Exam III Review Slides

7/30/2019 Exam III Review Slides

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How Do We

Experience Emotions?

The terms emotion and mood are often used interchangeably in

everyday language

_______________:feelings that involve subjective evaluation,

physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs.

subjective experience: feelings that accompany an emotion

physical changes: increases in heart rate, in skin temperature,

and in brain activation

cognitive appraisals: peoples beliefs and understandingsabout why they feel the way they do

____________: diffuse, long-lasting emotional states.


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Emotions Have a

Subjective Component

We experience emotions subjectively

The intensity of emotional reactions varies but people who are

_____________ or _______________ tend to have psychological

problems

________________: such as depression or panic attacks;

________________: causes people to not experience the

subjective components of emotions, e.g. Elliot

One cause of alexithymia is that the physiological messages

associated with emotions do not reach the brain centers that

interpret emotion


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Distinguishing Between

Types of Emotions

________________:emotions that are evolutionarily adaptive,shared across cultures, and associated with specific physical states.They include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and possiblysurprise and contempt.

________________:blends of primary emotions. They includeremorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation

At the center of the _________________ is the intersection of twocore dimensions of affect:

______________ indicates how negative or positive emotions

are; activation indicates how arousing they are ______________ is the physiological activation (such as

increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses(such as increased heart rate)


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Negative Affect and Positive Affect

Neurochemical evidence supports the idea that positive affect and

negative affect are independent

___________ activation states appear to be associated with an

increase in dopamine

___________ activation states appear to be associated with anincrease in norepinephrine


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James-Lange Theory

In 1884, William James asserted that a persons interpretation of

the physical changes in a situation leads that person to feel an

emotion

A similar theory was independently proposed by

____________________ __________________________________: we perceive specific

patterns of bodily responses, and as a result of that perception we

feel emotion


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Facial Feedback Hypothesis

According to the James-Lange theory, _____________________

trigger the experience of emotions, not the other way around

In 1963, __________________ proposed this idea as the facial

feedback hypothesis

In other words, putting on a smile can trigger a happy response


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Cannon-Bard Theory

__________________, along with Philip Bard, proposed that the

mind and body experience emotions independently

The __________ is quick to experience emotions

The ___________ is much slower The information from an emotion-producing stimulus is processed

in subcortical structures

As a result, we experience two separate things at the same time: an

emotion and a physical reaction


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The Amygdala and Prefrontal Cortices

People with damage to the amygdala show fear when confronted

with dangerous objects, but they

__________________________________________ to objects

associated with dangerous objects

The amygdala is associated with emotional learning, memory of

emotional events, and the interpretation of

________________________________

The right prefrontal cortice is associated with ______________

The left prefrontal cortice is associated with ______________

People also can be dominant in one hemisphere of their frontal

lobes, and that dominant hemisphere can bias their emotions


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Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

According to the two-factor theory of emotion, a situation evokes:

___________________, such as arousal

___________________, or an emotion label

Physical states caused by a situation can be attributed to the

________________

When people misidentify the source of their arousal, it is called

_________________________________

__________________ is a similar form of misattribution; residual

physiological arousal caused by one event is transferred to a new

stimulus


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We Regulate Our Emotional States

In our daily lives, circumstances often require us to harness our

emotional responses

_______ outlined the ways we strategically place ourselves in

certain situations in order to self-regulate

Examples?

Recent studies have found that engaging in reappraisal changes the

activity of brain regions involved in the experience of emotion

Not all strategies for regulating emotional states are equally

successful


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Humor

Humor increases positive affect and can be used to cope with a

difficult situation

Research shows that laughter stimulates ___________________,

improves the immune system, and stimulates the release of

hormones, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins

Examples?


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Thought Suppression and Rumination

Through ________________________, people attempt to not feel

or respond to the emotion at all

Thought suppression often leads to a rebound effect, in which

people think more about something after suppression than before

_______________ involves thinking about, elaborating, and

focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings

Prolongs the mood and impedes successful mood regulation

__________________ involves doing something other than the

troubling activity or thinking about something other than the

troubling thought


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How Are Emotions Adaptive?

Emotions are adaptive because they prepare and guide successfulbehaviors.

Emotions provide information about the importance of stimuli to

______________, and then they prepare people for actions aimed at

achieving those goals. ___________:a desired outcome, usually associated with some

specific object (tasty food) or some future behavioral intention

(getting into a doctoral program in psychology)


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Facial Expressions

Communicate Emotion

__________________ argued that expressive aspects of emotion

are adaptive because they communicate how we are feeling

Facial expressions provide many clues about whether our behavior

is pleasing to others or whether it is likely to make them reject,

attack, or cheat us ____________ demonstrated that the mouth better conveys

emotion than the eyes, especially for positive affect

Researchers showed identical facial expressions in different contexts

and found that the ___________ profoundly altered how peopleinterpreted the emotion


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Facial Expressions Across Cultures

Research has found general support for cross-cultural congruence in

identifying some facial expressions; support is

__________________________________________________

Research suggests that ______________responses are innate rather

than learned by observing them in others

In studies of athletes, both sighted and blind winners display similar

expressions


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Display Rules Differ across Cultures

and between the Sexes _________________: rules learned through socialization that

dictate which emotions are suitable to given situations

Differences in display rules help explain cultural stereotypes

From culture to culture, display rules tend to be different for

women and men

The emotions most closely associated with ______________are

related to care-giving, nurturance, and interpersonal relationships

The emotions associated with _______________ are related to

dominance, defensiveness, and competitiveness


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Decision Making

Emotions influence our decision making in different ways

In the face of complex, multifaceted situations, emotions serve as

heuristic guides: They provide feedback for making quick decisions

According to the _______________________, posited by Schwarzand Clore, we use our current moods to make judgments and

appraisals, even if we do not know the sources of our moods

If people are made aware of the sources of their moods (as when

the researcher suggests that a good mood might be caused by thebright sunshine), their feelings have ____________ influence over

their judgments


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Recognizing and Correcting for Belief Persistence

in Your Own Thinking and in That of Others

_____________________________: tendency to hold on to

previous ideas even when presented with evidence that the belief is

questionable or just plain wrong

People tend to believe information consistent with the side of anissue they already believe is true

You can be more open to examining all sides of an issue fairly and

altering your beliefs when the evidence supports the change

To reduce the effects of belief persistence, you should deliberatelyseek evidence that disconfirms your belief


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Somatic Markers

__________________________, most self-regulatory actions anddecisions are affected by bodily reactions called

______________________

Bodily reactions that arise from the emotional evaluation of an

actions consequences

Expectation is influenced by your history of performing either that

action or similar actions

Somatic markers may guide us to engage in adaptive behaviors by

using past outcomes to regulate future behavior


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Emotions Strengthen

Interpersonal Relations

In interacting with others, we use emotional expressions as

powerful nonverbal communications

Nonverbal displays of emotions signal

___________________________________________

Evolutionary perspective: need to belong to social groups

Survival was enhanced for those who lived in groups; those who

were expelled would have been less likely to survive and pass along

their genes The fundamental need to belong indicates that people will be

sensitive to anything that might lead them to be kicked out of the

group, and social emotions may reflect reactions to this possibility


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Guilt Strengthens Social Bonds

_____________________________ contend that guilt strengthensinterpersonal relationships in three ways:

Feelings of guilt discourage people from doing things that would

harm their relationships

Displays of guilt demonstrate that people care about theirrelationship partners, thereby affirming social bonds

Guilt is a tactic that can be used to manipulate others

Evidence indicates that socialization is more important than biology

in determining specifically how children experience guilt

As children grow, they _______________________and they

subsequently experience feelings of guilt


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Embarrassment and Blushing

A person is likely to feel embarrassed after

___________________________________________ being teased,

or experiencing a threat to his or her self-image

Like guilt, embarrassment may reaffirm close relationships after

wrongdoing _____________ occurs when people believe others view them

negatively

This nonverbal apology is an appeasement that elicits forgiveness in

others, thereby repairing and maintaining relationships


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How Does Motivation

Energize, Direct, and Sustain Behavior?

Emotions are a primary source of ______________.

Factors that energize, direct, or sustain behavior

Most of the general theories of motivation emphasize four

essential qualities of motivational states: ___________________________________________________

are directive; they guide behaviors toward satisfying specific goals orspecific needs;

help animals persist in their behavior until they achieve their goals orsatisfy their needs;

differ in strength, ______________________________________


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Multiple Factors Motivate Behavior

Needs lead to goal-directed behaviors; failure to satisfy a particularneed leads to psychosocial or physical impairment

____________:a state of biological or social deficiency

________________: basic survival needs must be met before

people can satisfy higher needs

A state of ______________________occurs when someone

achieves his or her personal dreams and aspirations

Maslows hierarchy is more useful as an indicator of what might be

true about peoples behaviors than of what actually is true aboutthem


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Drives and Incentives

_______________: a psychological state that, by creating arousal,motivates an organism to satisfy a need

________________: the tendency for bodily functions to maintain

equilibrium. The term homeostasis was coined by Walter Cannon

Any behavior that satisfies a need is reinforced and therefore ismore likely to recur; if a behavior consistently reduces a drive, it

becomes a ______________

Drive states push us to reduce arousal, but we are also pulled

toward certain things in our environments _________________: external objects or external goals, rather

than internal drives, that motivate behaviors


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Arousal and Performance

___________________:the psychological principle thatperformance increases with arousal up to an optimal point, after

which it decreases with increasing arousal

Motivation does not always lower tension and arousal; we are

individually motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal

Examples?


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Pleasure

__________________: drives people to seek pleasure and avoid

pain, Sigmund Freud From an evolutionary perspective, positive and negative motivations

are ________________

For instance, the motivations to seek out food, sex, and

companionship are typically associated with pleasure, whereas

the avoidance of dangerous animals is negatively motivated

because of the association with pain

Animals prefer to eat sweets; sweetness usually indicates that food

is safe to eat. By contrast, most poisons and toxins taste bitter, so it

is not surprising that animals avoid bitter tastes


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Some Behaviors Are Motivated

for Their Own Sake

___________________:motivation to perform an activity because

of the external goals toward which that activity is directed

___________________:motivation to perform an activity because

of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for

an apparent external goal or purpose ___________ helps us learn about the objects in an environment

and has survival value, since knowing how things work allows us to

use those objects for more serious tasks

____________ is the tendency to generate ideas or alternatives that

may be useful in solving problems, communicating, and entertaining

ourselves and others


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Self-Determination Theory

and Self-Perception Theory Consistent evidence suggests that extrinsic rewards can undermine

intrinsic motivation

_______________________: People are motivated to satisfy needs

for competence, relatedness to others, and autonomy, which is a

sense of personal control. Extrinsic rewards may reduce intrinsic

value because such rewards undermine peoples feeling that they

are choosing to do something for themselves. (Deci & Ryan, 1987).

_____________________: People are seldom aware of their

specific motives; they draw inferences about their motives

according to what seems to make the most sense (Bem, 1967).


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We Set Goals to Achieve

People are especially motivated to achieve ____________________

______________________________ is the process by which people

change their behavior to attain personal goals

Challenging, but not overly difficult and specific goals are best

Challenging goals encourage effort, persistence, and concentration;

goals that are too easy or too hard can undermine motivation and

therefore lead to failure

Dividing specific goals into concrete steps and focusing on___________________ goals facilitates achieving

__________________ goals


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Self Efficacy and the

Achievement Motive

________________ argued that peoples personal expectations for

success play an important role in motivation

____________________ is the expectancy that your efforts will lead

to success. Not believing your efforts will pay off may discourage you

from trying

The ________________________ is the desire to do well relative to

standards of excellence

Individuals high in achievement need challenging but attainable

personal goals, while those low in achievement need set extremelyeasy or impossibly high goals


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Social Psychology


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How Do We Form

Our Impressions of Others?

Social psychology is concerned with how

people influence other peoples thoughts,

feelings, and actions

We constantly make social judgments and

automatically classify people into social

categories

Social psychologists have shown that our long-

term evaluations of people are heavily

influenced by our first impressions


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We Make Attributions About Others

We constantly try to explain other peoples

motives, traits, and preferences

Attributions: explanations for events or actions,

including other peoples behavior

We are motivated to draw inferences in part by

a basic need for both order and predictability

Just World hypothesis: When bad things

happen to people, wemake sense of it by

blaming the victimvictims must have done

something to justify what happened to them


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Attributional Dimensions Fritz Heider distinguished between two types of

attributions:

Personal/internal or dispositional attributions: referto

things within people, such as abilities, moods, or efforts

Situational/external attributions: refer to outside events,such as luck, accidents, or the actions of other people

Bernard Weiner noted that attributions can vary on

other dimensions:

They can be stable over time (permanent) or unstable(temporary)

They can be controllable or uncontrollable


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Attributions About the Self

We tend to have a self-serving bias in making

attributions about our own behavior:

We attribute our failures to situational, unstable, or

uncontrollable factors in a way that casts us in a positive light

We attribute our successes to personal, permanent factors in

a way that gives us credit for doing well

Example: If you fail a test, you may blame your poor

performance on your not getting enough sleep or on the

professors creating a bad exam; if you do well on a test, you

may attribute that good performance to your being smart


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Attributional Bias

People tend to be systematically biased when they

process social information

Fundamental attribution error:pervasive tendency to

overemphasize the importance of personality traits

and underestimate the importance of a situation whenexplaining anothers behavior

Began as the correspondence bias: We expect others

behavior to correspond with their beliefs and personalities

Actor/observer discrepancy: When interpreting ourown behavior, we tend to focus on situations; when

interpreting other peoples behavior, we tend to focus

on dispositions

S A B d


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Stereotypes Are Based

on Automatic Characterization

Stereotypes:cognitive schemas that help us organizeinformation about people on the basis of their

membership in certain groups

Allow for easy, fast processing of social information

Occur automatically, largely outside of our awareness

Affect impression formation

Stereotypes are self-maintaining: They direct our

attention toward information that confirms them andaway from disconfirming evidence

subtyping: When we encounter someone who does not fit a

stereotype, we put that person in a special category rather

than alter the stereotype

f f ff


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Self-Fulfilling Effects

Self-fulfilling prophecy: tendency to behave in ways that

confirm our own or others expectations Teachers expectations of students success/failure can impact

those students performances (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968;

McKown & Weinstein, 2008)

Women performed more poorly on a math test when they wereinitially reminded of their sex (Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999)

Effects ofstereotype threatreflect three interrelated

mechanisms:

physiological stress

thinking about ones performance is distracting

suppressing negative thoughts/emotions requires a great

deal of effort


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Stereotypes Can Lead to Prejudice

Stereotypes may be positive, neutral, or negative

Negative stereotypes can lead to: prejudice: negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs

associated with a stereotype;

discrimination: inappropriate and unjustified

treatment of people as a result of prejudice

Why do stereotypes lead to prejudice and discrimination?

Personality factors

People treat others as scapegoats to relieve stress

People discriminate against others to protect their own self-

esteem

We favor our own groups and stigmatize those who pose

threats to our groups


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Ingroup/ Outgroup Bias

Groups to which we belong are ingroups;those to which

we do not belong are outgroups Outgroup homogeneity effect:Once we categorize others as

ingroup or outgroup members, we tend to view outgroup

members as less varied than ingroup members

Ingroup favoritism:We are more likely to distribute resources toingroup members than to outgroup members. We are more

willing to do favors for ingroup members and to forgive their

mistakes or errors.

Evolutionarily, personal survival has depended on groupsurvival. Keeping resources within a group while denying

resources to outgroup members may have provided a

selective advantage.


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Stereotypes and Perception

Stereotypes can influence basic perceptual processes:

White participants looked at pictures of either tools or guns

and were asked to classify them as quickly as possible.

Immediately before seeing a picture, participants were

shown a picture of a white face or a black face; they were

told that the face was being shown to signal that either a gunor a tool would appear next. Being shown a black face led the

participants to identify guns more quickly and to mistake

tools for guns (Payne, 2001).

Priming people with pictures of weapons (e.g., guns andknives) leads them to pay greater attention to pictures of

black faces than to pictures of white faces (Eberhardt, Goff,

Purdie, & Davies, 2004)


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Discrepancies Lead to Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance: an uncomfortable mental

state due to a contradiction between two attitudes

or between an attitude and a behavior

Example: People experience cognitive dissonance whenthey smoke even though they know that smoking might kill

them

People reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes

or behaviors; they sometimes also rationalize ortrivialize the discrepancies


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Postdecisional Dissonance

Dissonance arises when a person holds positive

attitudes about different options but has to chooseone of the options

Example: A person might have trouble deciding which

college to attend; the person might narrow the choice to

two or three alternatives and then have to choose

Postdecisional dissonance: motivates the person to

focus on one schools the chosen schools

positive aspects and the other schools negativeaspects

Effect occurs automatically, with minimal cognitive

processing, and apparently without awareness


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Insufficient Justification

One way to get people to change theirattitudes is to change their behaviors first,

using as few incentives as possible

Participants performed an extremely boring task

and then reported to other participants on how

enjoyable it was

Participants who were paid more ($20) to lie

about their experience reported enjoying it lessthan thosepaid less ($1) to lie (Festinger &

Carlsmith, 1959)


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We Are Obedient to Authority

The Milgram studies in obedience

Milgrams research demonstrated that

ordinary people may do horrible things when

ordered to do so by an authority

A recent replication found that 70 percent of

the participants were obedient up to the

maximum voltage in the experiment (Burger,2009)

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