ExperimentsinExperience:AligningDesignInquirywithJohnDewey’s

Pragmatism

AccordingtoRichardBuchanan,threebroadstrategiesofdesignresearchcanbe

seentohaveemergedinthetwentiethcentury.Theseincludethedialectic,

designscienceanddesigninquiry.1Withinthedialectic,designisexaminedfrom

asocialandculturalperspective.Incontrast,designscience—asformulatedby

HerbertSimon2—aimstoanalyseandidentifytheunderlyingelementsand

mechanismsofthedesignprocess.Lastly,designinquirypursuestwoclosely

relatedlinesofinvestigation,focusingoneitherthecreativepowerofthe

designerorthedisciplineofmaking.

Whiledesignsciencedominatedfromthe1970sthroughtotheearly1990s,

recentdecadeshaveseenashifttowardsthestrategyofdesigninquiry.This

reorientationcan,inpart,beattributedtotheperceivedfailureofdesignscience

toadequatelyaddressnewlyemergentproblemswithinthefield.3Perhapsmore

significantly,however,theacademizationofdesignhasresultedinnew

communitiesofdesignresearch.IncountriessuchastheUKandAustralia,for

example,theincorporationofartanddesigninstitutionswithintheuniversity

systemhasledtodemandsforpractice-orientatedfacultytobecomeresearch

activeandtheoreticalengaged.4Concurrently,acrosstheglobe,theprovisionof

1SeeRichardBuchanan,“ThinkingAboutDesign:AnHistoricalPerspective,”inPhilosophyofTechnologyandEngineeringSciences,Vol.9,AnthonieMeijersed.(Amsterdam,NH:Elsevier,2009):409-453;andRichardBuchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveScienceandRhetoricalInquiry,”inDesignResearchNow,RalfMicheled.(Basel:Birkhäuser-Verlag,2007):55-66.2HerbertSimon,TheSciencesoftheArtificial(CambridgeMA:MITPress,1969).3Buchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveScienceandRhetoricalInquiry”:58.4GavinMelles,“AnEnlargedPragmatistInquiryParadigmforMethodologicalPluralisminAcademicDesignResearch,”Artifact2:1(2008):3-11;KristinaNiedderer,“RelatingtheProductionofArtefactsandtheProductionofKnowledgeinResearch,”inReflectionsandConnections:OntheRelationshipbetweenCreativeProductionandAcademicResearch,NithikulNimkulratandTimO’Rileyeds.(Helsinki:UniversityofArtandDesign,2009):59-67.

doctoraleducationindesignhasexpandedrapidly,5withmanystudentslooking

toincorporatedesignpracticewithintheirresearchprojects.6

Overthelasttwodecades,theselatterdevelopmentshavegivenrisetoavast

literaturequestioningtherelationshipbetweenpracticeandresearch,7aswellas

thevalidityof‘practice-based’contributionstoknowledge.8Gradually,initial

confusion9hasgivenwaytoeffortsaimedatamethodologicalformalizationof

designinquiriesundertakenwithinacademiccontexts.Here,somehave

consideredtheextenttowhich‘experiential’factorscanbeseentolegitimately

informtheresearchprocessanditsoutcomes,10whileothershavesoughtto

repositionthetoolsofconventionalresearchasdirectiveaidsfordesign-based

knowledgeproduction.11

Thoughmanyofthesecontributionsofferviableconceptualizationsofdesign

practiceasamethod,discussionsrelatingtotheepistemologicalframeworksor

concernsunderpinningthemhavebeenrelativelylimited.Inplaceof

epistemology,attemptshavebeenmadetocharacterizedesignresearchas,at

5VictorMargolin,“DoctoralEducationinDesign:ProblemsandProspects,”DesignIssues26:3(2010):70.6OwainPedgleyandPaulWormald“IntegrationofDesignProjectswithinaPh.D.,”DesignIssues23:3(2007):70-85.7See,forexample,RichardBuchanan,DennisDoordan,LorraineJustice,andVictorMargolin,eds.DoctoralEducationinDesign1998:ProceedingsoftheOhioConference,October8–11,1998(Pittsburgh:TheSchoolofDesign,CarnegieMellonUniversity,1999);NigelCross,“DesignResearch:ADisciplinedConversation,”DesignIssues15:2(1999):5-10;andKenFriedman“TheoryConstructioninDesignResearch:Criteria,ApproachesandMethods,”DesignStudies24:6(2003):507-522.8See,forexample,BruceArcher,‘TheNatureofResearch,”Co-DesignJournal2:11(1995):6-13;MichaelBiggs,“TheRoleoftheArtefactinArtandDesignResearch”InternationalJournalofDesignSciencesandTechnology10:2(2002):19–24;andStephenScrivener,“CharacterisingCreative-ProductionDoctoralProjectsinArtandDesign,”InternationalJournalofDesignSciencesandTechnology10:2(2002):25–44.9Forabriefoverviewoftheconfusionsurroundingunderstandingsofpractice-baseddesignresearcharisinginrelationtotheUK’s1996ResearchAssessmentExercise,seeCaroleGrayandJulianMalins,VisualizingResearch:AGuidetotheResearchProcessinArtandDesign(London:Routledge,2016):3-4.Furtherdiscussion,relatingtopractice-basedPhDsinparticularcanbefoundinOwainPedgleyandPaulWormald“IntegrationofDesignProjectswithinaPh.D.”10See,forexample,MichaelBiggs,“LearningfromExperience:ApproachestotheExperientialComponentofPractice-BasedResearch,”inForskning-Reflektion-Utveckling[Research-Reflection-Development],HenrikKarlssoned.(Stockholm:SwedishResearchCouncil,2004):6–21;MaaritMäkelä“KnowingThroughMaking:TheRoleoftheArtefactinPractice-LedResearch,”Knowledge,Technology&Policy20:3(2007):157-163;andKristinaNiedderer,“ExplorativeMaterialityandKnowledge.TheRoleofCreativeExplorationandArtefactsinDesignResearch,”FormAkademisk-ResearchJournalofDesignandDesignEducation6:2(2013):1-20.11See,forexample,EvaBrandtandThomasBinder,"ExperimentalDesignResearch:Genealogy,Intervention,Argument,"(paperpresentedattheconferenceoftheInternationalAssociationofSocietiesofDesignResearch,HongKong,12-15,2007);JohnZimmermanandJodiForlizzi,“TheRoleofDesignArtifactsinDesignTheoryConstruction,”Artifact2:1(2008):41-45;IlpoKoskinen,JohnZimmerman,ThomasBinder,JohanRedström,andStephanWensveen,DesignResearchthroughPractice–FromtheLab,Field,andShowroom(BurlingtonMA:MorganKaufmann,2011);andAnneLouiseBangandMetteAggerEriksen,“ExperimentsAlltheWayinProgrammaticDesignResearch,”Artifact3:2(2014):4-1-4.14.

times,necessarilytacit.12Beyondthis,anothermanoeuvrepositionsthedesign

researchprogramasthe‘frameandfoundation’ofresearchthatincorporates

designpractice;13furnishingactivitieswithacorebeliefsystem,aswellasaset

oftheoreticalcommitmentsthatlinktheworktodeeperstrandswithin

philosophy.14

Whilesuchproposalsundoubtedlyholdappeal,thegeneralabsenceofan

explicit,widelysharedepistemologicalnarrativededicatedtotheincorporation

ofdesignpracticewithinresearchisproblematic.Itpointstoevasion,suggesting

thatsuchanapproachisnotseentorequirejustification.Atthesametime,italso

limitsthepotentialfordevelopmentandis,ultimately,regrettable.

Inseekingtoaddressthisgap,anumberofepistemologicalpairingsmightbe

advanced.Forexample,plausiblealignmentcouldbedrawnwithNigelCross’s

theoryof‘designerlywaysofknowing’15or,equally,withmoregeneral

perspectivesondesignthinking.16However,giventhepopularfocusonnotions

oftheexperimental,DonaldSchön’sconceptofknowledge-in-practice17can

arguablybeseentoprovideoneoftheclearestarticulationsofanepistemology

ofdesigninquiryyetpublished.Aboveall,hispositioningofreflectioninandon

actionasaformofinquirylendsreadysupporttotheviewthatdesignpractice

canbecentraltotheconductofresearch.18Indeed,Schönisalreadywidely

12SeeClaudiaMareis,“TheEpistemologyoftheUnspoken:OntheConceptofTacitKnowledgeinContemporaryDesignResearch,”DesignIssues28:2(2012):61-71.13ThomasBinderandJohanRedsröm,“ExemplaryDesignResearch,”(paperpresentedattheDRSWondergroundConference,November,1-4,2006);alsoseeBrandtandBinder,“ExperimentalDesignResearch:Genealogy,Intervention,Argument";andKoskinenetal.,DesignResearchthroughPractice–FromtheLab,Field,andShowroom.14Koskeninetal.,DesignResearchthroughPractice–FromtheLab,Field,andShowroom,3915Accordingtothisviewdesignpracticeconstitutesacomplex,uniquemodeofknowledgeproductiondistinctfromtheartsandsciences.SeeNigelCross,DesignerlyWaysofKnowing(Basel:Birkhäuser-Verlag,2007).16See,forexample,KeesDorst,“DesignResearch:ARevolution-Waiting-to-Happen,”DesignStudies29:1(2008):4-11;RichardBuchanan,“WickedProblemsinDesignThinking,”DesignIssues8:2(1992):5-21;andBryanLawson,HowDesignersThink:TheDesignProcessDemystified(London:Routledge,2006).17DonaldSchön,TheReflectivePractitioner(NewYork:BasicBooks,1983):69.18AccordingtoSchön,inorderresolveproblematicsituationsprofessionalpractitionerswillconductlive,practicalexperimentswithaviewtounderstandingandchangingthesituation.Underpinningthisexperimentalprocessistheprofessional’sabilitytoreflectinandonaction.Amongstotherfunctions,reflectionisseentoallowfortheformulationof

referencedindesignresearchliteratureconcernedwithexploringpractice-

researchrelationships.19

Thisapparentalignmentpoints,inturn,toanother,deeperalignment.

Namely,totheconnectionbetweenSchönandthePragmatistphilosopherJohn

Dewey,whosetheoryofinquiryinspiredtheunderlyingstructureofSchön’s

approach.20Thoughdesignscholarstendtopaycomparativelylessattentionto

Dewey’swork,hisaestheticsandpedagogycanbeseentohavehadadirectand

profoundinfluenceonthebroaderfieldofdesign.Thisisperhapsmost

immediatelyevidentinthecontextofdesigneducation.Here,Dewey’s

connectionswithLászlóMoholy-Nagy21andJohnAndrewRiceledtoan

involvementintheestablishmentofboththeNewBauhaus22inChicagoand

NorthCarolina’sBlackMountainCollege.23BythetimetheNewBauhausbecame

theInstituteofDesign,ArtasExperience(1934)wasrequiredreadinginthe

productdesignworkshop.2425Latterly,thebook’schapter“Havingan

Experience”informedtheincorporationofdesignthinkingwithinHCIworkat

thePaloAltoResearchCentreand,subsequently,wentontobecomea

foundationaltextwithinthediscipline.26Thisinfluencehascontinueduptothe

hypotheses,aswellastheevaluationoftheresult.Overtime,theaccumulativeapplicationofreflectionisseentotaketheformofanextended‘reflectiveinquiry’,thusredefiningpracticeasanactiveresearchprocess.19See,forexample,hisextensivecitationthroughoutMicheled.,DesignResearchNow.20Schön,TheReflectivePractitioner,357.AlsoseeDonaldSchön,“TheTheoryofInquiry:Dewey'sLegacytoEducation,”CurriculumInquiry,22:2(1992):119-139.21See,MaryJaneJacobandJacquelynnBaas,eds.ChicagoMakesModern:HowCreativeMindsChangedSociety(Chicago:SchooloftheArtInstituteofChicago,2012);andAlainFindeli,“DesignEducationandIndustry:TheLaboriousBeginningsofInstituteofDesigninChicago,”JournalofDesignHistory4:2(1991):97-113.22See,Findeli,“Moholy-Nagy'sDesignPedagogyinChicago(1937-46),”DesignIssues7:1(1990):4-19.23KatherineReynolds,“TheInfluenceofJohnDeweyonExperimentalColleges:TheBlackMountainExample,”(paperpresentedattheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociationConference,April22,1995).24Findeli,“Moholy-Nagy'sDesignPedagogyinChicago(1937-46).”25IthasalsobeenclaimedthatDewey’sworkpartiallyinformedthedevelopmentofTomásMaldonado’ssemioticsattheUlmSchoolinGermanyinthe1950s.See,KlausKrippendorff,TheSemanticTurn:ANewFoundationforDesign(BocaRaton:CRCPress,2006):306.26See,Buchanan,“ThinkingAboutDesign:AnHistoricalPerspective”,418.

present,withDewey’stheoriesofexperiencestillinspiringmuchdiscussion

amongtheinteractiondesigncommunity.27

GiventhedepthofDewey’simpactondesigningeneral,itissurprisinghow

fewauthorshavedirectlyexploredtheimplicationsofhisbroaderphilosophy

fordesignresearch.28Moststrikingly,therehasbeenlittleinvestigationofhis

epistemologicalapproach—especiallywhenconsideredagainstthewide

referencingofSchön.

Itismybeliefthatthefieldhasmuchyettogainfromacoherentoverviewof

Dewey’sextensivebodyofwork.Inparticular,Iwishtoputforwardthe

argumentthatDeweyoffersamoreexpansiveapproachtoknowledgethancan

befoundinSchön;onewhich,ifcarefullyexaminedandappropriated,hasmuch

toofferdesignresearch.Accordingly,throughtheremainderofthisarticleIaim

todotwothings.Firstly,toprovideanoutlineofDewey’sapproachtoknowledge

and,secondly,tohighlightanumberofitsfeatures,which,Ibelieve,holdthe

potentialtoenrichtheepistemologicalbasisofdesigninquiry.

Beforeproceeding,toavoidconfusion,adistinctionmustbedrawnbetween

theconceptofknowledgeasitpertainstodesignresearchandknowledgeinthe

contextofindividualactsoflearning,i.e.,thedifferencebetween‘itisknown’

versus‘Iknow’.Thelatterpointstopersonalendeavour;whiletheformer

impliesthataparticularsetoftechniquesandprocedures—recognizedbya

specificknowledgecommunity—havebeenapplied,leadingtooutcomes,which

27See,forexample,PeterWrightandJohnMcCarthy,TechnologyasExperience(CambridgeMA:MITPress,2004);ErikStolterman,“TheNatureofDesignPracticeandImplicationsforInteractionDesignResearch,”InternationalJournalofDesign2:1(2008):55-65;andPeterDalsgaardandChristianDindler“BetweenTheoryandPractice:BridgingconceptsinHCIresearch,”inProceedingsoftheSIGCHIConferenceonHumanFactorsinComputingSystems(NewYork:ACM,2014):1635-1644.28ForsomestrongexamplesofthosewhohaveseeBuchanan,“WickedProblemsinDesignThinking”;PeterDalsgaard,“PragmatismandDesignThinking,”InternationalJournalofDesign8:1(2014):143-153;Melles,“AnEnlargedPragmatistInquiryParadigmforMethodologicalPluralisminAcademicDesignResearch”;GavinMelles,“NewPragmatismandtheVocabularyandMetaphorsofScholarlyDesignResearch,”DesignIssues24:4(2008):88-101;andLeifE.Östman,“APragmatistTheoryofDesign,”(PhDdiss.,RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,2005).

advancetheinvestigationsofthatcommunity.InhighlightingDewey’s

epistemologicalapproach,then,Iamexaminingitsapplicabilitytotheformal

processofknowledgeproductionindesignresearch,asopposedtotheworkof

professionalsoperatingsolelywithinthedomainofdesignpractice.

JohnDewey’sPragmatism

AlongsideCharlesSandersPeirce(1839-1914),WilliamJames(1842-1910)and

GeorgeHerbertMead(1863-1931),JohnDewey’s(1859-1952)worksitswithin

theclassicalPragmatisttradition;amovementthatcoalescesaroundaseriesof

coreconcernsrelatingtoknowledge,meaning,truthandvalue.Thoughgradually

usurpedbylogicalpositivisminthelate1930s,29numerousfollowerscontinued

topursuekeyPragmatistthemesthroughthefollowingdecadesoftwentieth

century.ThisincludesRichardMcKeon,whoseimportantinvestigationsof

rhetorichavebeenrelatedtothestudyofdesign.30Morerecently,theNeo-

PragmatismofRichardRorty31andothershasledtoaresurgenceofinterestin

classicalPragmatistphilosophy.

Inbroadterms,Dewey’sownuniquePragmatismcanbeseentobridge

Peirce’scriticalandscientificinterestswithJames’sconcernformoral

implications.Throughouthiswork,analmostconstantfocusisdirectedtowards

therelationbetweenscienceandhumanvalue.32Equally,underpinnedbywhat

29RichardBernstein,ThePragmaticTurn(MaldenMA:Polity,2010):11-12.30McKeonwasastudentofDewey’satColumbiaandeventuallyaprofessorattheUniversityofChicago.ExaminingMcKeon’sinvestigationsofrhetoricfromtheperspectiveofdesign,RichardBuchananhasidentifiedawealthofconnectionsbetweenthetwo.See,RichardBuchanan,“DesignandtheNewRhetoric:ProductiveArtsandthePhilosophyofCulture,”PhilosophyandRhetoric34:3(2001):183-20631HoraceStandishThayer,MeaningandAction:ACriticalHistoryofPragmatism(Indianapolis:BobbsMerrillCo.,1968):165.32See,RichardRorty,PhilosophyandtheMirrorofNature(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1979).ItisimportanttonotethatthoughRortychampionsDeweyasoneofthegreatestphilosophersofthetwentiethcentury,hehasbeenaccusedofmisreadingthework.Itparticular,anumberofcriticsfindhisrejectionofDewey’sbeliefinthepossibilityofsocialreconstructionobjectionable.See,forexample,JamesCampbell“Rorty'sUseofDewey,”TheSouthernJournalof

hasbeeninterpretedasamelioristicspirit,33wefindalong-termcommitmentto

thepossibilityofenablingademocraticreconstructionofthesocialworld.34

Throughthisbroadthematicreach,itisperhapsunsurprisingthathis

contributionsextendacrossmanyfields,includingeducation,psychology,

sociology,aestheticsandpolitics.35

WhilethereadingsofDeweywhichfollowaremyown,Ihavebeenguidedby

theworkoftwoleadingscholars,RalphSleeperandLarryHickman.Bothoffer

keenlyinsightfulperspectivesonDewey’swork,perceptivelydescribingitscore

features,aswellashighlightingitscontemporaryimplications.Ofthetwo,

however,itisSleeperwhodevelopsthemostcompellingpresentation.Onhis

account,ifwearetounderstandDeweyinholisticterms,wemustunderstand

howhistheoryofinquiryrelatestohismetaphysicsthroughatheoryof

communication.36Thisbasicthesisguidesthestructureoffollowingsections,

wheremyprimaryfocuswillbedirectedtowardstwotextsinparticular:Logic:A

TheoryofInquiry(1938)andExperienceandNature(1925).Theformerpresents

whatisperhapsDewey’scleareststatementonthesubjectsofinquiryandlogic,

whilethelattermaybeunderstoodasabackgroundtothis,settingoutDewey’s

metaphysics.

Attheoutset,itisimportanttohighlightthatDewey’sphilosophyhasnot

avoidedcriticism.Infact,thereisanentirevolumecompilingvarious,sometimes

Philosophy22:2(1984):175-187;RalphW.Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1986);andBernstein,ThePragmaticTurn.33Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism.34JamesCampbell,“AHistoryofPragmatism,”inTheBloomsburyCompaniontoPragmatism,SamiPihlströmed.(London:Bloomsbury,2015).35LarryHickman,ForewardtoUnmodernPhilosophyandModernPhilosophy,byJohnDewey,PhilipDeened.(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,2012):xiii-xi.36Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,6-7.

high-profileattacksandcritiquesmountedbyhiscontemporaries.37Forthemost

part,thesefocusonaspectsofDewey’smetaphysics,oftenquestioningtheextent

towhichitcanbeseenasametaphysicsatallortheparticularversionofreality

itpresents.38Anotherareaofcontentionconcernshistheoryofinquiryandits

relationshiptoformallogic.39Morerecently,Rorty—achampionofDeweyin

general—hasdismissedhismetaphysicsasamistake.40

GiventheradicalnatureofmanyofDewey’sproposals,suchcriticismsare

understandable.Approachingtheworkwithoutpriororientation,some

pronouncementscanappearill-conceivedormisguided,leadingtomuch

confusionintheliterature.However,asisthefrequentpleaofDewey’sadmirers,

slow,carefulandsystematicreadingsoftheworks,combinedwithreferenceto

thefullbreathofavailablesources,canyieldarichandrewardinginsightinto

humanactionanditspotential.

Dewey’sTheoryofInquiry

Thoughuniqueinitself,Dewey’stheoryofinquirycanbeseentodirectly

appropriateanumberofcoreconceptsdrawnfromCharlesSandersPeirce’s

‘doubt-belief’theory.41Inthiswork,Peirceexploredtheroleofhuman

psychologywithintheevolutionaryprocess.Onhisview,inordertosurvive,the

humanorganismmustcontinuallyengageincyclesofmovingfromastateof

doubttoastateofbelief.Whenindoubtweare‘uneasyanddissatisfied’and,asa

37SidneyMorgenbesser,ed.DeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977).38See,forexample,GeorgeSantayana,“Dewey’sNaturalisticMetaphysics”,inDeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,SidneyMorgenbessered.(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977):343-358.39See,forexample,BertrandRussell,“ProfessorDewey’s“Essay’sinExperimentalLogic,””inDeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,SidneyMorgenbessered.(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977):231-252.40RichardRorty,ConsequencesofPragmatism:Essays,1972-1980(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1982).41Thayer,MeaningandAction:ACriticalHistoryofPragmatism,171;Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,49.

result,arerequiredtoinitiate‘astruggletoattainastateofbelief’—aprocess

thatPeircereferstoas‘inquiry’.42

Throughhisappropriation,DeweyrefashionedPeirce’soriginaltheoryintoan

organic,naturalisticpresentationofinquiry,allowingittoaccountforboththe

emergenceofthescientificmethod,aswellasformallogic.43Onthisreframing,

insteadofbeingunderstoodas‘unobservable,transcendentaland“intuitional,”’

logicwouldbecomeempiricalandobservable.44Thoughbothdoubtandbelief

wereretainedasthetheory’sstartandendpoints,knowledgewasnow

positionedasinquiry’s‘product’.45Bywayofdefinition,Deweysetsforththe

followingstatement:

‘Inquiryisthecontrolledordirectedtransformationofanindeterminate

situationintoonewhichissodeterminateinitsconstitutedistinctionsand

relationsastoconverttheelementsoftheoriginalsituationintoaunified

whole.’46

Deweyproposedthat,inallcases,theprocesscouldbeobservedtofollowa

moreorlesscoherentsequence,referredtoasthe‘patternofinquiry’.For

Dewey,thisisseentobeginwhenwealightuponaquestionablesituation.Sucha

situationmaybe‘troubled,ambiguous,confused,fullofconflictingtendencies,

42CharlesSandersPeirce,TheEssentialPeirce,SelectedPhilosophicalWritings,Volume1,1867-1893,NathanHouserandChristianKloeseleds.(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1992).Seeinparticular“TheFixationofBelief”and“HowtoMakeOurIdeasClear”.43Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,5044JohnDewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,JoAnnBoydstoned.(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1987):107.ForDewey,logicisbestunderstoodasemergingthroughourrealworldinteractions;thesuccessesandfailuresofapproachestoactionasweseektorespondtothesituationsweencounter.Accordingly,anappropriatetheoryoflogicwould,onhisview,positionstructuredlogicalunderstandingastheoutcomeofcompetentinquiry,whichmayinformfutureinquiries.Inthisway,logicbecomesatheoryofinquiry.45Ibid.,15-16.46Ibid.,108.

obscure’andsoon.Deweyiskeentostressthatthesetraitsbelongtothe

situationandnottotheindividualorgroupwhoareinitiatingtheinquiry.47

Questioningdirectsustowardawidersetofconsiderations.Perhapsmost

significantamongtheseistheneedtosetor,asDeweyhasit,‘institute’aclearly

definedproblem.Thisframestheinquiryandbecomes,accordingtoDewey,‘the

criterion’fromwhichthe‘relevancyandirrelevancyofhypothesesand

conceptualstructures’aretobejudged.Fromhere,solutionsmaybeconceived

andevaluated.However,progresstowardsasolutionpresentsanumberof

challenges.

Inoutliningtheprocess,Deweybindstogetheraseriesofinterrelated

intellectualandpracticalactivitiesthatareseentoleadeventuallytothecloseof

inquiry.Asaninitialstep,inordertoidentifyavalidproblem,wemustfirst

attendtotheimmediateexistentialfactsofthesituation.48Againstthese,

solutionsmay‘flashuponus,occurtous’intheformofsuggestionsor

possibilities.Suggestionsandpossibilitieswillevolveintoideasasweexamine

their‘functionalfitness’andtheir‘capacityasameansofresolvingthegiven

situation’.49Here,theybecome‘anticipatedconsequences(forecasts)ofwhat

willhappenwhencertainoperationsareexecutedunderandwithrespectto

observedconditions’.50Followingonfromthis,onceanideaisformed,its

‘meaningcontents’mustbeconsideredinrelationtotheinquiryasawhole.

AccordingtoDewey,thisoccursthroughaprocessofreasoningwhereinthe

consequencesofselectingagivenmeaningarecheckedagainstitsimpactonthe

47Ibid.,109.48Ibid.,112-113.Bywayofexample,Deweyconsidersthesoundingofafirealarm.Thereismuchthatwewillbeabletoidentifyasfact,suchasthelikelypresenceofafire,thepositionoftheexits,andthebehaviourofothers.Suchmaterialissaidto‘constitutethetermsoftheproblem’,whichmustbetakenintoaccountifwearetoarriveatarelevantsolution.49Ibid.,113-114.50Ibid.,113.

systemofmeaningsthathavebeendevelopedwithinthecourseoftheinquiry.

Thisislikelytoresultinanidea’smodificationasitistransformedthrough

gradualiteration,becoming‘moreclearlyrelevanttotheproblemathand’.51

UnderpinningtheabovestagesisDewey’sbeliefthatinquiryiscarried

forwardandultimatelybroughttoaclosethroughtheconstantoperational

interactionoffacts(i.e.,existentialmaterial)withideas(i.e.,non-existential

material).Factsleadtoideas;ideasleadtoexperimentsorother‘operationsof

observation’whereinfurtherfactsmaybegathered.52Theoverallcyclerelieson

theproductiveapplicationofboth.

Interestingly,apartfromthestipulationthatindeterminatesituationsmust

becomeincreasinglydeterminate,wearenotofferedaclearinsightintothe

endpointorclosureofinquiry.ThismaybeduetoDewey’sinsistencethatno

inquiryisfinalinandofitself.Indeed,nosetofconclusions,heargues,canavoid

thepossibilityoffuturerevisionoradaption.53Thus,ratherthandefinethe

processofclosure,Deweyinvokestheconceptofattainingknowledgeasthe

meansbywhichinquiryissettled.Here,wearetold:

‘Thatwhichsatisfactorilyterminatesinquiryis,bydefinition,knowledge;itis

knowledgebecauseitistheappropriatecloseofinquiry.’54

Useofthewords‘satisfactorily’and‘appropriate’hereimplythat,attheend

ofaninquiry,apre-existingsetofaimsorobjectiveswillhavebeenfulfilledorat

51Ibid.,115.52Ibid.,116.53Ibid.,16.Deweypresentsthisasfollows:‘[…]inquiryisacontinuingprocessineveryfieldwithwhichitisengaged.The“settlement”ofaparticularsituationbyaparticularinquiryisnoguaranteethatthatsettledconclusionwillalwaysremainsettled.Theattainmentofbeliefsisaprogressivematter;thereisnobeliefsosettledastonotbeexposedtofurtherinquiry.’54Ibid.,15.

leastapproached.Whatweareleftwithis‘anobjectofknowledge’;thatis,a

knownobject,whichmayguideandinformfurtherinquiry.

Sensibly,againstthislatterstance,Deweyavoidsofanydiscussionof‘truth’as

astrictlydefinedconceptrelatingtoacorrespondencewithreality.Indeed,the

possibilityoffinalandabsoluteaccesstotruthwouldinevitablyconflictwithan

understandingofinquiryasa‘continuingprocess.’Bywayofalternative,the

notionof‘warrantedassertibility’isintroduced.Thoughlesscrispatermthan

truth,55warrantedassertibilityoffersaflexibleapproachtotheconceptof

validitywithintheconductofinquiry.Specifically,itreferstothepresentationof

asetofreasonableconclusions,whichareseentoariseoutofcompetent

practice56andholdclearapplicabilitytotheconductoffutureinquiries.57As

such,valueisrecognizedatthesametimeasallowingforfuturerevision.

Fromtheaboveoutline,itwillbeapparentthatthepatternfocusesonthe

activitiesthatdirectinquiryratherthanitsabstractunderpinnings.As

Morgenbesserputsit,Deweyverymuchsawinquiryasa‘speciesofaction’58and

notapurelyintellectualpursuit.Tobesure,ontheDeweyanunderstanding,itis

aspeciesofactionthatisfirmlylocatedinordinarylife.Indeed,Deweywentso

farastoclaimthathispatternofinquirywasasapplicabletoeveryday‘common

sense’inquiriesastoscientificendeavour.Infact,thetwoareseenaslinked,

withcommonsenseinquiryattendingtoissuesof‘useandenjoyment’inholistic

real-worldsituationsandscienceaimingtoabstractfromthis,resultingin

contingentknowledge.Returnedtoeverydayexperience,suchknowledgeissaid

torefine,expandandliberatethe‘contentsofandtheagenciesatthedisposalof

55Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,134.56Dewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,108.57Ibid.,120.58Morgenbesser,DeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,xxiv.

commonsense’.59Consequently,thoughcommonsenseandsciencedifferinthe

typesofproblemstheyexamine,theyarenotviewedasmetaphysicallyor

ontologicaldifferent.60

Toalargedegree,thislinkingofcommonsenseandsciencereliesonDewey’s

proposalthattwobroad‘existential’matrices,onebiologicalandtheother

cultural,necessarilyframeandadvanceinquiry.Biologically,thehuman

organismisconsideredinstrictlyfunctionalterms,relatingtooursensory,

motor,andnervoussystems.61Culturally,however,therelevantsocialfactors

aredrawnintofocus,withaparticularemphasisbeingplacedonlanguageand

itsconsequences.62Here,weencounterDewey’stheoryofcommunication.

Dewey’sTheoryofCommunication

ForDewey,humancommunicationismanifestnotonlyinspeechandwritingbut

also,moreexpansively,inallmodesofartandmusic.63Accountsdetailingthe

processofcommunicationanditsconsequencesappearthroughouthisworks.64

Amongthese,perhapsthesharpestoutlinemaybeseentoformthecentralpivot

ofExperienceandNature.InthistextDeweysetsouttochallengetraditional

conceptionsoftherelationshipbetweenthe‘external’worldandthehuman

mind.Onhisreconfiguration,communication,ormorespecificallylanguage,is

presentedasa‘naturalisticlink’betweenthephysicalworldandwhatis

generallythoughtofastheideal.65Indeed,forDewey,itisthematerial-

59Dewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,71-72.60LarryHickman,PragmatismasPost-Postmodernism:LessonsfromJohnDewey(NewYork:FordhamUniversityPress,2007):212.61Dewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,30.62Ibid.,48-49.63LarryHickman,PhilosophicalToolsforTechnologicalCulture:PuttingPragmatismtoWork(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress,2001):46-47.64TheparticulartitlesIhaveinmindincludeExperienceandNature,ArtasExperienceandLogic:TheTheoryofInquiry.65JohnDewey,ExperienceandNature(1929;rpt.NewYork:DoverPublicationsInc.,1958):xiii.

intellectualinteractionsthatoccurinlanguage,whichhaveledtotherebeingany

conceptoftheidealorspiritualtobeginwith.66

Hisargumentadvancesfromtheviewthatcommunicationmaybeunderstood

tobeboth‘consummatoryaswellasinstrumental’.67Consummatorybecause

ourimmediateexperiencesareenhancedasweenjoytheconsequencesof

exchangeandunderstanding.Instrumentalbecause,throughcommunicationand

language,weareabletoestablishcooperationwithinajointactivity.68Following

onfromthis,wearesaidtograduallydevelopsharedmeaningsconcerningthe

foreseenconsequencesoftheactivitiesweundertakeinpartnership.The

developmentofsuchsharedmeaningsamountstoagradualconsolidationofthe

relationshipsbetweenpersons,thingsandconsequences.Overtime,

‘pronouncedinstancesofmeaning’maybeformed,which,inturn,aresaidto

constitutethe‘essence’ofparticularrelationshipswithingivencultures.69

Whilethisprocessofconsolidatingmeaningisseenasoneoftheprimary

long-termoutcomesofcommunication,Deweygoesontosaythatsuchmeanings

arenotappliedrestrictively.Rather,heclaims,meaningsarecontinuallybeing

experimentedwith.Incommunicationweoftenstretchthem,testingwhetheror

nottheymaybeprofitablytransferredtoanynovelcaseswemightencounter.70

Suchtestingisseentoformthebasisofnewthinking.

‘Meaning,fixedasessenceinatermofdiscourse,maybeimaginatively

administeredandmanipulated,experimentedwith.Justasweovertly

66Ibid.,171.67Ibid.,202.68Ibid.,179.69Ibid.,182.70Ibid.,188.

manipulatethings,makingnewseparationsandcombinations,thereby

introducingthingsintonewcontextsandenvironments[…]’71

ForRalphSleeper,suchstatementsindicateanunderstandingof

communicationastransformational.72Inotherwords,followingDewey’s

argument,communicationmaybeseenasaprocessthroughwhichour

conceptualizationsoftherelationshipsbetweenofpersons,thingsand

consequencesmayberedirectedandaltered.Sleepergoesontosuggestthat,in

theDeweyanapproach,thewayweviewexistenceitselfmaybeseenas

undergoingcontinualtransformationthroughcommunication.Thislinksusat

lasttoDewey’sownparticularbrandofmetaphysics.

Dewey’sMetaphysics

Metaphysicshastraditionallybeenpresentedasthestudyofwhatexists,

examininginparticularthepropertiesofexistentthings,theirrelationships,as

wellasthestructureofrealityasawhole.Whilemanymetaphysicalconclusions

areatleastpartlybasedondirectempiricalevidence,‘hunchesandintuitionsof

truth’arealsopermissiblewhen‘secureknowledgeisunavailable’.73Fromthe

beginningofthetwentiethcentury,Deweyhadbeenquestioningtheextentto

whichthisclassicalframingcouldbesustained.74InExperienceandNature

(1925)heproposedafull-scalereconstructionofthediscipline.

71Ibid.,194.72Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,120.73RobertC.KoonsandTimothyPickavance,Metaphysics:TheFundamentals(London:JohnWiley&Sons,2015):2.74JohnDewey,“TheSubjectMatterofMetaphysicalInquiry”,inDeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,SidneyMorgenbessered.(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977):317.In‘TheSubject-MatterofMetaphysicalInquiry’Deweypresentedaninitialproposaloutliningarevisedroleforthediscipline.Throughreformation,heargued,metaphysicscouldbecomeasciencefocusedontheidentificationandarticulationof‘theultimatetraitsoftheworld’Itwouldbeconcernednotwithspecifics,asisthecaseinthenaturalsciencesforexample,butinsteadwiththegeneralitiesofexistence.

Thetextopenswiththeargumentthatexperienceandnatureshouldnotbe

seenasseparate.Experience,wearetold,is‘ofnatureaswellasinnature’.75Itis

throughexperiencethatweencounteraworld,whichisanythingbut‘sure,

regularandfinished’.Rather,theworldwecometoknowindailylifeisablend

of‘sufficiencies,tightcompleteness,order’and‘recurrences’,aswellas

‘singularities,ambiguities,’and‘uncertainprocesses’.76

Againstthiscomplexity,existenceissaidtobecomprisedofevents.77On

Dewey’saccount,eventsdrawtogetherhumanlifeinanunbounded

completeness,weavingthepersonal,thesocialandthematerialintoone

complexinteraction.Aswashighlightedintheprevioussection,Deweybelieves

thatitisthroughsocialdiscoursethatweareabletoidentifyandarticulatethe

meaningofthings,todrawthemintofocus,aswellastoexpanduponthem.

Furthertothis,inevents,languageissaidtoallowustoconvertfeltqualitiesinto

the‘objectivedifferences’betweenthings.Feelingscometomakesense.Wecan

identifyanddiscriminatebetween‘pains,pleasures,odors,colors,noises,

tones’.78Assuchqualitiesareseentoarisethrough‘thecomplexandextensive

interactionofevents’,Deweyinsiststhattheymustbeunderstoodasholdinga

‘naturalexistentialstatus’.79Inotherwords,hebelievesthattheybelongas

muchtothesituationastotheindividual.Inholdinganaturalexistentialstatus,

qualitiesarepresentedasthe‘ends,terminals,arrests,enclosures’ofnature.On

thisview,naturemaybeseenas‘anaffairofaffairs’;alinkedupsetofendsand

beginningswhicheachholdqualities.80

75Dewey,ExperienceandNature,4a.76Ibid.,47.77Ibid.,7178Ibid.,258-25979Ibid.,265.80Ibid.,96.

Thetextconcludeswithanexplorationoftherelationshipbetweenexistence,

valuesandphilosophy.Wearetoldthat‘naturalends’necessarilypresent

intrinsic,immediatelyrecognizablevalues.81Inlightofthis,Deweybelievesthat,

wereitappropriatelycontextualized,philosophywouldbecome‘amethodof

discriminatingamonggoodsonthebasisoftheconditionsoftheirappearance

andoftheirconsequences’;82thatis,amethodofcriticismor‘acriticismof

criticisms’.Thismethod,whenproperlypursuedasameansofinquiry,would

resultintheinstitutionandperpetuationof‘moreenduringandextensive

values’.83

Followingonfromthisproposedredirectionofphilosophyandthepreceding

theoryofexistence,areconstructedmetaphysicswouldaim,wearetold,

towards‘astatementofthegenerictraitsmanifestedbyexistencesofallkinds

withoutregardtotheirdifferentiationbetweenthephysicalandthemental’.

Thesewouldlikelyinclude:‘qualitativeindividualityandconstantrelations,

contingencyandneed,movementandarrest’.Whiletheidentificationofsuch

traitswouldneverbefinal,theywouldbegintoprovidephilosophywitha

‘groundmap’,guidingcriticismtowards‘moreintricatetriangulations’inits

investigationofvalues.84

ADeweyanFrameworkforKnowledge

81Ibid.,396.TotracesomeofDewey’sexamples,inournaturalexperiencequalitiessuchaspoignancy,humour,zest,tragedyandbeautyareallimplicitlyapproachedintermstheirbeing‘fugitiveandprecarious,positiveandnegative’and‘indefinitelydiversified’.82Ibid.,396.83Ibid.,403.84Ibid.,412-413.

ItisoftennotedthatDeweyneverdevelopedaformalepistemologicaltheory,at

leastnotinthetraditionalsense.85Bywayofalternative,somesuggestthathis

theoryofinquirymaybeseentofunctionasastand-in,i.e.,fulfillingasimilar

role.86Toadegree,thisistrue,however,aswasalludedtoearlier,RalphSleeper

presentsacompellingargumentinfavourofseeingDewey’sapproachto

knowledgeasbeingdistributedacrossthethreetheoriesoutlinedabove.

Attheoutset,Sleepercentralizesthetheoryofinquiryandhighlightshow,as

anapproachtounderstandinglogic,itshouldbeseenastakingexperienceasit

subjectmatter.FollowingonfromJohnMcDermot,hearguesthat,fromDewey’s

perspective,experienceistobeunderstoodas‘pedagogical’;itteachesand,

throughreflection,welearn.87Byreflectingonourexperiencesinthe

experimentalsettingsofbothcommonsenseandscientificinquiryweareableto

arriveatobjectsofknowledgeor,toputitinclearerterms,knownobjects.Thisis

key;forwhenunknownobjectsaretransformedintoknownobjectsweinevitably

transformourunderstandingoftheirplacementintheworld,which,

consequently,isitselftransformed.AsSleeperstates:

‘Thethingisnotmerelyseendifferentlyasaresultofinquiry,noristhe

differencemerelytheeffectofcausalfactorspresentintheoperationsof

inquiry,whichintervenebetweenthenon-cognitiveobjectandtheobjectas

known.Fortheobject,bybeingplacedinwhollynewrelationshipsbecomesa

85Hickman,PhilosophicalToolsforTechnologicalCulture:PuttingPragmatismtoWork;JohnR.Shook,Dewey’sEmpiricalTheoryofKnowledgeandReality(Nashville:VanderbiltUniversityPress,2000);Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism;GeorgeDykhuizen,TheLifeandMindofJohnDewey(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1973).86Hickman,PragmatismasPost-Postmodernism:LessonsfromJohnDewey,20687Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,6.

differentobject.Thetransactionthattakesplaceininquiryreconstructsthe

objectbyreconstructingitsrelations.’88

Fromtheabove,weconnecttoDewey’smetaphysics.ForSleeper,this

functionsasabackgroundtheorytothewhole.Throughit,experienceis

connectedtonature,mindtobody,thoughttoaction,communicationtothe

thingsoftheworldandconsequencestovalue.Thereisnolongeranyawkward,

imposeddisjunctionsorarbitraryseparationsbetweentheworldandourfull

physicalandintellectualparticipationwithinit.Inthesimplestterms,inquiryas

anaturalprocessgivesusaccesstonature.Torestatethismorefully,weapply

intelligenceandreflection—whichareseenasnatural—asweinquireand,

broadly,throughinquiry,wegraduallycometounderstandthestructuresof

existencesuchthatwecanofferadequatecriticismonsubjectsofbelief,conduct

andappreciation.

Thewholenessofthisarrangement,Sleeperbelieves,reliesonDewey’stheory

ofcommunication,whichhearguesconnectsthetheoryofinquirytothetheory

ofexistence.Onthisview,languageallowsustoestablisharelationshipbetween

thingsinexperienceandthingsinexistence.89Inotherwords,bybundlingthe

people,things,andconsequencesofinquirytogetherasmeanings,languagealso

carriesourontologicalunderstandingsforward.Itisthetoolthatallowsusto

projectfromexperiencetoanunderstandingofexistence.

88Ibid.,121.89Ibid.,116.

AnEnrichmentofDesignResearch

Inrecentyears,RichardBuchananandothers90havedrawnlinksbetween

Dewey’stheoryofinquiryanddesignresearch.ThroughSleeper’sinvestigation,

thepossiblerelevancyofthetheoryisextendedfurther.Specifically,the

Deweyanframeworkhereveals—linking,asitdoes,people,thingsand

consequencesinrelationtoknowledge—pointstothepossibilityofa

strengthenedepistemologicalnarrativeforresearchwhichincorporatesdesign

practice.Examiningthisframeworkindetail,itispossibletoidentifyanumber

offeatures,which,takencollectively,begintoscaffoldsuchanarrative.

ThefirstfeatureisDewey’sexplicitnaturalizationofthought,ideas,

meaningsandimagination,assupportedbyhistheorizationofa

‘biosocioculturalcontinuity’91withinthemetaphysics.Onthisview,thought,

ideasandmeaningsarenotunderstoodinoppositiontonaturebut,rather,areof

nature,arisinginaction.Assuch,thecreativityofdesignersandother

professionalsisnolongerananomalous,extra-naturaloccurrencebutrathera

finelyhonedabilitytomovebetweenproblemsandsolutions,solutionsand

problemsintherealworld;anoutcomeofanexperimentationwithmeaningsin

discourseand,equally,anecessaryprocessatplaywithininquiry.

ThesecondfeatureconcernsDewey’sidentificationoftwotypesof

inquiry—commonsenseandscientific.Thetwoaredistinguishedintermsof

theirsubjectmatterandprioritiesbutnottheirbasiclogicormetaphysical

standingand,assuch,areseenasrelatedalongacontinuum.Aparallelcanbe

90See,forexample,Buchanan,“ThinkingAboutDesign:AnHistoricalPerspective”;Buchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveScienceandRhetoricalInquiry”;LeifE.Östman,“APragmatistTheoryofDesign”;andPeterDalsgaard“DesigningEngagingInteractiveEnvironments:APragmatistPerspective."(Aarhus,Denmark:AarhusUniversity,2009).91RaymondBoisvert,JohnDewey:RethinkingourTime(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1998):127.

drawnherebetweendesignpracticeanddesignresearch.92Bothhavespecific

aimsandpriorities(e.g.,thedevelopmentanddeliveryofproducts,servicesand

experiences,versustheproductionofknowledge)buttheyarenotlogically

different.Ineachcasetheinquirers—oneadesigner,theotheradesign-

researcher—movefromindeterminacytosituationsthatareincreasingly

determined.Fromthisperspective,theincorporationofdesignwithinaresearch

projectisunproblematic.Indeed,itmayevenbenecessaryordesirable.93

ThethirdfeatureofnoteisDewey’sconceptofwarrantedassertibility.Here,

workable,viable(objectsof)knowledgearevaluedfortheirapplicabilityto

futureinquiries,asopposedtoanysupposedcorrespondencetoanultimate

reality.94Therelevanceofthisfeaturefordesignresearchhasbeenhighlighted

byanumberofauthors.95Itisfoundtobeaparticularlycompellingconceptasit

suggeststhatcompetency,contextualappropriatenessandtransferability96can

legitimatelyunderscoreaninquiry’sconclusions.

Thislinkstothefinalandperhapsmostsignificantfeatureoftheframework

relatingtotheclaimputforwardbySleeperthatDeweyseesinquiryasaprocess92RichardBuchananhasrelatedSchön’sapproachtoDewey’sconceptofcommonsenseinquiry.SeeBuchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveRhetoricalInquiry”,63.93Deweybelievedthatthefindingsofscienceshould,asamatterofcourse,bereturnedtotheworldofcommonsense.However,hewasnotconvincedthatthiswasroutinelyachieved.ThoughmuchhaschangedsinceDewey’stime,designresearchcan,arguably,besaidtopresentameansbywhichlinksmaybeforgedbetweenthetwodomains.Indeed,inthelate1990sBuchananproposedthatdoctoraleducationindesignmightbebasedona‘neoteric’approachtoeducationthat‘gather[s]resourcesfromanyareaofpreviouslearninginordertofindnewwaysofaddressingthenewproblems,therebycreatinganewbodyoflearningandknowledge.’See,RichardBuchanan,“TheStudyofDesign:DoctoralEducationandResearchinaNewFieldofInquiry,”inDoctoralEducationinDesign1998:ProceedingsoftheOhioConference,October8–11,1998;andRichardBuchanan,“Designresearchandthenewlearning,”DesignIssues17:4(2001):3-23.94ForphilosopherLarryHickman,thefallibilisminherentinthisconceptcontributestowhathetermsa‘post-postmodern’characterinDewey’swork.AccordingtoHickman,thisemergesinDewey’seffectiverejectionofthecentralclaimsofmodernistthought(e.g.,dualismofmindandbody;thatcertainknowledgeisattainable)butalsohisavoidanceofthesubsequentexcessesofpost-modernism(e.g.,thatnooneviewpointcanbeprivilegedoveranyother).Assuch,Deweyisseentohaveanticipatedpostmodernistargumentsatthesametimeasavoidedsomeofthemovement’smorenegativeconclusions.SeeHickman,Postmodernism:LessonsfromJohnDewey.95See,forexample,Stolterman,“ThenatureofDesignPracticeandImplicationsforInteractionDesignResearch”;andWolfgangJonas,“DesignResearchanditsMeaningtotheMethodologicalDevelopmentoftheDiscipline,”inDesignResearchNow,187-206.96Thereisaparallelherewiththeconstructionistevaluationcriteriaofcredibility,transferability,dependabilityandconformabilityfirstproposedbyLincolnandGuba.SeeYvonnaS.LincolnandEgonG.Guba,NaturalisticInquiry(NewburyPark,CA:SagePublications,1986).ForadiscussionofpossibleevaluationcriteriaforresearchthroughdesigninthecontextofHCIseeJohnZimmerman,JodiForlizzi,andShelleyEvenson,“ResearchThroughDesignasaMethodforInteractionDesignResearchinHCI,”inProceedingsoftheSIGCHIConferenceonHumanFactorsinComputingSystems(NewYork:ACM,2007):493-502.

ofontologicaltransformation.Onthisaccount,theinquirerworkstoconvert

unknownobjectsintoknownobjectsand,so,reconstructstheseentitiesalong

withthewidernetworkofrelationstheysustain.Arguably,designinquiriescan

beseentogofurtherinthatnovelthingsmaybedevelopedanddeployedin

socialsituations,leadingtonovelconsequences.People,thingsand

consequencesarethendrawntogetherinnewways,resultinginnewmeanings

andwhollynewsetsofrelations.Fromthisperspective,designinquiriesnotonly

transformthingsencountered,butalsotherangeofthings,consequencesand

meaningsavailabletoencounter.

Thisstrategyhasbeenwidelyexploredindesignresearch.Forexample,

DunneandRaby’scriticaldesign97andWalker’sdevelopmentofpropositional

objects98canbeseentoincludetheactiveinterrogationofontologicalthemesas

afunctionofinquiry.Inbothcases,scenariosandartefactsaredesignedwiththe

explicitaimofquestioningassumptionsandexpandingpossibilities.Further

parallelscanbefoundintheworkofKrippendorffandVerganti,whoboth

investigatedesign’srelationshipwithmeaning.ForKrippendorff,designisa

processwhichdisruptspresentstabilities;99‘meaning’,heclaims,isconstituted

intheuseofitsoutcomes.100Similarly,Vergantiarguesthat,through‘in-depth

explorationsoftheevolutionofsociety,cultureandtechnology’,designersare

capableofradicallyinnovatingproductmeanings.101

97AntonyDunneandFionaRaby.DesignNoir:TheSecretLifeofElectronicObjects(Basel:Birkhser,2001);AntonyDunneandFionaRaby.SpeculativeEverything:Design,Fiction,andSocialDreaming(CambridgeMA:MITPress,2013).98StuartWalker,DesigningforSustainability:MakingRadicalChangesinaMaterialWorld(Oxon:Routledge,2014).99Krippendorff,TheSemanticTurn:ANewFoundationforDesign,210.100Informulatinghissemantictheoryofdesign,KrippendorffdrawsheavilyontheworkofWittgenstein.Inparticular,hefocusesonWittgenstein’s‘meaninginuse’concept.ThoughthisisnotaDeweyanperspective,thetwoviewsarenotnecessarilyincompatible.SeeStephenToulmin,IntroductiontoTheQuestforCertainty,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953:1929,Vol.4,byJohnDewey,JoAnnBoydstoned.(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1984):vii-xxii.101Verganti,DesignDrivenInnovation(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,2009):xi.

Liningupthefeaturesinsequence,then,naturalizedcreativethoughtislinked

totheconductofdesigninquiry—inbothitspracticalandacademicforms—

which,inturn,islinkedtoanunderstandingofknowledgeascontingentand

ontologicallytransformative.Takenasawhole,thisarrangementbeginstotrace

anoutlineofanepistemologicalnarrativefordesignresearchthatdrawsitinto

anexplicitrelationshipwithdesignpractice.Setnexttooneanother,bothare

seentoshareabasiclogicand,yet,atthesametime,bothretainaparticular,

specificsetofaimsandpriorities—withdesignresearchfocusingexclusivelyon

knowledgeproduction.FollowingDewey’slead,wecannowcometorecognize

thatasunknownbecomesknown(andtheunmadeismade),thereemergesthe

potentialtobringaboutadeepandprofoundreorientationofourontological

parameters.Further,itbecomesthebroadertaskofthedesignresearch

communitytobegintocriticallyarticulatetheextenttowhichparticular

appearancesandconsequences—asrepresentedinitsdiscourserelatingpeople

tothings—contributetotheinstitutionandperpetuationof‘moreenduringand

extensive’values.