EXOTİC-Raptor medicine,basic principles and noninfectious conditions

8/14/2019 EXOTC-Raptor medicine,basic principles and noninfectious conditions

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Vol. 21, No. 3 March 1999 20TH ANNIVERSARY

Refereed Peer Review

FOCAL POINT

KEY FACTS

5Veterinarians working with free-ranging raptors must handle

these animals as wild species

requiring special veterinary care

to achieve the ultimate treatmentgoal of a successful release back

into the wild.

Raptor Medicine:Basic Principles andNoninfectiousConditions

Wildlife Conservation Society/Bronx Zoo, Bronx, New York

Sharon Lynn Deem, DVM, PhD

ABSTRACT: An understanding of the biology, physiology, and anatomy of raptors as well as

how to medically approach birds of prey is imperative for providing quality care. The two most

common clinical diagnoses of free-ranging raptors are traumausually with ocular and/or or-

thopedic involvementand toxicoses. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and lead poisoning ac-

count for the majority of acute toxicities. Treatment of these intoxicated patients can be re-warding if practitioners apply fast, aggressive therapy while pursuing diagnostics.

The word raptor, derived from the Latin rapere, meaning to grip or grasp,is a general term used for any predatory bird. Two taxonomic orders, Fal-coniformes and Strigiformes, comprise all raptorial species. The order

Falconiformes (diurnal raptors) consists of five familiesAccipitridae (kites,hawks, harriers, Old World vultures, and eagles), Cathartidae (New World vul-tures and condors), Falconidae (falcons), Pandionidae (osprey), and Sagittariidae(secretary birds). The order Strigiformes (nocturnal raptors) consists of two fam-iliesTytonidae (barn and grass owls) and Strigidae (all other owls). There isdebate among taxonomists regarding this classification scheme, particularly in

reference to the New World vultures (which may be reclassified with stork-likebirds) and secretary birds (which may be reclassified with crane-like birds).1

Raptors are highly visible wildlife species that are often used as biomarkers forenvironmental conditions. For example, the mid-1900s reduction of raptorialspecies was related to environmental contaminants (e.g., dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane, dieldrin, polychlorinated biphenyls) and alerted people to thecarcinogenic potential of pesticides.2,3 Today, the most common causes of mor-bidity and mortality of raptors in the United States are related to human activity(e.g., motor vehicles, buildings, guns, power lines) and emphasize the currentenvironmental problems associated with human population growth.46

Private practitioners are often asked to provide veterinary care for injured rap-tors. Veterinarians who treat birds of prey used for falconry must have an appre-

CE

s In order to provide long-term

care of raptors, veterinarians

must work in conjunction with a

knowledgeable licensed wildlife

rehabilitator.

s The most common causes ofmorbidity and mortality in free-

ranging raptors in the United

States are traumatic injuries and

intoxications related to human

activity.

s The diagnostic approach to

raptors with suspected trauma

should include a thorough

evaluation of the ocular and

musculoskeletal systems because

most traumatic injuries result inocular and/or orthopedic lesions.

s The treatment of lead toxicosis

consists of chelation, most

commonly with edetate calcium

disodium (10 to 40 mg/kg

intramuscularly, twice daily, on

a 5-day-on/5-day-off schedule),

and supportive care.


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ciation for the sport (i.e., laws, terminology, principles)as well as the common diseases in these birds.7,8

BIOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND ANATOMY An understanding of the biology, physiology, and

anatomy of raptors is imperative to providing high-quality veterinary care. When a free-ranging raptor isadmitted to a veterinary hospital, the species must firstbe identified to determine its natural diet, geographicdistribution, and ecologic habits. The importance ofthis background information can be exemplified bysharp-shinned hawks ( Accipiter striatus), which arehighly specialized bird-catching hawks that capturetheir prey in flight. These birds are small; high-strung;and notoriously difficult to feed in captivity, often re-quiring force-feeding during hospitalization.

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract of raptors has unique

characteristics, the most important being the act of eges-tion.9 Egestion is the retrograde discharge of undigestedor indigestible material through the GI tract of carnivo-rous birds. This phenomenon is believed to involve bothgastric activity and esophageal antiperistalsis.10 Pellets(i.e., casts) are formed in the ventriculus from the bonesand hair/feathers of prey items and periodically egested.In owls, a pellet (often containing bones) is egested aftereach meal, whereas in diurnal raptors more than onemeal is often consumed before egestion occurs andbones are usually not present. The quantity and qualityof pellets are important diagnostic indicators for assess-

ing the health of hospitalized patients. Another GItractrelated physiologic act is the normal regurgitationseen in stressed vultures; this should not be diagnosed asa pathologic finding. Anatomic features of note in theraptor GI tract include a poorly developed crop and ves-tigial ceca in diurnal raptors; owls have no crop and

well-developed ceca.9

The skeletal structure of raptors is similar to that ofother avian species, although species variations do exist.The hallux (first digit) is the opposable toe used forgrasping and killing prey. The humeroscapular bone,

which is present in some species of owls and hawks, is a

unique anatomic characteristic not found in otheravian species.11 Smith and Smith state that this bone isdorsal to the shoulder joint, near the head of the humerus,and approximately 4 mm from base to apex in the greathorned owl (Bubo virginianus).11 This bone is radio-graphically visible and should not be misinterpreted asa pathologic fracture.11 In their paper, the radiographsand xeroradiographs depicting this bone are taken in acraniocaudal view, which is a view infrequently used bypractitioners. When evaluating thoracic radiographs,however, practitioners should be aware of the presenceof this bone in certain species of raptors.

REHABILITATION AND TREATMENTCONSIDERATIONSFederal and State Laws

The decision to treat free-ranging raptors should bebased on legal, medical, and practical factors. All raptor

species in the United States are now legally protectedby a number of federal statutes, specifically the Migra-tory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, the Bald Eagle Protection

Act of 1940, and the Endangered Species Act of 1973.12

Individual states may also have laws protecting raptors.Persons providing veterinary care for raptors should befamiliar with federal and state laws.

The Good Samaritan law allows licensed veterinari-ans to provide initial treatment of any raptor, and manyagencies tolerate veterinarians who provide long-termcare of raptors if they work in conjunction with a li-censed rehabilitator. (The importance of working with

a qualified, knowledgeable licensed wildlife rehabilita-tor cannot be overemphasized.) However, veterinarianswho are treating an endangered species (e.g., bald eagle[Haliaeetus leucocephalus], snail kite [Rostrhamus socia-bilis]) must report the animal to the appropriate state

wildlife agency and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS) within 24 hours. The long-term housing ofraptors for educational or exhibit purposes requires arehabilitators license, which can be obtained throughthe USFWS but may take up to 90 days to acquire.

Criteria for Release into the Wild

The ultimate goal of raptor rehabilitation is to returnthe bird to the wild. Guidelines for physiologic andpsychologic assessment of raptors prior to release havebeen established.13 Important prerelease survival criteriainclude 100% function of wings and legs, normal bilat-eral vision, normal psychology (e.g., not imprinted),good feather condition, adequate hunting and survivalskills, and suitable location and time of year for release.

All raptors should ideally be test flown in mews (out-door flight cages) before release to assess their staminaand ability to properly fly and land. Another factor thatdictates the approach to an individual raptor is the en-

dangered/threatened status of the patient and whetheruse in captive breeding and/or education programs isan option if release into the wild is unlikely.

Nutrition and HusbandryAll raptors are carnivores. The diets of individual

species vary considerably, however, and include inverte-brates, reptiles, fish, birds, eggs, and mammals. A

whole-prey diet (e.g., invertebrates, mice, rats, fish,chicks, quail) should be fed based on the preferred preyof the hospitalized patient to encourage eating and pro-vide appropriate vitamins and minerals. Most captive

Small Animal/Exotics 20TH ANNIVERSARY Compendium March 1999

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raptors are fed a limited va-riety of domesticated preyspecies, which may not pro-vide adequate sources ofnecessary macronutrients,

vitamins, and/or minerals.

14

Alternatively, a commercial-ly available bird-of-prey diet(e.g., Nebraska Bird of PreyDiet; Central Nebraska Pack-ing, Inc., North Platte, NE,or Zu/Preem Bird of PreyDiet; Hills Division RivianaFoods, Inc., Topeka, KS) canbe fed. A nutrient analysiscomparing these commercial-ly prepared diets with indi-

vidual prey items is avail-able.15

As a general guideline, theamount of feed a raptor re-quires per day is inverselycorrelated with its size.16,17

Small raptors, such as Amer-ican kestrels (Falco sparverius),may require 30% of theirbody weight (BW) daily,

whereas eagles require 8%to 10% of BW daily.17 The

metabolic demands (e.g.,postoperative recovery, ca-chectic state, activity level)of patients also affect meta-bolic rate and influence theamount of feed required.18,19

Some species are poorfeeders while hospitalized(e.g., osprey [Pandion hali-aetus], sharp-shinned hawk,Coopers hawk [Accipitercooperii]), and food intake

and BW must be carefullymonitored. Some patientswill require force-feeding byeither manually placingpieces of prey into the esoph-agus or tube feeding (Figure 1). There is debate as to

whether raptors require fresh, clean water in addition to water obtained from food. I provide all hospitalizedraptors with access to fresh water for drinking andbathing.

Raptors housed at a veterinary hospital for the shortterm should be in an area with low traffic and noise.

Visual barriers placed at thefront of the cage will pro-vide a sense of security forthe bird. Good hygiene;protective walls; and perch-

es of the right size, shape,and texture20 are necessaryto minimize self-inflictedtrauma and infectious prob-lems (e.g., bumblefoot,aspergillosis). If a raptor re-quires long-term treatment,it is best to either house itin a modified outdoor runor transport it to a rehabili-tation center.

Handling, Restraint,and Diagnostic WorkupsThe safety of both the

handler and bird must beconsidered when handlingand restraining raptors. Ta-lons can inflict serious harmand should be immediatelycontrolled (Figure 2); thebeak and wings can then beimmobilized. In addition,some raptors (e.g., eagles,

great horned owls, vultures)do bite and can inflict seri-ous wounds with their beaks,although they are less of aconcern than are talons. Theuse of leather gloves anddrapes helps with captureand restraint. Hoods (tightlyfitted leather caps used tocover the head and eyes) arealso highly effective in calm-ing restrained raptors.

A thorough diagnosticworkup of raptors is bestperformed with the bird un-der general anesthesia, usingisoflurane at a vaporizer set-

ting of 3% for induction and 1.5% to 2% for mainte-nance. Any raptor in respiratory distress should first beplaced in a dark, warm oxygen chamber for 15 to 20minutes before handling. Mask induction and endotra-cheal intubation for maintenance is a safe protocol.This will minimize the stress associated with restraintin a wild animal that may already be in a severe state of

Compendium March 1999 20TH ANNIVERSARY Small Animal/Exotics

F E E D I N G s H O U S I N G s T A L O N S s A N E S T H E S I A

Figure 2Proper method of restraining a golden eagle

(Aquila chrysaetos). Note that the handler is wearing glovesand has control of both feet (i.e., talons) and that the wingsare positioned against the birds body.

Figure 1Tube feeding a male American kestrel.


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decompensation. I believethat the physiologic stresscaused by short-term isoflu-rane is less than thatcaused by manually re-

straining debilitated rap-tors. If isoflurane is not anoption, protocols usinghalothane and parenteralanesthetics are available21,22

or the patient can be re-ferred to a veterinarian

with the proper equipmentfor isoflurane anesthesia.

The minimaldiagnosticworkup should include aphysical examination that

emphasizes thorough oph-thalmologic examinationand assessment of the mus-culoskeletal system, BW,complete blood count,packed cell volume (PCV),and total solids. Other teststhat may be beneficial in-clude fecal parasite exami-nation; chemistry profile;culture and sensitivity of lesions; whole-body radiographs;lead and cholinesterase levels; and, in select cases, endo-

scopic evaluation of the respiratory and GI systems.Free-ranging raptors presented to veterinarians maybe in a state of decompensation from traumatic, met-abolic, nutritional, and/or infectious disease and oftenrequire immediate life-saving emergency medical care.Information on avian emergency treatment is avail-able.23,24 It is important to remember that raptors are

wild animals that can be fatally stressed by handling.Having all equipment (e.g., ophthalmoscope, blood col-lection equipment, catheter for intraosseous place-ment25) and drugs (e.g., fluids, steroids, antibiotics) readybefore treatment will minimize patient stress and de-

crease the time needed for manipulations. The judicioususe of isoflurane may also minimize the stress of handling.

NONINFECTIOUS CONDITIONSEpidemiologic studies conducted in the United States

show that trauma and toxicities, the majority of whichare directly related to human activity, are the most com-mon clinical diagnoses in free-ranging raptors46,26 (seeNoninfectious Conditions of Free-Ranging Raptors).

TraumaMost traumatic injuries to raptors result in ocular

and/or orthopedic prob-lems.5,2729 Early and ag-gressive treatment of theseinjuries can make the dif-ference between release in-

to the wild and death.The most common causesof traumatic injuries infree-ranging raptors aregunshot and vehicular orstructural collisions.46

The damage caused bygunshot is created by lac-eration and crushing ofbone and soft tissue inthe immediate path of thebullet.30 Treatment of

gunshot victims dependson the organ(s) damaged(e.g., a lacerated liver ver-sus fractured long bone)and the patients clinicalstate. In most cases, prac-titioners should not at-tempt to remove bulletsbecause lead poisoning isseldom associated with

the uptake of lead in tissue and significant harm mayresult from such an attempt.30

Orthopedic techniques for raptors are based on thosedescribed in the avian literature.3134 Both external andinternal fixation can be used to treat dislocations andfractures. Veterinarians must provide perfect surgical re-duction and fixation, especially for lesions of the wings,if the patient is to be released back to the wild. Soft tis-sue damage with or without orthopedic lesions is also acommon presenting problem of raptors that have suf-fered traumatic injuries. Practitioners should refer tothe literature on soft tissue surgical procedures.35,36

Raptors eyes are tightly encased, large structures withanterior scleral ossicles, which consist of a variable

number of interdigitating bones forming a completebony ring within the sclera.28,37 Unilateral lesions in theanterior chamber are common in traumatic injuries(Figure 3).27 In one study, however, severe lesions of theposterior segment (e.g., vitreous hemorrhage, tear orrupture of the pecten, retinal detachment, chorioretinalrupture, posterior scleral rupture) were found with littleor no pathology noted in the anterior segment.38 It wassuggested that the posterior segment is prone to injuryrelated to contrecoup forces because of the anatomy ofthe raptor eye.24 For this reason, it is imperative that afundic examination be performed to determine wheth-


R E D U C I N G S T R E S S s T R E A T I N G G U N S H O T V I C T I M S s F U N D I C E X A M I N A T I O N

Trauma

s Hit by vehicle

s Collision with

building/power line

s Trapped (barbed-wire

fence)

s Predation

Toxicosis

s Organophosphates

s Carbamates

s Lead

s

Organochlorines

a

s Polychlorinated

biphenylsa

s Mercurya

s Strychninea

s Anticoagulantsa

s Nicotine sulfatea

Nutrition

s Starvation

s Hypoglycemia

s Nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidism

s Thiamine deficiency

s Iron deficiency anemia

s Vitamin A deficiency

s Vitamin E/selenium

deficiency

s Gout

Orphaned YoungElectrocutionaRefer to the literature4042 iftoxicity is suspected.

Noninfectious Conditions ofFree-Ranging Raptors


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er posterior segment lesionsare present. Fundic exami-nation can often be per-formed in the awake raptoror under isoflurane anesthe-

sia. If necessary, vercuroni-um bromide may be usedfor mydriasis39but only byspecialists or those with ex-perience.

ToxicosisOrganophosphate (OP),

carbamate, and lead toxico-sis are the most commontoxicities in free-rangingraptors (see Noninfectious

Conditions of Free-RangingRaptors).

Organophosphates andCarbamates

Organophosphates andcarbamates are used exten-sively in agricultural practiceas pesticides.4345 Birds ofprey most often come in con-tact with these agents by eat-ing contaminated prey (e.g.,

insects, small vertebrates)

44,46

and topically treated live-stock.47 However, several cas-es of intentional poisoninghave been reported.4850 If il-legal poisoning is suspected,the appropriate law enforce-ment agency should be in-formed.

Organophosphates andcarbamates inactivate the en-zyme acetylcholinesterase,

leading to the buildup ofacetylcholine and continual stimulation at the motorend-plates, which often results in death due to respira-tory failure. Clinical signs of OP and carbamate poi-soning in raptors include ataxia, inability to stand,opisthotonos, spastic nictitans, rigid paralysis withtightly clenched talons, rapid respiration, salivation,muscle twitching, and alternating miosis and mydri-asis.44 The classic signs of parasympathetic overstimula-tion seen in mammals (e.g., GI hypermotility, miosis)are usually not present.

A definitive diagnosis is based on the plasma or serum

cholinesterase levels or bydetecting the pesticide in thecrop or GI contents via gaschromatography.51 Thesetests are readily available at

most veterinary diagnosticlaboratories. If possible, sam-ples from normal birds of thesame species should be sub-mitted with samples fromthe suspected poisoned birdsto generate control values forcomparison.

Treatment should be in-stituted immediately in anyraptor suspected of havingOP or carbamate toxicosis.

Atropine (0.5 mg/kg, 0.25dose intravenously and 0.75dose intramuscularly) shouldbe administered and the an-imal observed for responseto therapy. The dose shouldbe repeated intramuscularlyat 3- to 4-hour intervals un-til all signs have dissipatedand residual toxin (e.g., toxin-laced food present in the GItract) is absent. Diphenhy-

dramine (4 mg/kg intra-muscularly three times dai-ly) may also be beneficial; ithas been shown to blockthe effect of nicotine-recep-tor overstimulation in mam-mals.43

Pralidoxime chloride (20mg/kg intramuscularly) willbreak the OPacetylcholin-esterase bond only if it isadministered within 24

hours of intoxication, but itis contraindicated for carbamate poisoning. The use ofpralidoxime chloride is therefore rarely appropriate be-cause the inciting toxin (OP versus carbamate) andtime of intoxication are almost always unknown.

Any food present in the crop should be manually ex-tracted with forceps, and activated charcoal (0.02 to0.08 mg orally) should be administered when it is be-lieved that the pesticide was recently ingested and isstill present in the GI tract. Supportive care is also im-portant and may include fluids, warmth, antifungals,antibiotics, and nutritional supplementation as needed.


A C E T Y L C H O L I N E S T E R A S E s D E F I N I T I V E D I A G N O S I S s A T R O P I N E

Figure 3A

Figure 3B

Figure 3(A) Bald eagle with corneal edema and vasculariza-tion of the left eye. (B) Eastern screech owl (Otus asio) withexophthalmia and hyphema of the right eye.


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patients. In mammals, it has been shown that excesscalories given to starved patients often result in life-threatening hypophosphatemia, a condition referred toas the refeeding syndrome.63 Although not proven, it isprobable that the refeeding syndrome also occurs in

birds. One protocol is to use a 2:1 recipe of lean meat(e.g., baby food or low-calorie dog food) mixed in a30% solution of Nutri-Cal (Evsco Pharmaceuticals

Affiliate of IGI, Inc., Buena, NJ) in electrolytes.16

Three feedings daily using 20 to 30 ml/kg/BW perfeeding (based on the Kcal/L content of this formula)may be necessary for the first few days.16 Alternatively,the Kcal/kg daily requirement can be calculated for anindividual patient based on its metabolic rate.16,19

Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism15 and thi-amine deficiency64 may occur in free-ranging raptors fedinappropriate diets during rehabilitation efforts. Less

common nutrition-related diseases include iron defi-ciency anemia, vitamin A deficiency, vitamin E/seleni-um deficiency, and gout.65

Orphaned YoungFledgling raptors may tru-

ly be orphaned due to aban-donment or they may havebeen incorrectly presentedby well-meaning people. Itis important to determinethe health status of the or-

phaned raptor becausemanagement will varybased on initial evaluation.In addition to the inherentproblems of avian pediatricmedicine,66,67 irreversibleimprinting of a young rap-tor to humans can occurquickly and will result in anonreleasable bird. Im-printing in raptors mostcommonly occurs during a

relatively short period, gen-erally from the second orthird week (as the chick isopening its eyes and focus-ing) to the sixth week oflife. It is imperative that thechick has minimal humancontact during this time.

ElectrocutionPower lines are an impor-

tant cause of electrocution

of raptors.68,69 Electrocuted birds are often found deadnear or under power lines. In raptors that survive elec-trocution, burns with electrolyte and physiologic de-rangements are the initial concerns. Standard emergen-cy care70 and topical treatment (1% silver sulfadiazine

cream) of burn wounds should be provided immediate-ly. Immunosuppression and secondary bacterial infec-tion of burn sites often result in severe infectious dis-eases (e.g., aspergillosis, septicemia) and must beaddressed during the often protracted recovery periodof these patients.

REFERENCES1. Johnsgard PA: Evolution, classification, and zoogeography,

in Hawks, Eagles, and Falcons of North America. WashingtonDC, Smithsonian Institute, 1990, pp 321.

2. Blus LJ, Wiemeyer SN, Henny CJ: Organochlorine pesti-cides, in Fairbrother AN, Locke LN, Hoff GL (eds): Nonin-

fectious Diseases of Wildlife, ed 2. Ames, IA, Iowa State Uni-versity Press, 1996, pp 6170.

3. OHara TM, Rice CD: Polychlorinated biphenyls, in Fair-brother AN, Locke LN, Hoff GL (eds): Noninfectious Dis-eases of Wildlife, ed 2. Ames, IA, Iowa State University Press,1996, pp 7186.

4. Coon NC, Locke LN, Cromartie LE, et al: Causes of baldeagle mortality, 19601965.J Wildl Dis6:7276, 1970.

5. Fix AS, Barrows SZ: Raptors rehabilitated in Iowa during1986 and 1987: A retrospective study.J Wildl Dis26:1821,1990.

6. Deem SL, Terrell SP, Forrester DJ: A retrospective study ofmorbidity and mortality of raptors in Florida: 19881994.JZoo Wildl Med29:160164, 1998.

7. Redig PT: Health management of raptors trained for falcon-ry. Proc Annu Assoc Avian Vet Conf:258264, 1992.

8. Suedmeyer WK: An introduction to falconry. Proc Annu As-soc Avian Vet Conf:164172, 1993.

9. Duke GE: Raptor physiology, in Fowler ME (ed): Zoo andWild Animal Medicine, ed 2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,1986, pp 370376.

10. Duke GE, Evanson OA, Redig PT, et al: Mechanism of pel-let egestion in greathorned owls (Bubo virginianus). Am JPhysiol231:18241829, 1976.

11. Smith BJ, Smith SA: The humeroscapular bone of the greathorned owl (Bubo virginianus) and other raptors.Anat HistolEmbryol21:3239, 1992.

12. Wells-Mikota SK: Wildlife laws, regulations, and policies, inFowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current

Therapy 3. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1993, pp 310.13. Chaplin SB, Mueller LR, Degeneres LA: Physiological as-sessment of rehabilitated raptors prior to release, in RedigPT, Cooper JE, Remple JD, Hunter DB (eds): Raptor Bio-medicine. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1993,pp 167173.

14. Clum NJ, Fitzpatrick MP, Dierenfeld ES: Nutrient contentof five species of domestic animals commonly fed to captiveraptors.J Raptor Res31:267272, 1997.

15. Fowler ME: Metabolic bone disease, in Fowler ME (ed): Zooand Wild Animal Medicine, ed 2. Philadelphia, WB SaundersCo, 1986, pp 7090.

16. Redig PT: Raptor nutrition and feeding, in Medical Man-agement of Birds of Prey. St Paul, University of Minnesota


R E F E E D I N G S Y N D R O M E s H Y P E R P A R A T H Y R O I D I S M s I M P R I N T I N G

A LookBack

COMP

ENDIUMS

20thANNIVERSARY

1 97 9 -

1 9 9 9

There have been many advances

in the veterinary care of raptors

during the past 20 years. Thesedevelopments have largely been

a result of concurrent advances

in avian medicine as a

subspecialty of veterinary

medicine as well as the

integrated approach of falconers,

rehabilitators, field biologists,

and veterinarians to address the

specific needs of raptors. The

most important of these

advances are improvements inthe captive propagation of

endangered raptor species, the

routine use of isoflurane

anesthesia, and highly refined

orthopedic techniques.


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ous mydriatic drugs in kestrels (Falco tinnunculus).Am J VetRes55:270272, 1994.

40. Heinz GH: Mercury poisoning in wildlife, in FairbrotherAN, Locke LN, Hoff GL (eds): Noninfectious Diseases of Wildlife, ed 2.Ames, IA, Iowa State University Press, 1996,pp 118127.

41. Bauck L, LaBonde J: Toxic diseases, in Altman RB, ClubbSL, Dorrestein GM, Quesenberry K (eds): Avian Medicineand Surgery. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1997, pp 604613.

42. Plumlee KH: Toxicant use in the zoo environment. J ZooWildl Med28:2027, 1997.

43. Meerdink GL: Organophosphorous and carbamate insecti-cide poisoning, in Kirk RW (ed): Current Veterinary Thera-

py. X. Small Animal Practice. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,1989, pp 135137.

44. Porter SL: Pesticide poisoning in birds of prey, in Redig PT,Cooper JE, Remple JD, Hunter DB (eds): Raptor Bio-medicine. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1993,pp 239245.

45. Fairbrother A: Cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides, in Fair-

brother AN, Locke LN, Hoff GL (eds): Noninfectious Dis-eases of Wildlife, ed 2.Ames, IA, Iowa State University Press,1996, pp 5260.

46. Elliot JE, Langelier KM, Mineau P, et al: Poisoning of baldeagles and red-tailed hawks by carbofuran and fensulfothionin the Fraser Delta of British Columbia, Canada.J Wildl Dis32:486491, 1996.

47. Henny CJ, Kolbe EJ, Hill EF, et al: Case histories of baldeagles and other raptors killed by organophosphorus insecti-cides topically applied to livestock.J Wildl Dis23:292295,1987.

48. White DH, Hayes LE, Bush PB: Case histories of wild birdskilled intentionally with famphur in Georgia and West Vir-ginia.J Wildl Dis25:184188, 1989.

49. Allen GT, Veatch JK, Stroud RK, et al: Winter poisoning ofcoyotes and raptors with furadan-laced carcass baits.J WildlDis32:385389, 1996.

50. Stroud RK, Adrian W: Forensic investigational techniquesfor wildlife law enforcement investigations, in Fairbrother

AN, Locke LN, Hoff GL (eds): Noninfectious Diseases of Wildlife, ed 2.Ames, IA, Iowa State University Press, 1996,pp 318.

51. Hill EF, Fleming WJ: Anticholinesterase poisoning of birds:Field monitoring and diagnosis of acute poisoning. EnvironToxicol Chem1:2738, 1982.

52. Jacobson E, Carpenter JW, Novilla M: Suspected lead toxi-cosis in a bald eagle.JAVMA171:141144, 1977.

53. Reiser MH, Temple SA: Effects of chronic lead ingestion onbirds of prey, in Cooper JE, Greenwood AC (eds): Recent

Advances in the Study of Raptor Diseases. West Yorkshire,England, Chiron Publications, 1981, pp 2125.

54. Janssen DL, Oosterhuis JE, Allen JL, et al: Lead poisoningin free-ranging California condors.JAVMA189:11151117,1986.

55. Mautino MM: Lead and zinc intoxication in zoologicalmedicine: A review.J Zoo Wildl Med28:2835, 1997.

56. Abou-Madi N, Kollias GV: Avian fluid therapy, in Kirk RW(ed): Current Veterinary Therapy. XI. Small Animal Practice.Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1992, pp 11541159.

57. Morrisey JK: Avian emergency medicine and critical care, inHoefer HL (ed): Practical Avian Medicine: The CompendiumCollection. Trenton, NJ, Veterinary Learning Systems, 1997,pp 5357.

Press, 1993, pp 6172.17. Cooper JE: Nutritional diseases, including poisons, in Vet-

erinary Aspects of Captive Birds of Prey. Gloucestershire, Eng-land, Standfast Press, 1985, pp 124135.

18. Bennett PM, Harvey PH: Active and resting metabolism inbirds: Allometry, phylogeny and ecology. J Zool Lond213:327363, 1987.

19. Quesenberry K: Avian nutritional support, in Kirk RW (ed):Current Veterinary Therapy. XI. Small Animal Practice.Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1992, pp 11601163.

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About the AuthorDr. Deem is affiliated with the Field Veterinary Program,

Wildlife Health Sciences, Wildlife Conservation Society/

Bronx Zoo, Bronx, New York. She is a Diplomate of theAmerican College of Zoological Medicine.

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EXOTİC-Raptor medicine,basic principles and noninfectious conditions

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