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Course Design for Teaching E

nglish

Yueh-chiu Wang

National Penghu University



Language

What is a language? Language is a tool we use to communicate with other people. We encode what we want to say using language which is madeu p of a range of components.



Teachers need to e aware of their learners’ wea! areas and give them practice in recogni"ing and producing these sounds correctly.

The meaning of a word can change with the stress# for e$ample# ‘contract’ %noun# a document&# ‘contract’ %ver# to get smaller&.'uite often nouns have the first syllale s

tress and vers have the second syllale.(owever# there are no straightforward rules for word stress in )nglish.



*n important feature of )nglish pronunciation is the way + which individual words often flow into each other wit

hout a clear rea!. This is particularly true when a consonant at the endof a word meets a vowel at the egin

ning of the ne$t.



,entence stress can also change themeaning of a sentence. ften whenwe are spea!ing we want to focus on

one piece of !ey information.

+ntonation helps the listener to !nowif the spea!er has finished %a fall& or

not %a rise&.



* spea!er’s use of stress and intonation# and also volume and pitch# can also tell us how they feel—e$cited# ang

ry# positive# tired# etc.



Using language to interact

We interact with different people for different reasons in different situations in different situations.

There is a wide range of e$pressions thatperform certain ‘functions’# i.e. the thingswe do with language# for e$ample# there are general functions such as than!ing# as!i

ng for information# inviting# suggesting# greeting# agreeing# and so on.



Language users need to ma!e choices aout the language they choose tocommunicate with. This choice is ver

y limited in the early stages of learning a language.

+n some languages# the relationship

etween the spea!er and listener is reflected in the grammar.



Language in the classroom

We can divide language activities in the classroom into two categories—introducing language and using languag

e that has already een encountered.*s learners progress# they will const

antly meet language for the first tim

e# sometimes inside the classroom# sometimes outside.



*t this point they need to !now whatthis language means or refers to. They also need to !now how to form it

—how to spell it# pronounce it# its relationship to other words# the word endings# and so on. inally# they need to e ale to use it to communicate# either in spo!en or written form# and to understand it when it is used y other people.



Meaning

There are many ways of helping learners understand the meaning of a word or phrase. or e$ample# with a word li!e ‘ /o’ we c

an0--translate the word from )nglish into theL1

--give the learners e$amples of types of /os# for e$ample# y providing pictures of people doing different /os.



--tell the learners to loo! up the word either in a monolingual or ilingualdictionary

--give them e$ample sentences using‘ /o’



+t is important to chec! that the learners understand the meaning of the language they are studying. This can often e done y monitoring the learners’ use of the langu

age in spo!en or written activities. *nother way is to use concept 2uestions. or e$ample# to chec! the use of the present simple to tal! aout a scheduled event in the future we need to chec! that the learners understand whether the sentences refer to the past# present# or future and what sort ofevents are eing referred to0



*nother way of helping learners to understand the meaning of a structureis to provide a ac!ground situation.

The situation can e introduced in avariety of ways including using pictures# a dialogue# a short te$t# and real

o/ects.



Summary

+t is important for the language teacher to !now as much as possile aout the language that they are teachin

g. The language system is comple$and learners need to e guided through it. They will often come across language for the first time which theywill need to incorporate into their own language system.



To help them with this process teachers need to choose the most appropriate te$ts and activities and give lear

ners the opportunities they need to input language# use it# and modify their understanding of the language un

til they are ale to recall and use it automatically.



Teaching Methods and Ideas

The 3rammar-Translation 4ethod

5ac!ground0 The method itself camefrom the way individual learners studied classical languages such as 3ree!and Latin. This was done mainly ystudying the grammar in detail and t

ranslating te$ts from the original intothe learners’ language.



Features

,entences and longer te$ts are translated oth to and from the learners’ first language. Little or no attention is

paid to the aility to spea! or communicate. 3rammar rules are given a lot of attention# especially word ending

s and sentence formation.



Learners learn aout the language# rather than how to use the language.

Learners do not get much opportunity to develop listening and spea!ing s!ills.

The attention given to grammatical a

ccuracy and translation may e demotivating for some learners.



ne advantage of the method does have is that teachers develop an awareness of grammar rules.



The Direct Method

5ac!ground0 The 6irect 4ethod wasdeveloped in the early 78th century inorder to overcome the prolems con

nected with grammar-translation.The meaning of words and structureswas communicated ‘directly’ throughmime and gestures# and practised in2uestion-and-answer e$changes etween the teacher and learners.



The use of the target language as the language of instruction underpins alot of teaching today. This centers o

n oral practice of carefully graded structures. The language was practicedusing guided repetition# dictation# dril

ls# and oral-ased reading and writing tas!s.



udiolingualism

5ac!ground0 Language was descried in terms of the ay it was structured—individual sounds and letters# word

s# structures# and sentence types. Learners were e$pected to learn the grammar of the new language not y l

earning rules ut y producing the language accurately y responding to stimuli.



Features

* drill was activity where the teacherprovided prompts and the learners would produce a sentence using the ap

propriate grammatical structure.

Lessons often egin with dialogues.

The emphasis was on the form %or th

e structure& of language rather thancontent and meaning.



9orrect pronunciation was strongly encouraged from the eginning.

:ocaulary was severely limited in the early stages.

The teacher made a great effort to prevent errors.

6rills were the main way new language was practised.



Current status

,ome language teachers find drills useful for practising sentence patterns.They can e especially valuale in ge

tting elementary learners to uild theconfidence in spea!ing. (owever# the usefulness of drills is regarded as limited in that they do not give the learners an opportunity to interact naturally with other spea!ers.



Communicati!e Language Teachin

g

9LT started in the late 1;<8s and continues to evolve. +t is not actually amethod ut an approach to teaching

ased on the view that learning a language means learning how to communicate effectively in the world outsid

e the classroom.



Features

The goal is to learn to communicate in the target language.

There is an emphasis on meaning and using the language rather than thestructure and form of the language.



ral and written activities may e used from the start# for e$ample# role plays# dialogues# games# and prole

m-solving.ne role for the teacher is that of a ‘f acilitator’ who helps learners to communicate in )nglish and motivates them to wor! with the langauage.



Learners often interact with each other through pair or group wor!.

The four s!ills are developed simultaneously.



Current status

9LT is very widely used in language teaching all over the world. +t has shifted the focus in language teaching fr

om learning aout the language to learning to communicate in the language.

The emphasis on pair and group wor! can create prolems in some classes.



The approach can lead to too much emphasis on spea!ing and listening.

Learners do not necessarily learn what the

y are taught# i.e.# the discrete language items# in the order that they are taught.

ne reaction to this has een to change the learning focus from the content# i.e. the

structures# functions# and vocaulary# to the process# that is ‘to use )nglish to learnit’ rather than’to learn to use )nglish’.



Tas"#$ased Learning

T5L focuses on the ‘process’ of communicating y setting learners tas!s tocomplete using the target language.

6uring this period# the learners ac2uire language as they try to e$press themselves and understand others. Th

e tas!s can range from information gap to prolem-solving tas!s.



ne advantage of T5L is that learners are given the opportunities to use the full range of s!ills and language t

hey have at the same# rather than indiscrete units.



se%uence

Pre-tas!s0 these are activities which prepare learners to complete a tas!# for e$ample# y guiding learners through an e$ample

of the tas! they will have to do.Tas!s0 these form the main ody of the lesson and can involve a numer of steps. or e$ample# learners wor!ing in pairs or gro

ups may first complete the tas!# then prepare a report on the tas!# and finally present the report to the class.



Post-tas!s0 these move away from activities designed to promote fluency to those designed to promote accurac

y.Learners may also feel that they not ‘

learning’ or ‘eing taught’ as there is

no formal input or practice stage



summary

Teaching has een influenced y a wide variety of methods and trends. New methods have een introduced as part of the ongoing search for the ‘est’ way to teach.

We are now at the point where there is more emphasis on teachers and learners ma!ing their own choices aout how to teach and learn. Teachers can use the ac!-catalogue of methods as a starting point to ma!e decisions aout this process.



Cha&ter '( Listening

We listen for a purpose# ut this purpose can e very different dependingon the situation0

-listening for specific details

Listening for general meaning

Listening for the general idea or gist.



Difference

There is also a different listening0

or information

or en/oyment or social reasons

To learn new language



or listeners# listening is how spo!enlanguage ecomes input# i.e. it is thefirst stage of learning new language.

+n the classroom this happens through listening to the teacher# listening toa 96 or tape or watching a video# an

d listening to other learners.



Listening is a receptive s!ill# i.e. we receive language rather than produceit. Listening is the process of interpr

eting messages—what people say. We saw in 9hapter = language involvesputting messages into a form that ot

her people can understand using these elements.



--individual sounds

,yllales

Words which may e lin!ed togetherwith some sounds eing dropped or changed.

Phrases

9lauses

3rammatical structures



,entences

Longer stretches of spo!en )nglish.



+ntonation# and word and sentence stress# also add meaning. Listeners also have to deal with spea!ers repeati

ng themselves# ma!ing false stars# pauses# and noises %‘ums and ahs’. The listener has to e ale to decode

all of this as 2uic!ly as the spea!er produces it. This oviously ta!e a huge amount of practice.



Listening s"ills

Learners need to develop the following s!ills0

Learning to listen in various ways

*dapting the way they listen according to the test and the reason for listening

>ecogni"ing the features of spo!en )nglish



Using visual and te$tual clues to helpthem

Listen actively—as!ing for repetition#

clarification# etc.

6eveloping their ac!ground !nowledge



Learners need to develop the confidence to control a conversational y as!ing the person spea!ing to spea! m

ore slowly# e$plain what they have said# repeat something# and son on.



Paralinguistic features %gestures# hand movements# and facial e$pressions& can often e different from one co

untry to another. Learners should learn as much as possile aout the culture of the country and people they

are going to communicate with.



Listening in the classroom

When we are practising listening in the classroom it is helpful to thin! aout how we listen in real life. We sho

uld try to0*s! learners to do things in class which they would e li!ely to do outside

aout the conte$t



3ive them the opportunity to listen actively

3ive them the opportunity to listen i

n different ways

3ive learners the opportunity to listen to a range of situations# accents# a

nd topics.c

Listening acti!ities can $e &lanned i



Listening acti!ities can $e &lanned i

n three stages)

Pre-listening0 activities which help your learners prepare for what they willhear

Listening0 activities which are usuallya type of tas!# for e$ample# filling ina chart# answering 2uestions# followi

ng a route on a map# ma!ing notes#etc.



Post-listening0 activities which are achance learners’ understanding of what they have een listening to# give f

eedac!# and consolidate what theyhave learnt.



Listening stage

While pre-listening activities are aout preparing for the 2uestions or a tas!# listening activities are aout the l

earners finding the answer or doing the tas!.



Post-listening stage0 The first thing you need to do after the learners havecarried out the listening activity is to

chec! the answer. Learners can compare their answers with each other first. You can then chec! the answers

with the whole clas.



9hec!ing answers can help you analy"e the particular difficulties that the learners have had with the listening a

ctivity. You might need to give somefeedac! if can see that learners arehaving prolems with a particular so

und# structure# or vocaulary item.



There are various types of activities0

*nswering 2uestions—comprehension# multiple choices# tur or false

9ompleting something * a form# grid#chart# picture# etc. using informationthat learners hear



ollowing directions on a map

4atching what is eing said with a set of pictures

6oing something in response to whatlearners hear# for e$ample# draw something# move in a certain way %stand

up# sit down&



,ome listening activities re2uire learners to listen to a te$t and answer 2uestions# while other activities re2uir

e more interaction# i.e. learners listen then respond or react

listen→respond/react→listen



S&ea"ing

The spea!ing process0

We spea! in many different types ofsituation. or e$ample0

--tal!ing to someone face to face

--tal!ing to someone on the phone

a learner answering a 2uestion in class



--ta!ing part in a meeting

--an e$change etween a customer and an assistant in a shop

*s!ing a stranger for directions

9hatting to friends



We spea! for many reasons—to e sociale# ecause we want something#ecause we want other people to do

something# to do something for someone else# to respond to someone else# to e$press our feelings or opinionaout something# to e$change inform

ation# to refer to an action or event in the past# present# or future.



,pea!ing is a productive s!ill. +t involves putting a message together# communicating the message# and inter

acting with other people.



Interaction

,po!en interaction involves two or more people tal!ing to each other# fore$ample# one person ma!es a re2ues

t and the other person responds. Wecall this an e$change.

S&o"en and +ritten language( som



S&o"en and +ritten language( som

e differences

+n written )nglish people usually write complete sentences. Written )nglish is organi"ed into paragraphs# pag

es# chapters# and complete te$ts# fore$ample# a oo! or an article in a maga"ine. ,po!en )nglish comes in the

forms of turns—one person’s part inan e$change etween two or more people.



*nother difference is the way in which written language can e planned whereas spo!en language is often unpl

anned# unless you’re giving a prepared speech or presentation.



When you spea! you give clues through the use of stress# pauses# intonation# or gestures.

,po!en )nglish is messy—when people spea! they often repeat themselves# spea! in incomplete sentences# hesitate and pause etween words# and use fillers—short so

unds or words that give us more time to thin! and put a message together.



You spea! differently depending on whom you are spea!ing to and why.

,pea!ing s!ills0 Learners need to de

velop the following s!ills0

Producing connected speech

The aility to interact

Tal!ing round gaps in their !nowledge



,pea!ing in a range of conte$ts

5alancing accuracy and fluency.



S&ea"ing in the classroom

+n the classroom we need to get ourlearners to practice oth productionand interaction. *t other times# we

want our learners to concentrate more on interaction and on ecoming more fluent.



Pair wor! and group wor!0 +t is a goodidea to put learners into groups or pairs so that they can get more spea!in

g practice—if learners only spea! to the teacher# their opportunities for practice are limited.



Ty&es of interacti!e acti!ities

+nformation gap activities0 We often interact with other people to give or as! for information. 9lassroom activit

ies that stimulate this type of situation are called information gap activities.



6escrie and draw

6escrie and arrange

6escrie and identify

ind the differences



Discussion acti!ities

We also spea! to give our opinions orto hear other people’s opinions. 6iscussion activities give learners the cha

nce to spea! more freely and e$press themselves. +t is helpful to structure a discussion activity y giving learners enough information aout what t

hey will e tal!ing aout# and givingthem enough time to thin! aout what they want to say.



,ole &lays

These can e li!e mini-dramas. )achlearner is given a character and a card with some information on it which

can include information aout their role and the situation.



-ames

3ames are often useful to liven up alesson. ,ome e$amples of games giving spea!ing practice include0

The teacher choose something from the classroom# for e$ample# the lac!oard# and says to the learners.

The learners have to guess what it is. Learners can also play this game in groups.



Informal interaction

The teacher and class can interact inf ormally# as!ing each other what theyare going to do at the wee!end# tal!i

ng aout recent new stories# telling /o!es or personal stories.



Feed$ac" and correction

Learners need encouragement and they need to !now when they are ma!ing mista!es that might cause other p

eople not to understand or misunderstand them. Teachers should also use the opportunity to praise learners f or getting something right# doing so

mething well# trying hard# and showing a positive attitude towards learning.



,pea!ing is a comple$ process whichinvolves constructing a message in aform that other people can understan

d# and delivering the message usingthe correct pronunciation# stress# and intonation.



,pea!ing also involves interaction—communicating with other people. Todo this# learners need to e ale to r

espond to what other people say# and use the language appropriate timethey need to e accurate and fluent

enough for the other person to understand and to fit into the flow of conversation.



,eading

There are two asic types of te$ts-authentic and non-authentic. )$amplesof authentic te$ts are newspaper arti

cles# wesite pages# emails# pac!aging and laels# and so on. Non-authentic te$ts are written especially for learners using imaginary conte$ts and s

implified vocaulary and sentence construction.



Te$ts vary in length *from street signs# te$t messages# emails# newspaperarticles# short stories# to novels. The

way we read will depend partly on how long the te$t is.



,eading s"ills

Learners need to develop the following s!ill0

Learning to read in various ways# for

e$ample# s!imming and scanning*dapting the way they read according to the te$t and their reason for rea

ding



>eading ‘actively’-using a dictionary# guessing or as!ing aout un!nown words

Understanding the relationship etween se

ntences(elping understanding y using te$tual and visual clues #i.e. headings# the way the te$t is organi"ed into paragraphs# punctuati

on# signal words# pictures# typography# and so on.



Using conte$tual clues-where the learners are# what they and other people are doing at the time

+nferring meaning3uessing meaning

5ac!ground !nowledge of the culture

aout which they are reading.



When we read the eye usually moves fromtop to ottom and left to right across the page or screen. ur rain holds short sections of the te$t long enough in its wor!ingmemory to decode it and relate it to the previous part and anticipate the ne$t part ofthe te$t. The reader also uses their !now

ledge of the world and the language in their long-term memory to help them understand the te$t.



S"imming and scanning

The aility to read something 2uic!lyand efficiently is an important s!ill for learners to ac2uire.



>eding for gists!imming0

When we read for gist or s!im a te$twe do not try to understand everythi

ng in it—we read through it fairly 2uic!ly to get a general idea of what it is aout.



,canning0 This is the !ind of readingwe do when you want to find out aout something specific# for e$ample# g

et a particular piece of information from a te$t. We also scan when we areloo!ing something up in a telephone

dictionary# or in an inde$ to find references to specific topics.



,eading for detail

,!imming and scanning are done fairly rapidly# ut if we want to follow a te$t in detail we read more slowly. +f

we are reading a oo! in order to getinformation for our studies# we will also tend to read more carefully and m

ay ma!e notes as we read.



,eading for &leasure

+f we are reading a novel# a maga"ine# or a letter from a friend we are reading for en/oyment or to rela$. We

will often read some parts of the te$tcarefully and others 2uic!ly depending on personal interest.



,eading for general meaning

We often read at a steady pace# occasionally s!ipping parts# rereading some parts# ta!ing note of some detail

s# and ignoring others.



Inferring meaning

,ometimes part of meaning of a te$tis not e$plicitly stated—we have to infer it y using reading and the te$t t

o ma!e our own conclusions.



,eading in the classroom

>eading activities aim to0

+ntroduce and develop reading s!ills whichare useful outside the classroom.

-introduce or practice language.Learners should read as widely and as independently in )nglish as they can. )$tensive reading of materials such as readers is

an e$cellent way of developing reading s!ills and increasing vocaulary.



Learners should e encouraged to choose what they read and give help finding reading materials.



.lanning a lesson

irst of all you must decide what theaim of the lesson is. To do this you need to consider your learners’ needs

—which s!ills do they need to develop? (ow can you help them develop their s!ills?

9hoosing the right te$t for your class

is one of the most important decisionyou have to ma!e.



9onsider the topic0 what they are interested in# what do they !now aoutthe topic? Will you need to give some

ac!ground information first?Level0 what levels are your class? (ow much of the vocaulary in the te$t

do they !now?



Length0 (ow long is the te$t? (ow long will it ta!e to read? >eading ta!estime and is seen y some learners as

a waste of classroom time.ur alternative is to tell the learnersto read a te$t efore coming to class.



.re#reading acti!ities

,et a tas! for the learners

(elp the learners prepare for the tas!

4otivate the learners to read.



ns+ering %uestions

Teachers use 2uestions to chec! whether the learners have understood a te$t. The 2uestions should reflect the

type of reading s!ill eing practiced03ist 2uestions

6etailed comprehension 2uestions



,canning 2uestions'uestions can also focus on the language.

Pre-reading activities should help the learn

ers achieve the aims of the activity.,timulate what they already !now aout the topic.

(elp them with words and phrases they wi

ll need to !now.



,eading acti!ities

(ere are three types of reading activities0

Teacher-learner interaction activities

Learner-learner interaction activities

Te$t-only activities0 the learners readthe te$t all the way through answerin

g 2uestions or doing the activities set.



Teacher#learner interaction acti!ites

You can stop learners during their reading to as! them 2uestions. These2uestions can e written after certain

paragraphs in the te$t if you are ma!ing a wor!sheet.

Learner#learner interaction acti!itie



s

@igsaw reading0 )ach learner has onehalf of a te$t. They have to as! 2uestions to find out what is in the other l

earner’s te$t.Prolem-solving0

>eading race

. t di ti iti



.ost reading acti!ities

You can use some of the words in thete$t as a springoard for language focusvocaulary activities after the re

ading te$t has een used for readingcomprehension and reading s!ills development.

C ti di i t



Creating a reading en!ironment

Try to collect real e$amples of )nglish words in print.

*dvertisements that have )nglish wo

rds in them can e a useful source for younger learners you can find e$amples of advertisements for children’s

toys or other children’s products.



Using real e$amples is important ecause these short te$ts will convey amessage. They will help learners to

understand that reading involves understanding a message.



+n order to motive learners to read itis important to create a positive reading environment. This is particularly

true for younger learners ut some of the following ideas also apply to older learners.

, di f l



,eading for younger learners

*n e$cellent way to motivate younger learners to read is to read to them.Not only do stories e$pose them to t

he patterns of )nglish ut they can also create a positive attitude to oo!sand the printed word.

Interacti!e reading for younger lear



ners

Teachers of )nglish to younger learners are primarily concerned with getting children listening and spea!ing.

/ iti



/riting

When we are writing we have to do something similar e$cept that we do itwith letters rather than sounds. We

put these together to forms words# phrases# clauses# and sentences# andput sentences together to ma!e a co

herent te$t.



We write for many reasons—to passon information and opinions# to as! 2uestions# re2uest or offer something#

to entertain# to !eep a record# to organi"e our thoughts# as part of the assessment process.



When we write we should thin! aout the readers. Who are they? What is our relationship with them? Why ar

e they going to read what we write?We then need to ad/ust the content and style accordingly y using formal

or informal language and the appropriate layout and conventions.



We can rea! down the writing process into three stages0 preparation0 thin! aout the readerA consider why we are writingA thin! aout the contentA decide the appropriate layout and style.

6raft0 put our ideas together in a draft form. This is proaly all we need for things

li!e shopping lists and memos.



)diting and rewriting0 We will proaly need to rewrite several times so that the te$t is coherent# clear# and has

few or no mista!es.Please refer to p. B<# igure C.



Writing is also part of the language learning process. We write0

To practice the language

To reinforce the language we have learnt

To help memori"ation

*s a way of recoding language

*s a part of eing assessed.

/riting s"ills



/riting s"ills

Learners need to develop the following s!ills0

(andwriting0 forming letters# connect

ed script# upper and lower case# starting from top left and writing across the page

,pellingUse of punctuation



orming sentencesA word order# endings# relationships.

Writing longer te$ts0 coherence and

cohesionUsing the appropriate layout

Using the appropriate level of formality

,tudy s!ills0 ma!ing notes# !eeping records# etc.

0and+riting



0and+riting

Learners may need to wor! on their handwriting s!ills if0Their L1 is not ased on the >oman script#for e$ample# @apanese# 9hinese# Dorean# *

raicThey are not used to writing with a pen# for e$ample# they are more used to using a!eyoardThey haven’t had the opportunity to develop their writing s!ills in their L1They are young learners.

S&elling



S&elling

,pelling causes prolems for lots of learners ecause there is no one-to-one relationship etween sounds and

spelling in )ngllish.

.unctuation



.unctuation

Learners need to !now the asic elementsof punctuation0

9apital letters0 for the eginning of a sentence# place names# and so on.

ull stops0 for the end of a sentence9ommas0 to mar! the ends of phrases andclauses

'uestion mar!s0 to signal a 2uestion

*postrophe0 to show an areviation or possessive.

Forming sentences



Forming sentences

)nglish sentence formation is complicated and there are many possile patterns.

Using a&&ro&riate layout



Using a&&ro&riate layout

The layouts of a letter# email# memoare very different. Learners need toe aware of the various elements tha

t ma!e up these types of te$ts.

Using the a&&ro&riate le!el of forma

lity



lity

Levels of formality depend on people’s relationship to each other-whetherthey are friends or don’t !now each o

ther# whether someone is senior or /unior# and so on.

Study s"ills



Study s"ills

Learners need to develop the s!ills of noteta!ing and record !eeping. Note ta!ing isan essential s!ill in the classroom particularly if learners are going to e studying aca

demically at some stage. 6uring a lessonthe teacher should always give learners time to ma!e notes# ma!e sure that whatever they themselves write on the oard is cl

ear and relevant# and monitor learners’ note ta!ing and give advice if necessary.



Learners should also e encouraged to !eep a record of new language. This could e a new word# phrase# or gr

ammatical item.

/riting in the classroom



/riting in the classroom

Writing activities in the classroom are used0 to develop writing s!ills andas part of the process of language le

arning.

/riting ste&s



/riting ste&s

+n order to prepare for a writing activity the learners can0

Thin! aout the audience or reader

5rainstorm—for e$ample# if learners are preparing to write aout gloali"ation# they should note the arguments for and against.+f they are going to write a description# th

ey can rainstorm some relevant vocaulary.



Practice specific writing s!ills# for e$ample# using punctuation# using lin!ing words# and so on.

Practice specific writing s!illsPractice particular language forms

6ecide on the content-what to includ

e and not include



Loo! at a model te$t—for e$ample# the puntuation# use of paragraphs# cohesive devices# layout# etc.

/riting stage



/riting stage

Learners write a draft# and rewrite until they complete the final version.They should refer ac! to decisions

made in prewriting stage regarding audience# content# aims# and outline.They should also chec! for use of any language they practiced and ma!esure that their te$t is oth cohesiveand coherent.



The learners can wor! in groups andgive advice and feedac! to each other. *s the learners go through this p

rocess the teacher should monitor and also give advice and feedac!. *t the same time teachers should let thelearners wor! as independently as possile.

.ost#+riting stage



.ost#+riting stage

The learners can share or display their finished wor! and give overall comments on how successful their wor!

has een. The teacher can do follow-up wor! on any area of the language that still needs wor!.

.lanning



.lanning

5efore we teach a lesson# we need todecide0

What the goals or aims of the lesson

areWhat resources to use0 a courseoo!or te$too!# handouts or wor!sheet

s# posters# recorded material# etc.



Whether to adapt the courseoo!# if we are using one-to supplement# leave out# or replace activities# and materials to ma!e them ore appropriate for our learners and ou

r teaching methods

Which types of activities the learners will do

(ow the learners will interact with you and each other



--the se2uence of activitiesthe timing and pacing

(ow est to use the classroom

ims



ims

The aim of a lesson will depend on anumer of factors0

The learners’ level0 are they element

ary# lower intermediate# etc.?The class profile0 are the learners generally homogeneous or are they a

mi$ed aility class?



Their needs0 what new language do they need? What language do they need to practise? Needs can e descried in terms of individual needs %whatlearners need in terms of their own personal development&# and institutional needs %what they need to cover in

terms of a school or national curriculum and to pass e$ams# etc.&



What type of learners are they# for e$ample# visual# !inaesthetic# auditory# and so on&?

Their interests0 what sort of topics interest them?

Their motivation0 what sort of activiti

es# topics# or materials motivate them?



The numer of learners0 +s it a ig or small class? (ow will this affect the types of activities and preparation of materials?

*ttendance0 6o the learners attend regularly?

*ssumed !nowledge0 what have the learners already studied? (ow well can they rec

all and use language they have studied?



*nticipated prolems0 for e$ample# are the learners’ ailities mi$ed? *re there any discipline prolems?

Course$oo"s



Course$oo"s

There are various ways in which youmight need to change things in a courseoo!. +t is helpful to let your lear

ners !now if you are going to omit things or change the order of activitiesor chapters and e$plain why you aredoing so.

cti!ities



cti!ities

These can e divided into activities that re2uire the learners to read# write# spea! or listen or a comination ofsome or all of these.

,!ills are often comined in an activity. or e$ample# the learners read ate$t# answer 2uestions aout it# disc

uss it# then write their own te$t.

Interaction



Interaction

The teacher and learners can interactwith each other in a wide variety ofways. (ere are some e$amples of in

teraction patterns0Teacher to whole class

Teacher to individual learner in open

classTeacher to individual learner



Pair wor!# i.e. two learners wor!ing together

3roup wor!# for e$ample# the class d

ivided into halves or small groups ofthree or four

4elee0 learners move around the cla

ss and interact at random.

Teacher’s &osition



Teacher s &osition

,tay at the front of the classroom infront of the oard

Wal! around the class at random

+f the class in a semi-circle# wal! round from left to right or right to left

,tand at the ac! of the class

Ty&es of %uestions



Ty&es of %uestions

You need to plan the !ind of 2uestions you are going to as! and who you’re going to as!.

pen 2uestions vs. closed 2uestionsTeachers should thin! aout the typeof 2uestions and the way they as! th

em as they affect the learning process in important ways.

Se%uence of acti!ities



Se%uence of acti!ities

Lessons with a particular aim are made up of a se2uence of activities which relate to each other.

Timing and &acing



g a d &ac g

This is determined y how long eachlesson is and how much time you have over a term or course. 6ecide ho

w long each activity will ta!e. * lesson needs to have lots of variety and the pace should e relatively 2uic! foryoung learners—each activity shoulde relatively short.

Classroom



The si"e and shape of the classroomwill also affect your lesson plan. 9anthe learners move around? +s there space for the learners to do physical activities# get into groups# wal! around# etc.? (ow is the furniture arranged? 9an it e moved? ,ome ways of a

rranging des!s in a classroom are shown elow. Please refer to p. 18B.

lesson in three stages



g

pening0 +n the first part of a lessonthe teacher should e$plain to the learners0 what the aims of the lesson ar

e# how the lesson lin!s to previous one%s&# what activities they are goingto do.



5efore you start wor! on a new areait is a good idea to review wor! thatwas covered in a previous lesson.

You can use a warm-up activity to get the learners’ attention and interest.This can e something that is unrelat

ed to the main part of the lesson.

Middle



This is where you focus on the mainaim of the lesson.

or the four s!ills the main part of a l

esson usually focuses on an activityor series of activities that practice one of the s!ills or su-s!ills.

End



The final part of a lesson aims to ring it to a close or conclusion. There are a numer of things you can do in t

his stage0recap the main points of the lesson

>elate the lesson to the goals or aim

s you stated at the eginning



3o over any homewor! instructions or preparation learners must do for the ne$t lesson.

Praise learners for what they have achieved in the lesson.

3et learners for what they have achi

eved in the lesson.3et learners to evaluate the lesson.

E!aluating a lesson



g

*fter you have taught a lesson# it isa good idea to evaluate it. (ere aresome 2uestions you can use. Please r

efer to p. 117.

.lanning a course



g

+n planning a whole course we detailall the things a learner should learn in that period of time. This list is ofte

n decided y the institution# dependsupon which courseoo! is eing used# or is determined y the e$amination the learners are preparing for.



+t is a good idea to carry out a needsanalysis efore writing a course outline if possile.

nce we have found out what the learners’ needs are# we can consider what language to include in the syllaus

and in what order it should come.

Course &ro1ects for children



& 1

9hildren in particular li!e to have something concrete they can wor! towards for the end of a course. Please r

efer to p. 11B.

ssessment and E!aluation



Ways of assessing learners0 *ssessment is the process of analy"ing and measuring !nowledge and aility# in thi

s case# the learner’s !nowledge of the language and aility to communicate. *ssessment can e done either f ormally or informally.

Diagnostic tests



g

6iagnostic tests are designed to provide information aout individual learners’ strengths and wea!nesses in spe

cific areas of the language system# for e$ample# a test could tell us aoutwhich phonemes a learner is or isn’tale to produce accurately in connected speech.

.lacement tests



6iagnostic tests are given to learnersat the eginning of a new course. The aim is to determine the range of la

nguage learners !now and can use so that teachers can place them in themost suitale classes or groups.

.rogress tests



Progress tests are given to learners during a course to see how far their language aility has developed# for e$a

mple# what vocaulary they can usethat they couldn’t at the eginning ofa course.

chie!ement tests



*chievement tests are given to learners at the end of the course and areased on what they have studied dur

ing the course. They aim to show what learners are ale to do at the endof the course that they couldn’t do atthe eginning of the course.

E2ternal &roficiency e2ams



)$ternal proficiency e$ams may e produced y the 4inistry of )ducationin a particular country# or y an orga

ni"ation which sets language e$ams internationally.

The effects of using tests



Testing and evaluation can have a significant influence on how a teacher wor!s with their learners# and also infl

uences how learners learn. ,ome of the good and ad effects of testingcan include0 p. 17=

.re&aring tests for your learners



The following guidelines should help to ma!e progress and achievement tests a positive e$perience for your lea

rners.Test what you have taught.

Test what is useful.

Test all four s!ills.Tell your learners ‘when’ and ’what’.



4a!e sure the instructions are clear.,ee p. 17E.

4a!e use of materials that are alread

y availale.

Ty&es of tests



The following types of test involve anumer of different aspects of language use. Testing e$perts agree that

they are all good ways of testing learners’ language !nowledge. They areall simple to prepare and it is easy toase them on wor! your learners have een doing.



+t is important that you are familiar with them in order to prepare your learners fore$ams which might contain them.

6ictation0 6ictation is very good way of te

sting listening and writing s!ills. You can easily ma!e a short dictation y using partof a te$t that your learners have already read and listened to.

-a& filling tests



* gap-filling test is a te$t in which individual words are missing. Learnershave to fill in the missing words.

You can ma!e these tests from reading or listening te$ts in materials youuse with your learners.

C#tests



+n a 9-test the second half of everyword is missing. Learners have to complete the words.

9-tests often involve several short te$ts so that a wider variety of language is tested. They typically re2uire learners to complete E8-F8 words. No

tice that oth gap-fill tests and 9-tests give learners a complete



first sentence so that they !now what the test is aout.

4ultiple-9hoice 'uestions0 4ultiple-c

hoice 2uestions are a common type of test and can e used to test oth individual language items# such as vocaulary or grammar# or listening or reading comprehension.



* multiple-choice 2uestion usually gives the learner a choice of one correct answer and two or three incorrect

ones.

/ord order



Putting the words into a random order ma!es the learners thin! aout sentence construction and the relationsh

ip etween words# phrases# and clauses. viously# the longer and more comple$ the sentence the more difficult the test.

Sentence com&letion



4any tests re2uire learners to complete sentence with an appropriate word or phrase. Learners can e given a

choice of answers or a prompt.

Sentence transformation



This is the name given to tests wherethe learner

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