads to comparative comparative psychologistspsychologists, who use this perspective, are , who use this perspective, are specialists who compare different animal specialists who compare different animal species.species.

The Early Era and The Early Era and Roots of PsychologyRoots of Psychology

Behaviorism Behaviorism

John B. Watson and B.F. SkinnerJohn B. Watson and B.F. Skinner– BehaviorismBehaviorism concentrates on observable, concentrates on observable,

measurable behaviors and not mental measurable behaviors and not mental processes.processes.

– Behaviorists primarily seek to study the Behaviorists primarily seek to study the observable behaviors associated with observable behaviors associated with learning.learning.

The Early Era and The Early Era and Roots of PsychologyRoots of PsychologyBehaviorism – John B. Watson and B.F. Behaviorism – John B. Watson and B.F.

SkinnerSkinner

““Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.” prediction and control of behavior.”

-- John B. Watson, 1913-- John B. Watson, 1913

The Early Era and The Early Era and Roots of PsychologyRoots of Psychology

Behaviorism and Studies of Behaviorism and Studies of LearningLearning

The early question The early question posed by posed by behaviorists in the behaviorists in the mid-20th century, mid-20th century, such as Clark Hull’s such as Clark Hull’s work with rats in the work with rats in the area of maze area of maze learning, have given learning, have given way to complex way to complex questions about how questions about how humans learn to be humans learn to be aggressive and aggressive and violent. violent.

Modern Psychology Modern Psychology ViewsViews

Psychoanalytic viewPsychoanalytic view emphasizes the emphasizes the unconscious mindunconscious mind

BehaviorismBehaviorism focuses on objective and focuses on objective and measurable behaviorsmeasurable behaviors

Humanistic psychologyHumanistic psychology emphasizes the inner- emphasizes the inner-self and the importance of subjective self and the importance of subjective feelingsfeelings

Cognitive psychologyCognitive psychology focuses on mental focuses on mental function and reasoningfunction and reasoning

Modern Psychology Modern Psychology ViewsViews

PsychobiologyPsychobiology views behavior as reflecting views behavior as reflecting brain processesbrain processes

Evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology asserts that asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selectionsubject to natural selection

Cultural psychologyCultural psychology examines the influence examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behaviorbehavior

Areas of PsychologyAreas of Psychology

ClinicalClinical – psychotherapy, assessment, – psychotherapy, assessment, diagnosisdiagnosis

DevelopmentalDevelopmental – How do we develop – How do we develop across life?across life?

SocialSocial – How do people behave in groups? – How do people behave in groups?BiopsychologyBiopsychology – How does the brain – How does the brain

influence behavior? influence behavior? CognitiveCognitive – How do we think and perceive? – How do we think and perceive?PersonalityPersonality – What basic traits make up a – What basic traits make up a

person’s personality?person’s personality?

Psychology Degrees Psychology Degrees By AreaBy Area

Careers in PsychologyCareers in Psychology Clinical work – e.g., psychotherapist*^Clinical work – e.g., psychotherapist*^ Academic – e.g., professor/researcher*Academic – e.g., professor/researcher* Business – e.g., industrial psychologist*^Business – e.g., industrial psychologist*^ Journalism – e.g., science writer*Journalism – e.g., science writer* Technology – e.g., software developerTechnology – e.g., software developer

*requires graduate degree*requires graduate degree ^requires license^requires license

How do psychologists How do psychologists learn about human learn about human behavior?behavior?

Psychology ≠ Philosophy Scientific Method

Four Steps of Scientific Method1.Defining the problem2.Forming a hypothesis3.Testing the hypothesis4. Drawing a conclusion

What qualifies What qualifies research as science?research as science?

Psychological research must meet Psychological research must meet certain criteria in order to be certain criteria in order to be considered scientific.considered scientific.

Research must be: Research must be: 1. Replicable1. Replicable 2. Falsifiable2. Falsifiable 3. Precise 3. Precise 4. Parsimonious4. Parsimonious

ReplicableReplicable

Research is replicable when others can Research is replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results. repeat it and get the same results.

Q: If something is only true once, Q: If something is only true once, should we trust it?should we trust it?

FalsifiableFalsifiable

A good theory or hypothesis also must be A good theory or hypothesis also must be falsifiablefalsifiable, which means that it must be , which means that it must be stated in a way that makes it possible to stated in a way that makes it possible to reject it. In other words, we have to be reject it. In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.wrong.

FalsifiableFalsifiable

Example: Example:

Some people theorize that the Loch Ness Monster Some people theorize that the Loch Ness Monster not only exists but has become intelligent not only exists but has become intelligent enough to elude detection by hiding in enough to elude detection by hiding in undiscovered, undetectable, underwater caves. undiscovered, undetectable, underwater caves. This theory is not falsifiable. Researchers can This theory is not falsifiable. Researchers can never find these undiscovered caves or the never find these undiscovered caves or the monster that supposedly hides in them, and monster that supposedly hides in them, and they have no way to prove this theory wrong.they have no way to prove this theory wrong.

PrecisePrecise

To make hypotheses more precise, psychologists use To make hypotheses more precise, psychologists use operational definitions to define the variables they operational definitions to define the variables they study. study. Operational definitionsOperational definitions state exactly how a state exactly how a variable will be measured.variable will be measured.

Ex.: Ex.: A psychologist conducts an experiment to find out A psychologist conducts an experiment to find out

whether toddlers are happier in warm weather or cool whether toddlers are happier in warm weather or cool weather. She needs to have an operational definition of weather. She needs to have an operational definition of happiness so that she can measure precisely how happy happiness so that she can measure precisely how happy the toddlers are. She might operationally define the toddlers are. She might operationally define happiness as “the number of smiles per hour.happiness as “the number of smiles per hour.

ParsimoniousParsimonious

The principle of parsimony maintains that researchers The principle of parsimony maintains that researchers should apply the simplest explanation possible to any should apply the simplest explanation possible to any set of observations. set of observations.

Example: Example: Suppose a student consistently falls asleep in her statistics Suppose a student consistently falls asleep in her statistics

class. She theorizes that before each class, her statistics class. She theorizes that before each class, her statistics professor secretly sprays her seat with a nerve gas that professor secretly sprays her seat with a nerve gas that makes her very drowsy. If she had applied the principle makes her very drowsy. If she had applied the principle of parsimony, she would not have come up with this of parsimony, she would not have come up with this theory. She can account for her sleepiness with a much theory. She can account for her sleepiness with a much simpler and more likely explanation: she finds statistics simpler and more likely explanation: she finds statistics boring.boring.

The ExperimentThe Experiment

An experiment involves a set of An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis.confirm a hypothesis.

Hypothesis Hypothesis refers to a statement of refers to a statement of cause and effect:cause and effect:

““Higher environmental temperatures lead Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.”to more aggression.”

Experimental VariablesExperimental Variables

To test a hypothesis, an experimenter To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis:defines the variables of the hypothesis:– Cause: Cause: Independent variableIndependent variable (IV) (IV)

temperature: can be manipulated with intenttemperature: can be manipulated with intent

– Effect: Effect: Dependent variableDependent variable (DV) (DV) aggressionaggression: # of acts of verbal/aggression in an hour: # of acts of verbal/aggression in an hour

The experimenter “manipulates” the IV and The experimenter “manipulates” the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis.measures the DV to test the hypothesis.

Experimental IssuesExperimental Issues

ControlsControls are important for determining causality are important for determining causality– the the onlyonly difference between the experimental difference between the experimental

and control groups is the presence or absence of and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV.the IV.

Placebo effectsPlacebo effects represent changes in behavior that are represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment.related to expectations of a treatment.– placebo effects are controlled by a “blind” placebo effects are controlled by a “blind”

control group control group Experimenter bias Experimenter bias refers to expectations that refers to expectations that

influence a participant’s behavior.influence a participant’s behavior. – example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do

mathmath– can be controlled using double blind procedurescan be controlled using double blind procedures

Non-Experimental Non-Experimental ResearchResearch

Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation refers to systematic recording refers to systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat.of behavior in a natural state or habitat.– e.g. observing apes in the wilde.g. observing apes in the wild

Surveys Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors. behaviors. – e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about

animal rights issuesanimal rights issues

A A case studycase study is an in-depth study of a single person. is an in-depth study of a single person.– e.g., Freud used the case study method to study e.g., Freud used the case study method to study

anxietyanxiety

CorrelationsCorrelations refer to looking at the relationship refer to looking at the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.between two variables without manipulating them.

Correlation Correlation TechniquesTechniquesThe correlation technique assesses the degree of The correlation technique assesses the degree of

association between 2 variables. association between 2 variables.

Correlations vary in direction:Correlations vary in direction:– PositivePositive association: increases in the value of association: increases in the value of

variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer)variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer)

– NegativeNegative association: increases in variable 1 are association: increases in variable 1 are associated with decreases in the variable 2 associated with decreases in the variable 2 (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s disease)disease)

– No relation: values of variable 1 are not related No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and height)height)

Correlations also vary in strength of the relationshipCorrelations also vary in strength of the relationship-1 to 1-1 to 1

Interpreting Interpreting CorrelationsCorrelations

Fig. 1.5

Correlation Take Home Correlation Take Home Line:Line:

Correlation does NOT imply causation!

Stanley Milgram’s Stanley Milgram’s Obedience StudyObedience Study 1963 social psychology experiment, 1963 social psychology experiment,

subjects thought they were shocking subjects thought they were shocking another person to promote “learning”another person to promote “learning”

Many subjects delivered high level shocks Many subjects delivered high level shocks and were upset when they later learned and were upset when they later learned the true nature of the experimentthe true nature of the experiment

This study, This study, and other factorsand other factors, led to much , led to much more stringent APA research guidelines more stringent APA research guidelines

What are APA Ethical What are APA Ethical Guidelines for human Guidelines for human participantsparticipants??

Informed consentInformed consent is an explanation of a is an explanation of a study and the responsibilities of study and the responsibilities of experimenter and participant.experimenter and participant.

ConfidentialityConfidentiality of study information of study information must be maintained.must be maintained.

DebriefingDebriefing refers to explaining the refers to explaining the research process to the participants at research process to the participants at the end of the study.the end of the study.

DeceptionDeception involving participants involving participants must be justified.must be justified.

What are the APA What are the APA Ethical Guidelines for Ethical Guidelines for animal animal subjectssubjects? ?

Researchers must ensure “appropriate Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, health, and humane treatment.”health, and humane treatment.”

Animals may not be subjected to “pain or Animals may not be subjected to “pain or stress” when an alternative procedure is stress” when an alternative procedure is available.available.

Monkey TortureMonkey Torture (3:45) (3:45)