Experiment 1 – Special signals – characteristics and applications

Achievements in this experiment

Time domain responses are discovered: step and impulse responses as paradigms for the

characterization of system inertia; sinewaves were used as probe signals; clipping was applied to

the recovery of a digital signal.

Preliminary discussion

Bandwidth is a term that has been in the engineering vocabulary for many decades. Its usage

has extended over time, especially in the context of digital systems. It has become

commonplace now to mean information transfer rate, and all Internet users know that

broadband stands for fast, and better. There are highly competitive markets demanding top

performance – ever higher speed whilst maintaining a low probability of corruption. However, as

speed is increased, obstacles emerge in the form of noise, interference and signal distortion. At

the destination these limitations become digital errors, resulting in pixellated images, and audio

breaking up.

Engineers involved in the design of these systems must assess the suitability of numerous

components and sub-units e.g. adequate speed of response ?, too noisy, distorted? They will need

to benchmark the behaviour of subsystem. The procedures that are used for modelling and

testing must be universally accepted.

The most important consideration affecting the speed of a digital signal is the switching

process to produce a change of state. The switching time can never be instantaneous in a

physical system because of energy storage in electronic circuitry, cabling and connecting

hardware. This energy lingers in stray capacitance and inductance that cannot be completely

eliminated in wiring and in electronic components. The effect is just like inertia in a mechanical

system.

A universal procedure is needed to characterize, measure and specify ‘inertia’. Various

paradigms have become established over many years of application. One of these is the step

response. For this reason, the step function has become one of the special signals in systems

engineering.

There are other signal types of importance. The sinusoid or sinewave heads the list of the

range of applications. There are many others, including the impulse function, ramps,

pseudonoise waveforms and pseudorandom sequences, chirp signals.

This Lab has its focus on signals that are most needed for basic operations. Other signals will

be introduced progressively in succeeding labs.

Figure 1: step, impulse and sinusoid signals

The experiment

In Part 1 we investigate how signals are distorted when a system's response is affected by

inertia, and discover signals that are useful for probing a system's behaviour.

In Part 2 we introduce the sinewave, and observe how the systems investigated in Part 1

respond to inputs of this kind.

Signals that have been subjected to amplitude limiting, also known as clipping, are commonly

encountered when excessive amplification is used, such as in audio systems, resulting in overload

distortion. In Part 3 we generate clipped signals and examine a useful application of clipping.

As this experiment is a process of discovery, we will name the blocks which represent the

channel “ System Under Investigation” until we have familiarized ourselves with their actual

characteristics.

Pre-requisites:

Familiarization with the SIGEx conventions and general module usage. A brief review of the

operation of the SEQUENCE GENERATOR module. No theory required.

Equipment

• PC with LabVIEW Runtime Engine software appropriate for the version being used.

• NI ELVIS 2 or 2+ and USB cable to suit

• EMONA SIGEx Signal & Systems add-on board

• Assorted patch leads

• Two BNC – 2mm leads

Figure: TAB 3 of SIGEx SFP

Procedure

Part A – Setting up the NI ELVIS/SIGEx bundle

1. Turn off the NI ELVIS unit and its Prototyping Board switch.

2. Plug the SIGEx board into the NI ELVIS unit.

Note: This may already have been done for you.

3. Connect the NI ELVIS to the PC using the USB cable.

4. Turn on the PC (if not on already) and wait for it to fully boot up (so that it’s ready to

connect to external USB devices).

5. Turn on the NI ELVIS unit but not the Prototyping Board switch yet. You should observe

the USB light turn on (top right corner of ELVIS unit).The PC may make a sound to

indicate that the ELVIS unit has been detected if the speakers are activated.

6. Turn on the NI ELVIS Prototyping Board switch to power the SIGEx board. Check that

all three power LEDs are on. If not call the instructor for assistance.

7. Launch the SIGEx Main VI.

8. When you’re asked to select a device number, enter the number that corresponds with

the NI ELVIS that you’re using.

9. You’re now ready to work with the NI ELVIS/SIGEx bundle.

10. Select the EXPT 3 tab on the SIGEx SFP.

Note: To stop the SIGEx VI when you’ve finished the experiment, it’s preferable to use the

STOP button on the SIGEx SFP itself rather than the LabVIEW window STOP button at the

top of the window. This will allow the program to conduct an orderly shutdown and close the

various DAQmx channels it has opened.

SEQUENCE SOURCE

S.U.I.

Part 1a – Pulse sequence speed throttled by inertia

In this set of exercises we continue the digital theme introduced above and explore the

behaviour of signals in transit through a channel that has a limited speed of switching.

Figure 1a: block diagram of the setup for observing the effect of

a system (SUI) on a digital pulse sequence.

Figure 1b: SIGEx model for Figure 1a.

11. Patch up the model in Figure 1b. The settings required are as follows:

PULSE GENERATOR: FREQUENCY=1000; DUTY CYCLE=0.50 (50%)

SEQUENCE GENERATOR: DIP switch to UP:UP for a short sequence.

SCOPE: Timebase 10ms; Rising edge trigger on CH0; Trigger level=1V

Set up the CH0 scope lead to display the LINE CODE output of the SEQUENCE GENERATOR

12. Measure the smallest interval between consecutive transitions . Compare this with the

duration of one period of the clock by moving the scope lead to view the SEQUENCE

GENERATOR CLK input from the PULSE GENERATOR.

Question 1

What is the minimum interval of the SEQUENCE GENERATOR data ?

We could think of these sequences as streams of logic levels in a digital machine, possibly

representing digitized speech or video. The information elements in this stream are the unit

pulses. They are sometimes called symbols. Verify that there is one symbol per clock period.

Since the clock frequency is 1000 Hz, the symbol rate is 1000 per second. The symbols in this

sequence have only two possible values, so they are called binary symbols, and the transmission

rate is commonly expressed as bits/sec.

13. Connect the CH0 lead to the output of

the BASEBAND LPF module (BLPF)

and connect the CH1 lead to the

output of the TUNEABLE LPF module

(TLPF).

Set the TLPF FREQ so the output appears

similar to that from the BASEBAND LPF, as

shown in Figure 1c.

TLPF GAIN: set knob to 12 o’clock

Figure 1c: example signals

Note the presence of oscillations on both signals and the differences between them. Where

possible you should venture comments. You are not expected to have any prior knowledge of

these waveforms.

Question 2

Describe the signal transitions for both outputs:

14. With the clock remaining unchanged on 1000 Hz measure the time for each signal to

change state. Is it the same for low to high (amplitude) as for high to low ? Specify

the reference points you are using on the amplitude range, eg 1% to 99%, 10% to 90%.

Note these values in the table below. “Freeze” the signals using the “RUN/STOP” SFP

switch in order to take your measurements, and use the TRIGGER SLOPE control to

select between rising and falling edge capture.

NOTE: Disconnect the RC NETWORK when measuring the other systems as it loads the output

LINE CODE signal slightly and affects the measurements.

TIP: Calculate the levels you wish to measure and use the X & Y cursors as guidelines.

Table 1: transition times for sequence data

Range

(%)

BLPF@1kHz

(us)

TLPF@1kHz

(us)

BLPF@1.5kHz

(us)

TLPF@1.5kHz

(us)

10-90 rising

10-90 falling

1-99 rising

1-99 falling

15. Next, increase the clock frequency to around 1.5 kHz. Repeat the measurements in Task

14 above, and compare the two sets of results.

16. Progressively increase the clock frequency, and carefully observe the effect on the

output waveform. Note that something significant occurs above 2 kHz. Confirm

that below 2 kHz the original transitions can be unambiguously discerned at the

channel output, even though they are not sharp. Describe your observations as the

clock is taken to 3 kHz and above. Are you able to correctly identify the symbols of

the original sequence from the distorted output waveform? Estimate the highest

clock frequency for which this is possible. Venture an explanation for the

disappearance of transitions in this channel.

Question 3

Describe the signal transitions for both outputs:

In the next segment we will closely examine the shape of the transition corresponding to an

isolated step excitation.

Part 1b – isolated step excitation of a system

Figure 1c: block diagram of step excitation arrangement

STEP

SOURCE

S.U.I.

Figure 1d: SIGEx model Figure 1c.

17. Connect signals as shown in Figure 1d above. Connect CH0 to the BLPF output and CH1 to

the TLPF output, and view both signal on the scope. Settings are as follows:

18. PULSE GENERATOR: FREQUENCY=250;

DUTY CYCLE=0.50 (50%)

SCOPE: Timebase 2ms; Rising edge trigger on

CH0; Trigger level=1V

Confirm that the scope time base is set to

display not more than two transitions. Use

RUN/STOP to freeze scope display.

Figure 1e: example signals:50% figure

Observe the channel's response to a single transition (you can use scope trigger and other time

base controls to display a LO to HI transition or a HI to LO transition). Confirm that the shape

of the output transition is similar to the shapes you observed in Task 13 above.

When the response to a step excitation is isolated in this way, so that there is no overlap

with the responses of neighbouring transitions, it is known as the step response.

Note the presence of oscillations and the relatively long settling time to the final value

(sometimes known as ringing -- a term that goes back to the days of manual telegraphy and

Morse code). Compare with the waveform in Task 13 .

Note that some of the transitions observed in Task 13 occur before the previous

transition response has completely settled.

The risetime of the step response is an indicator of the time taken to traverse the transition

range. Various definitions can be found according to the application context. The frequently

used 90% criterion is suggested as a convenient choice for this lab.

19. Measure and compare the risetime of the three step responses. Use this to estimate

the maximum number of transitions per second that could be accommodated in each case

(ignore the effect of the oscillations). Compare this with the results in Task 0..

Table 2: transition times for step input

Range

(%)

BLPF

(us)

TLPF

(us)

RCLP

(us)

10-90 rising

10-90 falling

Graph 1: step response waveforms

Part 1c – isolated pulse response of a system

An isolated pulse can also be used as an alternative to the use of an isolated step as the

excitation to “probe” the behaviour of the system. The variable duty cycle of the PULSE

GENERATOR serves as source of this signal.

Figure 1e: block diagram of pulse response investigation

Figure 1f: model for pulse response investigation

20. Leave the patching as per the previous section, with the PULSE GENERATOR output

connected to both S.U.I. With the frequency of the PULSE GENERATOR still set to

250 Hz, progressively reduce the DUTY CYCLE in steps as follows: 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1,

0.05 (5%).

When you reach 0.1, move in steps of 0.01 eg. 0.09, 0.08, 0.07,... and observe the effect on the

pulse width and pulse interval. Note that the transitions are not affected. As you continue to

reduce the duty cycle, and thus reduce the input impulse width, the flat top between

transitions gets shorter, and ultimately disappears. Since the rising transition is not able to

reach its final value, it is not surprising that the amplitude of the pulse gets smaller.

Question 4

Describe what happens when you reach 10% and 5% duty cycle ?

S.U.I.

SOURCE

21. Are you able to determine the ‘demarcation’ pulse width -- i.e. after which the response

shape remains unchanging? Record the duty cycle value at which this occurs for all SUI’s

in the table below.

Table 3: pulse response readings

BLPF TLPF RCLPF

Duty cycle

“demarcation” value

Calculated pulse width (us)

% of step response

Period of oscillations (us)

22. Using the known PULSE GENERATOR frequency and the measured duty cycle, calculate

and tabulate the input pulse width.

23. Express this as a percentage of the step response risetime, using the values from the

previous section on step response, and note these values in the table above.

Reflect on this for a moment, i.e. the response shape remaining apparently independent of

the input pulse width -- this is an interesting discovery.

24. Move the scope leads so as to view the input pulse as CH0 and one of the SUI outputs on

CH1.Note that for the both there are oscillations. The presence of these oscillations

provides an opportunity for additional observations of shape changes as the width of

the input pulse is reduced. There are many ways of testing this, eg. the number of

sidelobes, their relative amplitudes, the intervals between zero crossings.

25. For each SUI, set the pulse width to the “demarcation” value and measure the period of

the oscillations following the pulse. Note these in the table above.

You have demonstrated that, provided the time span of the excitation signal is sufficiently

concentrated, the shape of the response pulse is entirely determined by the characteristics of

the system. We could think of this as the striking of a bell, or tuning fork, or of the steel

wheel of a train to detect a crack. The system is hit with a short sharp burst of energy.

INSIGHT: The response shape is not affected by the input signal.

The energy burst used as input is called an impulse. The resulting response is called the impulse

response. An impulse function is a mathematical construct derived from a physical pulse. The

idea is straightforward. The pulse width is reduced to an infinitesimal value while maintaining

the energy constant. Naturally this implies a very large amplitude. The impulse function plays a

central role as one of the fundamental signals in systems theory, with numerous ramifications.

In the above exploration we discovered practical conditions that make it possible to generate a

system's natural response or characteristic, i.e. a response that is not affected by the exact

shape of the input excitation. Concurrently we have discovered a path to the definition of the

impulse function and a vital bridge to link this mathematical abstraction to the world of physical

signals.

26. With the setup unchanged, measure the delay at the peak of the output pulse and

compare this with the delay of the step response measured earlier.

27. Return to your records of the step responses obtained in Steps 17 & 18. For each case,

carry out a graphical differentiation with respect to time (approximate sketches are

sufficient, however take care to achieve a good time alignment to identify key

features). Compare these results with the records obtained in Task 23. As a useful

adjunct exercise, consider a slightly modified step function in which the transition is a

ramp with a finite gradient, though still quite steep. Carry out the differentiation with

respect to time on this function, and compare with the above. Record your conclusion.

Graph 2: differentiations of step response waveforms

You have demonstrated that, provided the time span of the excitation signal is sufficiently

concentrated, the shape of the response pulse is entirely determined by the characteristics of

the system. We could think of this as the striking of a bell, or tuning fork, or of the steel

wheel of a train to detect a crack. The system is hit with a short sharp burst of energy. The

response shape is not affected by the input signal.

The energy burst used as input is called an

impulse. The resulting response is called the

impulse response. An impulse function is a

mathematical construct derived from a

physical pulse. The idea is straightforward.

The pulse width is reduced to an infinitesimal

value while maintaining the energy constant.

Naturally this implies a very large amplitude.

The impulse function plays a central role as

one of the fundamental signals in systems

theory, with numerous ramifications.

In the above exploration we discovered practical conditions that make it possible to generate a

system's natural response or characteristic, i.e. a response that is not affected by the exact

shape of the input excitation. Concurrently we have discovered a path to the definition of the

impulse function and a vital bridge to link this mathematical abstraction to the world of physical

signals.

Part 2 – Sinewave input

As mentioned in the introduction, sinewaves are encountered in a large number of applications.

The special role of the sinusoidal waveshape for system characterization is explored in

Experiment 2, and further developed in Experiment 4. In this segment we just get our toes

wet. We carry out some basic observations and compare the sinewave response of the various

S.U.I’s with the impulse response obtained above.

Figure 2a: block diagram of setup for sinewave investigation

Figure 2b: patching model for Figure 2a.

28. Connect the FUNC OUT output from the FUNCTION GENERATOR to the inputs of both

S.U.I. Launch the NI ELVIS Intrument Launcher and select the FUNCTION GENERATOR. Set

up the FUNCTION GENERATOR as follows:

Select: SINE wave

Voltage range: 4V pp

Frequency: 100 Hz

Press RUN when ready.

Connect CH0 of the scope to the output of the FUNCTION GENERATOR, and CH1 to output of

S.U.I.

Progressively increase the frequency from 100 Hz to 10 kHz and observe the effect on the

amplitude of the output signal. Make a record of your findings in the form of a table of

S.U.I.

amplitude vs frequency. Enter your results into the table on the TAB3 SFP, which will plot

those results. Consider the possible advantage of using log scales.

To enable a “log” Y axis, stop the SIGEX SFP program, right click the plot graph, select Y scale >

Mapping > Log. To return to Linear, repeat this process and select “Linear”.

Table 4: amplitude vs frequency readings

Frequency (Hz) BLPF (Vpp) TLPF(Vpp) RCLPF(vpp)

29. Refer to the results you obtained and sketched of the step response in Question 19.

Notice the similarity of the step response shape to a half cycle of a sinewave.

Estimate the frequency of the matching sinewave. Examine the graph obtained in

the above task and see whether any feature worth noting appears near this

frequency.

Question 5

What frequency would a matching sinewave have ?

Question 6

Describe what happens to the frequency response plotted on the SFP at this frequency ?

30. Return to the observations you recorded in Task 19. A physical mechanism was proposed

there to explain the reduction in pulse response amplitude as the width of the input

pulse was progressively made smaller. Consider whether the reduction in output

amplitude of the sinewave with increasing frequency could be explained through a

parallel argument.

Question 7

What was the mechanism described earlier ?

Part 3: clipping

A common example of voltage clipping or limiting occurs in amplifiers when the signal amplitude

is too high for the available DC supply voltage headroom. In audio systems clipping is

undesirable as it causes distortion of the sound. However, in other applications, a clipped signal

can be useful.

We examine the operation of the voltage LIMITER and try out an application. First we find out

how it can be used to convert a sinewave to a square wave.

Figure 3a: block diagram for clipping a sinewave

Figure 3b: wiring model for Figure 3a

31. Patch up the system in Figure 3b. As we will be using the MEDIUM mode of the

LIMITER unit, the on-board switches must be set accordingly (swA= OFF, swB= OFF).

Tune the FUNCTION GENERATOR to 1200Hz and select SINUSOIDAL output with 4

V pp.

Set scope as follows:

SCOPE: Timebase 2ms; Rising edge trigger on CH0; Trigger level=0V

Display the output and input of the LIMITER, and observe the effect of changing the amplitude

at the AMPLITUDE control of the FUNCTION GENERATOR. Make it larger and smaller.

Record your findings in the form of a graph showing p-p output voltage vs p-p input voltage. You

can plot your readings on the graph below.

Graph 3: CLIPPER input and output readings

Next we use the CLIPPER as a primitive digital detector.

32. Patch up the SIGEx model in Figure 3d (note that it is an extension of the model in

Figure 1b). The LIMITER should be in the same setting as before (OFF:OFF). Display

the outputs of the LIMITER and of the BLPF. Begin with the clock rate near 1.5 kHz.

As before, the timebase should be adjusted to provide a useful balance between detail

and range of observation. Examine the two signals and consider the possible

interpretation of the output as a restored or regenerated form of the original digital

sequence.

SEQUENCE

SOURCE

S.U.I.

Figure 3c: block diagram for clipping a digital pulse sequence

Figure 3d: model for block diagram of Figure 3c

33. As you gradually increase the clock frequency (as in Task 16), carefully watch for the

disappearance of transitions or pulses in the CLIPPER output. When this happens,

wind the frequency back slightly and determine the highest frequency that allows

detection without visible errors. Compare the result with your previous findings in

Task 16, i.e. without using the LIMITER.

Figure 4: example of signals in & out of LIMITER

34. Compare with the results obtained in Part 1 and record your conclusions, i.e., about the

practicality and usefulness of the clipper as an "interpreter" to recover the data in the

distorted signal .

Question 8

How does this setup compare to the previous findings without a LIMITER ?

In the above we have used only continuous-time waveforms. Discrete-time signals and systems

are introduced in Lab 2.

Tutorial questions

Q1 The impulse function was described in Part 1. Explain why the step function is a

better alternative in a practical context. Show how the impulse response can

be obtained from the step response. Is this indirect procedure for measuring

the impulse response theoretically equivalent, or does it involve an

approximation?

Q2 Consider a system with step response rise-time of 4 s. What information does this

provide about the impulse response?

Q3 a. Consider the waveform at the yellow X output of the SEQUENCE GENERATOR (as

in Part 1). Suppose the p-p voltage is 3.9 Volt and the clock is 2 kHz. What is

the average power into a 1 Ohm load?

b. Suppose the waveform is passed through BASEBAND LOW PASS FILTER and the

p-p output amplitude is also 3.9 Volt. Is the power greater or less than

at the channel input? State the reasoning (hint: consider the waveform

shape required to have the average power exceed that of the waveform at

the channel input).

c. Consider two different sequences as above. One has N transitions per period, the

other has N + 4. Explain why the number of transitions does not affect the

average power for the signal format at the channel input. Is the

answer the same at the output? If no, in which case will the average power

be greater? Indicate why. Hint: math not required, just consider how the

average is worked out.

Q4 A 60 kHz sinewave is applied at one input of a MULTIPLIER, and a 59 kHz sinewave

at the other input. The amplitudes are both 2 Volt p-p. Use a suitable

formula to show that the MULTIPLIER output is the sum of two sinewaves.

Calculate their respective frequencies. The MULTIPLIER output is fed to a

system similar to BASEBAND LOWPASS FILTERS, with step response rise-

time 300 s. Describe the signal at the output of this system, if any.