EXOTIC-İnfectious and parasitic diseases of raptors

8/14/2019 EXOTIC-nfectious and parasitic diseases of raptors

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Vol. 21, No. 4 April 1999 20TH ANNIVERSARY

Refereed Peer Review

FOCAL POINT

KEY FACTS

#Veterinarians working withfree-ranging raptors should

be familiar with the two most

common consequences of long-

term hospitalizationbumblefootand aspergillosisand strive

to prevent these conditions

by providing proper nutrition,

housing, and hygiene.

Infectious and ParasiticDiseases of Raptors*

Wildlife Conservation Society/Bronx Zoo, Bronx, New York

Sharon Lynn Deem, DVM, PhD

ABSTRACT: Free-ranging raptors may be admitted to a veterinary hospital with an infectious

(e.g., aspergillosis, poxvirus) or parasitic (e.g., trichomoniasis) disease but more commonly

acquire such debilitating conditions during long-term hospitalization. Clinicians should be fa-

miliar with the clinical signs, diagnostic protocols, and therapeutic approaches of these poten-tially fatal diseases.

Infectious diseases of raptors are caused by bacterial, fungal, viral, and para-sitic agents (see Infectious and Parasitic Agents of Free-Ranging Raptors).15

The most common infectious and parasitic diseases are covered in detailin this article and include bumblefoot associated with Staphylococcus aureus;aspergillosis; candidiasis; poxvirus and herpesvirus; trichomoniasis and capillar-iasis; and hemoparasites of the genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, and Leuco-cytozoon.

BACTERIAL INFECTION: BUMBLEFOOTa

A common consequence of hospitalization and confinement of raptors is podo-dermatitis, commonly known as bumblefoot. Bumblefoot is defined as any inflam-matory condition of the foot, ranging from mild erythema to severe abscessationand osteomyelitis (Figure 1). Trauma predisposes to the development of bumble-foot; self-inflicted talon punctures, bites from prey, and improperly shaped perchesare common causes. Obesity or inactivity, unsanitary cages, immunosuppression,and vitamin A deficiencies are additional causes.11,12 Bumblefoot has been presentedin the literature as a noninfectious disease12; however, S. aureusis often the cause ofdebilitating bumblefoot with associated cellulitis and osteomyelitis.11,13,14

Falcon species tend to be more susceptible to bumblefoot than are hawks,11,15

and both of these groups are more frequently affected than are owls. The princi-pal clinical signs are swelling and inflammation of the plantar surface of the foot

that can progress to debilitating lameness associated with cellulitis, tendinitis,and osteomyelitis.

Diagnosis is usually straightforward and based on physical examination, radio-graphic evaluation, and bacterial culture and sensitivity of lesions. Staging forprognostic assessment is usually based on the classification scheme proposed byHalliwell that consists of four categories (see Bumblefoot ClassificationScheme).11 Staging is important both for prognostic assessment and develop-ment of a therapeutic plan.

CE

I Bumblefoot is best prevented by

providing appropriate perches,

talon trimming, and regular

examination of the plantar

surfaces of the feet to detectearly clinical signs,

I All raptors are susceptible to

aspergillosis infection, but the

most susceptible species are

immature red-tailed hawks, bald

and golden eagles, goshawks,

gyrfalcons, rough-legged hawks,

and snowy owls,

I The cutaneous form of poxvirus

infection has been reported inboth Falconiformes (diurnal

raptors) and Strigiformes (owls)

species,

I The top five differentials for any

raptor with caseous lesions in

the oral cavity are candidiasis,

trichomoniasis, capillariasis,

bacterial abscesses, and

hypovitaminosis A,

*For additional information on raptor medicine, see Raptor Medicine: Basic Principles andNoninfectious Conditions in the March 1999 (Vol. 21, No. 3) issue ofCompendium.aInformation on other important bacterial infections of raptors, including Mycobacteriumavium, Chlamydia psittaci, and Salmonellaspecies, can be found in the literature.2,610


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Treatment of bumblefootincludes both nonsurgical andsurgical approaches.12,1416

Therapeutic objectives are re-duced inflammation and

swelling, establishment ofdrainage (if needed), elimi-nation of bacteria, and man-agement of the wound topromote healing. Woundmanagement is often themost challenging aspect oftreatment and is usually ac-complished by the initial ap-plication ofball bandages(Figure 2). These bandagesconsist of gauze sponges placed

on the plantar surface of thefoot that are incorporatedinto a bandage by wrapping the digits (using castpadding and an elastic nonadhesive dressing) in a circu-larlongitudinal fashion in a ball around the sponges.It is important to incorporate the distal tarsometatarsusinto the bandage to support the phalangeal and tar-sometatarsal joints and to use many gauze sponges toprovide adequate cushioning of the plantar surface. Thecontact bandage layer can be either adherent or nonad-herent based on general wound-management princi-ples.17 Padded perches (e.g., sheepskin covered) and/or a

padded floor (e.g., linen-covered foam padding or sand)are also used during the healing phase.

Nonsurgical treatmentsinclude vitamin A supple-mentation, parenteral anti-biotics, and wound manage-ment. Parenteral antibiotics

are best chosen based on cul-ture and sensitivity resultsfrom collected exudate. Car-benicillin, piperacillin, andenrofloxacin have all beeneffective in the treatment ofbumblefoot. Ball bandaging

with a dimethyl sulfoxidecocktail (8 ml dimethylsulfoxide, 2 ml dexametha-sone [2 mg/ml], and 2 mlpiperacillin or carbenicillin

[500 mg/ml]) is often effec-tive for treating mild casesof bumblefoot.18 Other common topical medicationsinclude udder cream to soften the feet and hemorrhoidmedication to promote epithelialization.

Surgical debridement, including removal of devital-ized tissue and/or amputation of bone(s) with chronicosteomyelitis, may be necessary in severe cases of bum-blefoot. Most raptors can function with amputation of asingle digit as long as the hallux (first digit) is intact andthere is no involvement of the tarsometatarsal bone.

Bumblefoot is much easier to prevent than to treat.

Preventive foot care for captive raptors should includeappropriate perch sizes, shapes, and material (e.g., sisal

Small Animal/Exotics 20TH ANNIVERSARY Compendium April 1999

T R E A T I N G B U M B L E F O O T I B A L L B A N D A G E S I A N T I B I O T I C S

Infectious AgentsBacterial

Staphylococcus aureus

Escherichia coli

Mycobacterium avium

Chlamydia psittaci

Listeria monocytogenes

Salmonellaspecies

Pasteurella multocida

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

Bacillus anthracis

Francisella tularensis

Proteusspecies

Pseudomonasspecies

Fungal

Aspergillus fumigatus

Candida albicans

Viral

Avian poxvirusHerpesvirus

Adenovirus

Rabies

Newcastle disease

Mareks disease

Parasitic AgentsExternal Parasites

Myiasis (Calliphoraand

Protocalliphoraspecies)

Hippoboscid flies

(Pseudolynchiaspecies)

Lice (Mallophaga)

Mites

Ticks

Blood Parasites

Plasmodiumspecies

Haemoproteusspecies

Leucocytozoonspecies

Trypanosomaspecies

Babesiaspecies

Internal Parasites

Trichomonas gallinae

Capillariaspecies

Serratospiculum

amaculata

Thelaziaspecies

Syngamusspecies

Cestodes

Trematodes

Acanthocephala

Coccidia (Caryospora

and Eimeriaspecies)

Toxoplasma gondii

Infectious and Parasitic Agents of Free-Ranging Raptors

Figure 1Bumblefoot (pododermatitis) in a crested caracara(Polyborus plancus). Note inflammation and ulceration of thetarsometatarsal pad.


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rope, foam-rubber padded,or sheepskin covered)19; trim-ming of excessively long tal-ons; and regular examinationof the plantar surfaces of the

feet to detect early clinicalsigns.

FUNGAL INFECTIONSAspergillosis

The most common fungalinfection in free-ranging andcaptive raptors is aspergillosis.The causative agent of asper-gillosis in raptors is most of-tenAspergillus fumigatus, withoccasional disease associated

with Aspergillus flavusandAspergillus niger.20,21 All rap-tors can succumb to asper-gillosis infection, but the mostsusceptible species are imma-ture red-tailed hawks (Buteo

jamaicensis), bald eagles (Hal-iaeetus leucocephalus), goldeneagles (Aquila chr ysaetos),goshawks (Accipiter gentilis),gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus),and rough-legged hawks (Bu-

teo lagopus).21

Aspergillosis can be classi-fied as acute or chronic anddisseminated or localized,depending on the number ofspores to which the raptor isexposed, the birds immunestatus at the time of expo-sure, and establishment oflocal aspergillomas (Figure3) or systemic spread of theorganism. The most com-

monly affected system is therespiratory tract; birds pre-sent with respiratory distressand vocal changes. Othercommon clinical signs asso-ciated with acute disease areanorexia, polydipsia, andpolyuria. Insidious, progres-sive respiratory distress withassociated emaciation is of-ten the presenting sign in chronic disease.

Diagnosis of aspergillosis is accomplished using his-

tory (e.g., if the bird was re-cently hospitalized or is ahighly susceptible species),physical examination, radiog-raphy, endoscopy, complete

blood count, chemistry pro-file, fungal culture, andserology (ELISA).21 Redigstates that radiographic le-sions are often associated

with a grave prognosis, andthe lack of radiographiclesions does not rule out as-pergillosis infection.21 Leu-kocyte count is often sig-nificantly increased, withheterophilia present in the

early stages and monocyto-sis and toxic heterophils inmore advanced cases.22

Therapy is usually protract-ed and based on different an-tifungal agents, includingamphotericin B, 5-fluorocy-tosine, fluconazole, and itra-conazole.21,23 Itraconazole

with or without ampho-tericin B should be used forinitial treatment of aspergillo-

sis unless infection of thebrain is suspected; in thesecases, fluconazole should bethe drug of choice.23 Oralitraconazole (5 mg/kg twicedaily) has been safe and effec-tive in treating raptors withaspergillosis. 24 Supportivecare is also an importantcomponent of therapy, in-cluding force-feeding, fluids,

warmth, and antibiotics.

Removing aspergillomasfrom the trachea may be nec-essary and can be accom-plished either using an endo-scopic approach (in largerbirds) or via a tracheal tran-section. 25 A less invasiveprocedure using a trachealvacuum technique has beendescribed.25,26Abdominal air-

sac cannulation is most often advised during these proce-dures and in cases of tracheal obstruction.27

Compendium April 1999 20TH ANNIVERSARY Small Animal/Exotics

R A D I O G R A P H I C L E S I O N S I L E U K O C Y T E C O U N T I A N T I F U N G A L A G E N T S

Type I (most severe): Enlargement of the entire

metatarsal pad; associated with infection and cellulitis

Type II: Localized encapsulated lesion; associatedwith an enlarged metatarsal pad

Type III: Enlargement of one discrete area of the foot;

usually caused by a foreign body, corn, or localized

improper epithelial molt

Type IV (least severe): Enlargement of one or more

distal extremities of the phalanx; results from rupture

of the flexor tendons at the ends of digit II, III, or IV

Bumblefoot Classification Scheme11

Figure 2A ball bandage on the foot of a crested caracara forthe treatment of bumblefoot.

Figure 3Aspergillomas in the thoracic cavity of a snowy owl(Nyctea scandiaca). (Courtesy of Dr. Scott P. Terrell, Collegeof Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida)


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Like bumblefoot, prevent-ing aspergillosis in captiveraptors is much easier thantreating it. In highly suscep-tible and/or stressed raptors,

the prophylactic use of anti-fungals may be indicatedand can include oral itra-conazole28 (I use 5 mg/kgonce daily) or oral 5-fluoro-cytosine (50 to 60 mg/kgtwice daily).21 Good hygieneand supportive care of hos-pitalized patients is of pri-mary importance to ensureimmunocompetence againstthis ubiquitous organism.

CandidiasisCandidiasis (thrush), which is caused by the yeast

Candida albicans, is the second most important fungalinfection of free-ranging raptors.3 Candidiasis usuallymanifests as pseudomembranous patches of necrotictissue in the oral cavity, pharynx, and crop. A less com-mon manifestation is infection of the lower gastroin-testinal (GI) tract with no visible lesions on physicalexamination. Clinical signs of candidiasis include dys-phagia, regurgitation, vomiting, and depression. In cas-es of lower GI tract infection, raptors often display

nonspecific signs of emaciation and anorexia.Diagnosis can be confirmed by taking a swab, scrap-ing, or culture of the lesions.3 C. albicans is a thin-

walled, oval yeast that measures 3 to 4 m in diameterand is typically deeply basophilic with Wrights stainand gram positive with Grams stain.29

Uncomplicated candidiasis can be treated with oralnystatin (100,000 IU/kg three times daily) until lesionsare gone. Note that candidiasis is often secondary to anunderlying immunocompromising condition.

VIRAL INFECTIONS

A number of viral infections have been diagnosed infree-ranging and captive raptors.1,3034 The detection ofantibodies to rabies virus in an experimentally infectedgreat horned owl (Bubo virginianus)35 suggests that rap-tors may be asymptomatic carriers of the rabies virus asa result of their feeding habits and contact with suchprey animals as raccoons and skunks. However, humanrabies associated with raptors has not been document-ed. A serologic survey of 53 newly captured birds ofprey found no significant antibody titer.36 Newcastledisease, a virulent paramyxovirus commonly associated

with fatalities in poultry and wild fowl, has also been

diagnosed in a number ofraptor species.1,30

AdenovirusThe recent fatal adeno-

virus outbreaks in the high-ly endangered Mauritiuskestrel (Falco punctatus)31

and aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis septentrionalis)32

highlight the importance ofthis virus as a cause of highmortality among raptors.

PoxvirusThe cutaneous (i.e., dry)

form of poxvirus infection

has been reported in bothFalconiformes and Strigi-formes.1,33 Avipoxvirusspecies are large DNA virusesthat induce intracytoplasmic, lipophilic inclusion bod-ies (Bollinger bodies). Epithelial cells of the oral cavityand integumentary and respiratory tracts are mostcommonly infected. Poxvirus infection presents clini-cally as discrete nodular proliferations of unfeatheredskin around the eyes, beak and nares, and legs and feet(Figure 4). No cases of diphtheritic (i.e., wet) pox le-sions have been reported in raptors.1

Transmission of poxviruses requires viral contamina-

tion of broken skin and is often associated with mos-quitoes and other blood-sucking arthropods.37 Thus,poxvirus lesions have been more commonly diagnosedin raptors housed outdoors.

A tentative diagnosis of poxvirus infection can bebased on clinical signs. Diagnosis can be confirmed viahistopathologic and electron microscopic identificationof the pathognomonic Bollinger bodies. Poxvirus infec-tion is usually self-limiting in raptors. Treatment of sec-ondary bacterial infections may be warranted as well assurgical removal of lesions if they compromise thebirds ability to properly perch, feed, or see.

HerpesvirusHerpesvirus infections in raptors include inclusion-

body hepatitis in falcons, owl hepatosplenitis, and eagleherpesvirus.38 The herpesviruses in falcons and owls areserologically indistinguishable.1,38 Clinical signs are of-ten nonspecific (e.g., severe depression, weakness,anorexia) and can present as peracute death (mortalitymay approach 100%). The diagnosis of herpesvirus in-fection in raptors is based on clinical signs; viral isola-tion; and histologic lesions, including intranuclear in-clusion bodies and widespread focal to diffuse necrosis


T H R U S H I R A B I E S I B O L L I N G E R B O D I E S

Figure 4Multiple raised pox lesions on the eyelid and cereof a barred owl (Strix varia).


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of the liver and throughoutthe hematopoietic tissue.There is no therapy for theherpesviruses of raptors, andit remains a problem in free-

ranging and captive popula-tions. Mareks disease, thelymphoproliferative condi-tion caused by a herpesvirusthat is most prevalent inchickens, has also been re-ported in raptors.1,34

PARASITIC INFECTIONSEctoparasites

Raptors harbor a varietyof ectoparasites. The majori-

ty of ectoparasites cause noclinical signs unless a bird isimmunocompromised. Onlybiting lice from the order Mal-lophagaare found on rap-tors. These lice spend theirentire lives on the bird andcan survive only for shortperiods off the host. Mostraptors normally harborsmall numbers of lice. If aninfestation becomes exces-

sive, however, the bird maybecome highly irritated andcause self-inflicted trauma.

A topical ectoparasite pow-der and/or ivermectin (200 g/kg subcutaneously ororally, repeated in 10 to 14 days) can be used on debili-tated raptors to minimize secondary effects associated

with lice infestation.Hippoboscid flies (Pseudolynchia species) are com-

mon on raptors; these flies are generally nonpathogenicbut may be involved in the transmission of blood-borne protozoan parasites (e.g., Haemoproteus species).39

Clinical myiasis is associated with such species of flies asCalliphoraand Protocalliphora.40 Myiasis is usually aproblem in eyasses (nestling raptors) but has occasion-ally been diagnosed in adults with debilitating injuries.

A number of fleas, mites, and ticks are also found onraptors and generally have no negative effect on thehealth status of the bird. One noted exception is a clini-cal case of scaly-leg mite (Knemidokoptes mutans) in agreat horned owl.41

Internal ParasitesRaptors are host to numerous internal parasites, in-

cluding protozoa, nema-todes, trematodes, cestodes,and acanthocephalans.5,40 TheGI and respiratory tracts aremost commonly affected.

Parasitic infections of theGI tract include tricho-moniasis (frounce) and cap-illariasis. Trichomoniasis ofraptors is caused by Tricho-monas gallinaeand is oftenacquired when raptors feedon infected prey (e.g., doves,pigeons).40 The characteris-tic signs are raised, yellow-ish, caseous plaques on thetongue and oropharyngeal

surfaces (Figure 5). The birdmay have difficulty swallow-ing and, in severe infection,may be emaciated becauseof its inability to eat. Diag-nosis can be confirmed bytaking a swab or scraping oflesions. Trichomonids areidentified on a wet mountas a motile, piriform proto-zoan with an anterior flagel-la, undulating membrane,

and prominent axostyle oras stationary flagellatesstained with Wrights s tainor Diff Quick (American

Scientific Products, McGraw Park, IL).29 Trichomonia-sis can be treated with oral metronidazole (30 to 50mg/kg twice daily for 5 to 7 days).

Capillariasis is a differential for trichomoniasis but isoften more extensive, with lesions in the mouth,oropharynx, esophagus, crop, small intestine, and ce-cum.5 Diagnosis is made by detecting the double-oper-culated eggs in the feces or in a swab or scraping of the

oral lesions.29

Treatment of capillariasis in raptors iswith oral fenbendazole (30 to 50 mg/kg once daily for5 days). A recent report of suspected fenbendazole toxi-city with bone-marrow suppression in several species ofbirds should alert practitioners to monitor raptors re-ceiving this drug.42

The top five differentials for raptors with caseous le-sions in the oral cavity are candidiasis, trichomoniasis,capillariasis, bacterial abscesses, and hypovitaminosis A.It is imperative that the proper diagnosis is establishedbecause each of these conditions requires a differenttherapeutic approach.


M A L L O P H A G A I M Y I A S I S I T R I C H O M O N I A S I S

Figure 5Raised, yellowish, caseous plaques from Tricho-monas gallinaeinfection in the mouth of a barred owl. (Cour-tesy of Dr. Darryl J. Heard, College of Veterinary Medicine,University of Florida)


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Blood ParasitesCommon blood parasites of raptors include species

in the genera Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon, and Haemo-proteus.39,43 Other less frequently diagnosed blood para-sites (not discussed in this article) are species of Try-

panosoma and Babesia.39

Transmission of all raptorhemoparasites requires an insect vector. Plasmodium,Haemoproteus, and Leucocytozoon species are transmit-ted by mosquitoes, hippoboscid flies or Culicoidesspecies, and simuliid flies, respectively. Much debate ex-ists regarding the pathogenicity of hemoparasites inraptors. Most investigators agree that Plasmodiumspecies are pathogenic.

Clinical signs associated with Plasmodiuminfectionsin raptors range from asymptomatic to characteristic signsof weakness, respiratory distress, and biliverdinuria. Di-

agnosis is based on clinical

signs and blood film evalua-tions (Figure 6).44 Plasmodi-uminfections can be treated

with oral chloroquine (effec-tive against erythrocyticforms) and primiquine (ef-fective against tissue forms).Redig suggests a loadingdose of 25 mg/kg of chloro-quine combined with 1.3mg/kg of primiquine fol-lowed by 15 mg/kg of chloro-

quine plus 0.75 to 1.0 mg/kg of primiquine at 12, 24,and 48 hours.45 Treatmentof Plasmodium infectionsmay resolve the clinical signsbut rarely eliminates the in-fection.

Although Haemoproteusand Leucocytozoon speciesare often considered non-pathogenic in raptors, onestudy showed that raptors

with hemoprotozoal infec-tions had longer rehabili-tation times and highermortality rates than didthose without hemoproto-zoal infections.46 Heavilyinfected debilitated raptorsmay benefit from the elimi-nation of these parasites.Treatment would presum-ably be the same as thatstated for Plasmodium.

CONCLUSIONVeterinarians in clinical practice should be familiar

with the diseases of free-ranging and captive raptors.Some infectious diseases (e.g., bumblefoot, aspergillo-sis) often result from stressful conditions during hospi-talization of raptors that originally presented with a dif-ferent condition (e.g., trauma, toxicosis). Cliniciansshould know the clinical signs, diagnostic protocols,and therapeutic approaches of these diseases.

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in Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, ed 2.Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1986, pp 408413.

2. Halliwell WH, Graham DL: Bacterial diseases of birds ofprey, in Fowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, ed2. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1986, pp 413419.

3. Redig PT: Mycotic infections of birds of prey, in Fowler ME(ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, ed 2. Philadelphia, WBSaunders Co, 1986, pp 420425.

4. Cooper JE: Infectious and parasitic diseases of raptors, inFowler ME (ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: CurrentTherapy 3. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1993, pp 221229.

5. Smith SA: Parasites of birds of prey: Their diagnosis andtreatment. Semin Avian Exotic Pet Med5:97105, 1996.

6. Keymer IF: Diseases of birds of prey. Vet Rec90:579594,1972.

7. Lumeij JT, Dorrestein GM, Stam JWE: Observations on tu-berculosis in raptors, in Cooper JE, Greenwood AC (eds):Recent Advances in the Study of Raptor Diseases. West York-shire, England, Chiron Publications, 1981, pp 137139.

8. Kirkpatrick CE, Trexler-Myren VP: A survey of free-livingfalconiform birds for Salmonella. JAVMA 189:997998,1986.


P L A S M O D I U M I L E U C O C Y T O Z O O N I H A E M O P R O T E U S

A LookBack

COM

PENDIUM

S20th

ANNIVERSARY

1 97 9 -

1 9 9 9

There have been many advances

in our knowledge base,

diagnostic capabilities, and

therapeutic approaches to the

infectious diseases of raptors

during the past 20 years. The

most important of these advances

have been directed at aspergillosis

and bumblefoot. Preventive

measures and early nonsurgical

and surgical therapies have

helped to decrease complications

that are commonly associated

with bumblefoot. Advances in

diagnosis and the pharmacologic

agents available for the

prevention and treatment of

aspergillosis have improved the

veterinarians ability to handle

this pervasive and potentially

fatal disease.

Figure 6Intraerythrocytic Plasmodiumspecies schizont (ar-row) in a bald eagle. (From Greiner EC, Black DJ, Iverson

WO: Plasmodium in a bald eagle [Haliaeetus leucocephalus].in Florida.J Wildl Dis17[4]:555558, 1981. Reprinted with

permission.)


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9. Mrner T, Mattsson R: Experimental infection of fivespecies of raptors and of hooded crows with Francisella tu-larensis biovar palaearctica.J Wildl Dis24:1521, 1988.

10. Fowler ME, Schulz T, Ardans A, et al: Chlamydiosis in cap-tive raptors.Avian Dis34:657662, 1990.

11. Halliwell WH: Bumblefoot infections in birds of prey.J Zoo

Wildl Med6:810, 1975.12. Redig PT: Bumblefoot treatment in raptors, in Fowler ME(ed): Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3.Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1993, pp 181188.

13. Satterfield WC, ORourke KI: Immunological considera-tions in the management of bumblefoot, in Cooper JE,Greenwood AC (eds): Recent Advances in the Study of RaptorDiseases. West Yorkshire, England, Chiron Publications,1981, pp 123129.

14. Sawyer BA: Bumblefoot in raptors, in Kirk RW (ed): Cur-rent Veterinary Therapy. VIII. Small Animal Practice. Phila-delphia, WB Saunders Co, 1983, pp 614616.

15. Riddle KE: Surgical treatment of bumblefoot in raptors, inCooper JE, Greenwood AC (eds): Recent Advances in the

Study of Raptor Diseases. West Yorkshire, England, ChironPublications, 1981, pp 6773.

16. Remple JD, Remple CJ: Foot casting as adjunctive therapyto surgical management of bumblefoot in raptorial species.

JAAHA23:633639, 1987.17. Swaim SF, Henderson RA: Wound dressing materials and

topical medications, in Small Animal Wound Management,ed 2. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1997, pp 5386.

18. Redig PT: Treatment protocol for bumblefoot, types 1 and2.J Assoc Avian Vet1:207, 1987.

19. Redig PT: Guidelines for perch design, in Medical Manage-ment of Birds of Prey. St Paul, MN, University of MinnesotaPress, 1993, pp 181182.

20. Bauk L: Mycoses, in Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ, Harrison LR

(eds): Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. LakeWorth, FL, Wingers Publishing, 1994, pp 9971006.

21. Redig PT: Avian aspergillosis, in Fowler ME (ed): Zoo andWild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 3. Philadelphia, WBSaunders Co, 1993, pp 178181.

22. Hawkey CM, Pugsley SL, Knight JA: Abnormal heterophilsin a king shag with aspergillosis. Vet Rec114:322324, 1984.

23. Orosz SE, Frazier DL: Antifungal agents: A review of theirpharmacology and therapeutic indications.J Avian Med Surg9:818, 1995.

24. Aguilar RF, Redig PT: Diagnosis and treatment of avian as-pergillosis, in Kirk RW (ed): Current Veterinary Therapy.

XII. Small Animal Practice. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co,1995, pp 12941299.

25. Dustin LR: Surgery of the avian respiratory system. SeminAvian Exotic Pet Med2:8390, 1993.

26. Westerhof I: Treatment of tracheal obstruction in psittacinebirds using a suction technique: A retrospective study of 19birds.J Avian Med Surg9:4549, 1995.

27. Rosskopf WJ, Woerpel RW: Abdominal air sac breathingtube placement in psitticine birds and raptors: Its use as anemergency airway in cases of tracheal obstruction. Proc AnnuConf Assoc Avian Vet:215216, 1990.

28. Joseph V: Preventive health programs for falconry birds.Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet:171178, 1995.

29. Campbell TW: Cytology of the upper alimentary tract: Oralcavity, esophagus, and ingluvies, in Avian Hematology and

Compendium April 1999 20TH ANNIVERSARY Small Animal/Exotics

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30. Keymer IF, Dawson PS: Newcastle disease in birds of prey.Vet Rec88:432, 1971.

31. Forbes NA, Simpson GN, Higins RJ, et al: Adenovirus in-fection in Mauritius kestrels (Falco punctatus).J Avian Med

Surg11:3133, 1997.32. Rideout BA, Rotstein D, Oaks JL, et al: An adenovirus out-break in captive aplomado falcons (Falco femoralis septentri-onalis) causing high morbidity and mortality. Proc Am AssocZoo Vet:4546, 1997.

33. Deem SL, Heard DJ, Fox JH: Avian pox in eastern screechowls and barred owls from Florida.J Wildl Dis33:323327,1997.

34. Halliwell WH: Lesions of Mareks disease in a great hornedowl.Avian Dis15:4955, 1971.

35. Jorgenson RD, Gough PM: Experimental rabies in a greathorned owl.J Wildl Dis12:444447, 1976.

36. Shannon LM, Poulton JL, Emmons RW, et al: Serologicalsurvey for rabies antibodies in raptors in California.J Wildl

Dis24:264267, 1988.37. Ritchie BW, Carter K: Poxviridae, in Avian Viruses: Func-

tion and Control. Lake Worth, FL, Wingers Publishing Inc,1995, pp 285311.

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About the AuthorDr. Deem is affiliated with the Field Veterinary Program,

Wildlife Health Sciences, Wildlife Conservation Soci-

ety/Bronx Zoo, Bronx, New York. She is a Diplomate of

the American College of Zoological Medicine.

EXOTIC-İnfectious and parasitic diseases of raptors

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