Evolving directions in language learning strategies: The...
Transcript of Evolving directions in language learning strategies: The...
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Evolving directions in language learning
strategies: The interplay between self-regulation and learner strategies in teaching
and research
Heath Rose
Department of Education The University of Oxford
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Contentoftoday’stalk
Evolvingmodels
Evolvingdefinitions
Evolvingresearch
Futureevolution
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Drawingonthreeprojects
Astudyofkanjilearning(Rose2013;Rose&Harbon2013,
Rose,2017)
Astudyonevolvingdefinitions
(Thomas&Rose,2019;Thomaset
al.2019)
Papersonresearchimpactofself-regulation(Rose2012,Roseetal.,2018)
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EVOLVINGMODELSOFSTRATEGIES:FROM‘THEGOODLANGUAGELEARNER’TOTHE‘SELF-REGULATEDLEARNER’
PartOne
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LLSasanindividualdifference
Acommonobservationisthatnotonlyaresomelanguagelearnersmoresuccessfulthanothers,butalsothatgoodlanguagelearnerssometimesdodifferentthingsthanpoorerlanguagelearners.Thetermcommonlyusedinsecondlanguageacquisitionliteraturetorefertowhatlearnersdothatunderliesthesedifferencesislearningstrategies.(GassandSelinker2009:439)
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SeminalresearchbyJoanRubin
Thedifferentialsuccessofsecond/foreignlanguagelearnerssuggestsaneedtoexamineindetailwhatstrategiessuccessfullanguagelearnersemploy.Inadditiontotheneedofresearchonthistopic,itissuggestedthatteacherscanalreadybegintohelptheirlesssuccessfulstudentstoimprovetheirperformancebypayingmoreattentiontolearnerstrategiesalreadyseenasproductive(Rubin,1975:41).
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Earlywork• AfterRubin’s(1975)examinationoflearningstrategies,researchbegantoinvestigateawiderangeofdifferentstrategiesfordifferentaspectsoflanguagelearning,suchasoverallstrategies,vocabularylearningstrategies,cognitivestrategiesandsocialstrategies(see,forexample,Bialystok,1979;Hosenfeld,1976;Naimanetal.,1975;Selinger,1977).
• ThisworkleadtothedevelopmentofthefirsttaxonomyoflanguagelearningstrategiesbyRubin(1981).
• GrenfellandMacaro(2007:11)havesinceobservedRubin’staxonomywasalistof“whatmightbetermedacademicorstudyskills.”
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Firsttheory-driventaxonomy?
• Researchcontinuedintothe1980s,withparticularemphasisoncognitivestrategiesforESLlearning(seeChamot&Kupper,1989;Chamot&O'Malley,1987;O'Malley,etal.,1985)
• ThisledtotheO’MalleyandChamot(1990)classificationoflanguagelearningstrategies,whichwasunderpinnedbyAnderson’sworkincognitivepsychology.
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O’Malley&Chamot(1990)
Metacognitivestrategies,whichinvolvedthinkingabout(or
knowledgeof)thelearningprocess,planningforlearning,monitoringlearningwhileitistakingplace,orself-evaluationoflearningafterthe
taskhadbeencompleted.
Cognitivestrategies,whichinvokedmentalmanipulationor
transformationofmaterialsortasks,intendedtoenhance
comprehension,acquisition,orretention.
Social/affectivestrategies,whichconsistedofusingsocial
interactionstoassistinthecomprehension,learningorretentionofinformation.
“Affectivestrategiesareoflessinterestinananalysissuchasourswhichattemptstoportraystrategiesinacognitivetheory.
Forthepurposesofdiscussion,however,wepresentaclassificationschemethatincludesthefullrangeofstrategiesidentifiedintheliterature”(O’Malley&Chamot,1990:44)
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RebeccaOxford(1989-2001)
Cognitive Mnemonic Metacognitive
Compensatory Affective Social
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Thistaxonomyreignssupreme
• Itcreatedanexplosioninthenumberofpublishedpapersonstrategyresearch
• Itisstillbyfarthemostwidelyusedframeworkinstrategyresearch,despiteOxford’sowntheoreticalupdatesin2011(Roseetal.,2018)
• Ithassomewhatovershadowedthemanymodelsdevelopedforskill-specificlanguagelearning:reading,listening,vocabularylearning,kanjilearning,etc
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Criticalperspectivesontheory1. Theconceptualizationoflearningstrategiesis‘rather
inconsistentandelusive’(Dörnyei&Skehan2003,p.608)2. The‘termhasbeenusedinfartoobroadasense,including
anumberofdifferentthingsthatdonotnecessarilybelongtogether’(Dörnyei&Skehan2003,p.610)
3. Lackofconsenuswhetherlearnerstrategiesconsistofknowledge,intention,action,orallthree(Macaro2006)
4. Paststudieshaveattemptedtodescribeandquantifystrategiesratherthantoincorporatethemintoamodelofpsycholinguisticprocessing(Ellis1997)
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Abandonstrategyresearch?
• Dörnyeiandhiscollaboratorshavebeenparticularlyvocalthattheconceptofstrategiesbeabandonedinplaceofself-regulation,whichtheyargueisamorestablefield(Dörnyei2005;Dörnyei&Skehan2003;Tsengetal.2006).
• Self-regulationisarguedtoexamineunderlyingintentionsthatmanifestinstrategyuse,ratherthanexaminingtheactualstrategiesthemselves.
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Whatisself-regulation?• Thestrategiesusedtocontrol(regulate)behaviour– Theycanhelpinthepursuitofalong-termgoal– Theycanhelptomonitoryourresponsetoobstacles,andstimuli
– Havebeenusedextensivelyinpsychology(drugaddiction,fitnessetc)
• Inlanguagelearning:– Self-regulationisthedegreetowhichlearnersareactiveparticipantsandareproactiveintheirpursuitoflanguagelearning(Dörnyei,2005).
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Delayofgratification
• Theabilitytoforegoimmediategratificationforalarger,moreimportantfuturegoal.
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DelayofGratification:TheStandfordMarshmellowExperiments(Mischel)
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DelayofGratification
Whenchildrenweretrackedlaterinlife,• Thosewhocoulddelaygratification:
– HadhigherverbalandmathSATscores– Werebetterabletoconcentrate– Werebetterabletocopewithfrustrationandstress
– Hadgreatercognitiveandsocialcompetenceratings
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Self-regulationinlanguagelearning
• Self-regulationinlanguagelearningreferstotheprocessesthelearnerusestoexercisecontroloverlearning
• Dörnyei(2005)positsthatself-regulationis“amultidimensionalconstruct,includingcognitive,metacognitive,motivational,behavioral,andenvironmentalprocessesthatlearnerscanapplytoenhanceacademicachievement”indifferentlearningcontexts(p.101).
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Self-regulation(Dornyei2005:113)
• Commitmentcontrolstrategiesforhelpingpreserveorincreaselearner’sgoalcommitment.
• Metacognitivecontrolstrategiesformonitoringandcontrollingconcentrationandforcurtailingunnecessaryprocrastination.
• Satiationcontrolstrategiesforeliminatingboredomandaddingextraattractionorinteresttothetask.
• Emotioncontrolstrategiesformanagingdisruptiveemotionalstatesormoodsandforgeneratingemotionsthatareconducivetoimplementingone’sintentions.
• Environmentalcontrolstrategiesfortheeliminationofnegativeenvironmentalinfluencesbymakinganenvironmentanallyinthepursuitofadifficultgoal.
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CriticismsdonotmeantheendofLLS
• LLSandself-regulationarelookingattwodifferentpartsofthelearningprocess(Gao,2007)
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Twocompatible,notcompeting,paradigms
• Gao(2006)arguedthatself-regulationislookingattheinitialdrivingforces,whilelearningstrategiesexaminetheoutcomeoftheseforces.– Weinstein,AceeandJung,(2011,p.47)describingself-regulationas“boththeglueandtheenginethathelpsstudentmanagetheirstrategiclearning”
• Someresearchershaveintegratednotionsofself-regulationintoexistingparadigmsofstrategies(Oxford,2011).
• Itispossibletolookatalearningtaskthroughbothlenses:thisisdirectionItookin2007
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アイルランド共和国(アイルランドきょうわこく、アイルランド語:Éire、英語:Ireland、またはアイルランドは、北大西洋のアイルランド島に存在する立憲共和制国家である。北東に英国北 アイルランドと接する。首都はアイルランド島中東部の都市ダブリン。ナショナルカラーは緑。独立時の経緯によりアイルランド島の北東部北アイルランド六州は英国を構成するが、アイルランド共和国は1998年のベルファスト合意以前は全島の領有権を主張していた。2005年の英エコノミスト誌の調査では最も住みやすい国に選出されている。
Strategiclearningofkanji(Rose,2013;Rose&Harbon,2013)
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アイルランド共和国(アイルランドきょうわこく、アイルランド語:Éire、英語:Ireland)、またはアイルランドは、北大西洋のアイルランド島に存在する立憲共和制国家である。北東に英国北 アイルランドと接する。首都はアイルランド島中東部の都市ダブリン。ナショナルカラーは緑。独立時の経緯によりアイルランド島の北東部北アイルランド六州は英国を構成するが、アイルランド共和国は1998年のベルファスト合意以前は全島の領有権を主張していた。2005年の英エコノミスト誌の調査では最も住みやすい国に選出されている。
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アイルランド共和国(アイルランドきょうわこく、アイルランド語:Éire、英語:Ireland)、またはアイルランドは、北大西洋のアイルランド島に存在する立憲共和制国家である。北東に英国北 アイルランドと接する。首都はアイルランド島中東部の都市ダブリン。ナショナルカラーは緑。独立時の経緯によりアイルランド島の北東部北アイルランド六州は英国を構成するが、アイルランド共和国は1998年のベルファスト合意以前は全島の領有権を主張していた。2005年の英エコノミスト誌の調査では最も住みやすい国に選出されている。
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Literacyforthesecondlanguagelearner
• Kanjiisamajorobstacleforsecondlanguagelearners(Bourke,1996)
• ItisthecauseofhighdropoutratesinJapaneselanguagecoursesatuniversities(Kato,2002)
• IttakesthreetofourtimesaslongtoreachthesamelevelofproficiencyinJapanesethanotherEuropeanlanguagelanguages,partlybecauseofgrammaticaldifferencesinlanguagebutlargelybecauseofkanji.(Everson,2011)
• Literacymayneverbeachieved(largefluent,butilliterateforeigncommunityinJapan)
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Kanji:Fittingasquarepeginaroundhole
e.g.Kanjidonotsuitalanguagewhoseverbsandadjectivesconjugate
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木
白
父
穴
語
流
部
青
黒
母
六
言五口
泳河汗池
B
Blue/calm
CognitivestrategiesàEncoding…
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Self-regulationinkanjilearning
Breakdown in
commitment control (Goal setting)
Lack of progress toward goals
leads to negative affect
Breakdown in
emotional control (Stress, frustration, self‐criticism)
Affect leads to re‐assessment
of believability of goals
Boredom
leads to re‐
assessment of
desirability of goals
Magn
itude an
d
length
of goals leads
to bored
om
Lack of short‐term goals leads
to procrastination In
ability to con
trol
procrastin
ation lead
s
to negative affect
Procrastination leads to re‐
assessment of achievability of
goals
Breakdown in
satiation control (Boredom)
Breakdown in
metacognitive control (Procrastination)
Boredom leads to
procrastination
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Somepracticalimplications
• Highlightstheimportanceofsettingbelievable,achievable,conceivableanddesirablegoals(McCombsandPope,1994).Teacherscanassistin– settinggoals– testingpreviousknowledge– trackingprogress
• Highlightstheimportanceofself-evaluationandself-efficacybeliefs(Zimmerman,2000).
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Sometheoreticalimplications?
Notoneinstanceofenvironmentalcontrolwasreportedinthestudywhereitwasnotbeingusedtoregulateanotherformofmotivationcontrol.Suchresultsindicateenvironmentalcontrolmaynotbeaseparatecategoryofcontrolinitself,butaself-regulatorymechanismorstrategytocontrolotherformsofmotivation.
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Dualresearchnottheonlypath:Threecategoriesofresearch(Roseetal.,
2018)
1. Embraceself-regulationtheoryin
research
Utilizetraditionallanguagelearner
strategyconstructswithacknowledgementof
criticisms
Hybridresearchthatexploresboth;orexploresrelationshipsbetweenstrategiesandregulatory
processes
e.g.validationofself-regulation(Mizumoto&
Takeuchi,2012)
e.g.ArdashevaandTretter’s
(2013)adaptationofthe
SILL
e.g.(WritingItems(strategies)withinstructures(the‘glueand
engine’)(Teng&Zhang,2016)
e.g.myownresearch(a2-in-1
approach)
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EVOLVINGDEFINITIONS:MOVEMENTSTOWARDSLEARNERAGENCY
PartTwo
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Evolvingdefinitions
ThedefinitionoflanguagelearningstrategieshasdevelopedovertheyearssinceRubin’soriginalinvestigationinthefield.• Rubin(1981:42)defineslanguage-learningstrategiesas“thetechniquesordevicesthatalearnermayusetoacquirelanguage.”
• Afurtherdefinitionis“thespecialthoughtsorbehaviorsthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend,learn,orretainnewinformation”(O’Malley&Chamot,1990:1).
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Awidelyadopteddefinition
Languagelearningstrategiesare“thoughtsandactions,consciouslychosenandoperationalizedbylanguagelearners,toassistthemincarryingoutamultiplicityoftasksfromtheveryonsetoflearningtothemostadvancedlevelsoftarget-languageperformance”Cohen(2012,p.136)
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Issues?
• Thereiscontentionoverdefinitions• Strategieshavebeendefinedasspecialthoughts,behaviors,techniquesanddevices– Definitionsoflearningstrategiesare‘adhocandatheoretical’(Ellis1994,p.533)
• Strategieshavebeenperceivedascognitive,metacognitive,psychological,affective,andsocial– Thereishasbeennocoherentagreementonthedefiningcriteriaforalanguagelearningstrategy,whichisstillthesituationtoday(Tsengetal.2006)
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Criticism
Dornyei(2005)notedthat:• “Intheabsenceofatightdefinition,itisunclearwhatdifferentresearchersmeanbythetermlanguagelearningstrategy(p.188)”
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StrivingforConsensus
• Oxford(2017)conductedacontentanalysisofdefinitionsforlanguagelearningstrategiesandsemanticallyrelatedwords/phrases
• Thirty-threeexistingdefinitionswerecompiledanalyzed,andcoded
• Usingthefindings,sheproposedanewdefinition
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Oxford(2017)
L2learningstrategiesarecomplex,dynamicthoughtsandactions,selectedandusedbylearnerswithsomedegreeofconsciousnessinspecificcontextsinordertoregulatemultipleaspectsofthemselves(suchascognitive,emotional,andsocial)forthepurposeof(a)accomplishinglanguagetasks;(b)improvinglanguageperformanceoruse;and/or(c)enhancinglong-termproficiency.(p.48)
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Oxford(2017)
L2learningstrategiesarecomplex,dynamicthoughtsandactions,selectedandusedbylearnerswithsomedegreeofconsciousnessinspecificcontextsinordertoregulatemultipleaspectsofthemselves(suchascognitive,emotional,andsocial)forthepurposeof(a)accomplishinglanguagetasks;(b)improvinglanguageperformanceoruse;and/or(c)enhancinglong-termproficiency.(p.48)
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Tracingthechronologicaltrajectory(earlier)
Earlydefinitionsappearlargelysimplistic.Theyusephrasesthatdonotimplyanintegrationofself-directednesswithlanguagelearningstrategies:• whichalearnermayuse(Rubin,1975);• employedbythelanguagelearner(Stern,1983);• thatalearnerengagesin(Weinstein&Mayer,1986);• thatstudentstake(Chamot,1987);• usedbythelearner(Chamot,etal.,1988);• whichstudentsuse(Chamot&Kiipper,1989);• whichlearnersuse(Oxford,1989);• thatindividualsuse(O’Malley&Chamot,1990);and• usedbylanguagelearners(Okada,Oxford,&Abo,1996)
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Tracingthechronologicaltrajectory(later)
Assumedself-directedness(self-regulation,agency,autonomy)• selectedbythelearner(Cohen,1998);• selectedbylearners(Gao,2003);• chosenbylearners(Griffiths,2008;Griffiths&Oxford,2014);• thatlearnerschoose(Oxford,2011);• chosenandoperationalizedbylearners(Cohen,2011);• thatcanbeemployedautonomously(Plonsky,2011);• chosenbylearnersforthepurposeofregulating(Griffiths,
2013);• chosenbyalanguagelearner(Gregersen&MacIntyre,2014);• chosenbylearners(Griffiths,2017);and• selectedandusedbylearners(Oxford,2017)
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ImplicitConceptualizations(Thomasetal,2019)
• pre-1997vspost-1997(Cohen,1998;theelementofchoice)
• PREcorpus-13texts(86,432words)• POSTcorpus-20texts(184,202words)• TwokeywordlistsofthePREandPOSTcorporaranked
byalog-likelihoodkeynessstatisticweregeneratedbyAntConc(Anthony,2014)
• ThekeywordlistsextractedimportantconceptswhichweresignificantlymorefrequentinPREcomparedtothePOST,andthePOSTcomparedtothePRE
(Thomas,Rose,Pojanapunya,forthcoming)
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EmergentkeywordsinthePREandPOSTcorpusassociatedwithdifferencesinstrategyresearch
KeywordsinthePRE-corpus,comparedtoPOSTcorpus
KeywordsinthePOST-corpus,comparedtoPREcorpus
wordsindicatinggeneralconcernsoflanguagelearning
comprehension,strategies,techniques,inferencing,recall,memory,elaboration,implicit,explicit,solving,monitoring,guessing,notetaking,andinferences
regulation,meta,regulated,autonomy,style,sociocultural,self,metastrategies,independent,identity,styles,behavior,control,regulation,sociocultural,metastrategies
wordsindicatingactors/agentsinlanguagelearning
students,readers,children,teachers,teacher,child
learners
wordsindicatinglearningprocesses/activities
teaching,training,taught,direct,practice,presented,trained,reading,described,identifying,instruction
interaction,interactive
(Thomas,Rose,Pojanapunya,2019)
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Whatdoesthismean?
• Notsurprising• Agrowinginterestinself-regulatedlearningineducationalpsychologyinthe1990s(e.g.Zimmerman,1990)
• Criticismsincrease,moreconceptsgetpulledin:– self-regulation,agency,autonomy,self-efficacy,mindsets,resilience,hope,andinternalattributions
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Strategiesasdynamic
(Thomas&Rose,2019,p.253)
“Manylearnersdonotindependentlyachieveself-regulation,andthepresenceofothersinmetacognitivedecision-makingappearstobeindispensable.Otherscanbridgetheprocessfromother-regulationtoco-regulationtoself-regulation,andultimatelyL2internalization”(Takeuchi&Ikeda,2018,p.98)
[*concludedfromstudyof132Japaneseuniversityover9weeks]
Sitswellwithlongheldnotionsinstrategyinstruction:ThatisInstructionrequiresguided
practiceandteachersupportbeforestudentscanusestrategiesindependently(seeGunning&Oxford,2014)
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Self-RegulationandAutonomy• MakandWong(2018)• Qualitativeanalysisofdatacollectedoveroneacademicyear
• Theeffectofusingportfolioassessmentfornurturingself-regulationdevelopmentamongelementarystudentsinHongKong
• “[T]heabilitytoself-regulaterequiresscaffolding”(p.12)
• Learnersmaybeunlikelytocontinuetheirlearning“unlesscareweretakentofacilitatetheinternalizationofregulationthroughsupportofthelearner’sautonomy,competence,andrelatedness”(p.57)
Weneedmoreresearchlikethis–intheclassroom–whichlooksattheabilityof‘others’toscaffoldself-regulatedlearningstrategiestohelp
studentsmovealongthestrategycontinuum
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EVOLVINGRESEARCH:ENTERINGANIMPROVEDERAOFSTRATEGYRESEARCH
PartThree
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StrategyInventoryforLanguageLearning
• StrategyInventoryofLanguageLearning(SILL)—aquestionnairethatcouldbeusedbylearnerstomeasuretheirownstrategyuseandtoincreasetheirawarenessoflanguagelearningstrategiesutilizedbyotherlanguagelearners.
• SILLis“withoutdoubtthemostwidelyusedinstrumentinlanguagelearnerstrategyresearch”(Whiteetal.,2007:95).
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Cautionsoverquestionnaires
• “theactuallanguagelearningstrategymeasurespresentedinthevariousstudiestendnottohavesufficientpsychometricproperties.”– TheSILLscalesarenotcumulativeandcomputingmeanscoresisnotjustifiablepsychometrically(Dornyei2006).
– “themorethebetterisnotalwaysthecaseinstrategyuse”(Yamamorietal.,2003)
– Needtodistinguish‘stateaspects’and’trait-aspects’ofstrategiesinquestionnaires(Mizumoto,2018)
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Criticism:SILL• BUT…AsAmerstorfer(2019)contests:“TheSILLhasnot
expiredyet,butperhapsneedsamoderntouch,forinstance,intheformofadaptationorcombinationwithotherresearchmethods”– SeeArdasheva&Tretter(2013)
• Mizumoto(2018)agreesthat“state-like”specificbehaviourscanbemeasuredbyquestionnaires,butresearchersneedtobecarefulwhethertotreatthemassingle-itemormulti-itemscales:– Teachersarestilldrawntomeasuresthatcapturequantityof
strategiesavailabletolearners
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Othermeasures• MotivatedStrategiesforLearningQuestionnaire(MSLQ)
wasdevelopedbyateamofresearchers(Pintrichetal.1991).Usedwidelyineducationalpsychology.
• LanguageStrategyUseInventory(Cohenetal.2006),sometimesreferredtoastheLanguageStrategyUseSurvey,wasdevelopedtohaveamorepracticalfocus.
• SurveyofReadingStrategies(SORS)(Mokharti&Sheorey2002):thissurveyisanexampleofanattempttomoveawayfromaone-size-fits-allquestionnaire
• MetacognitiveAwarenessListeningQuestionnaire(MALQ):specificallymeasuresstrategiesdeployedinlisteningtasks
• VocabularyLearningQuestionnaire:developedbyGuandJohnson(1996)
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Selfregulation&vocabulary(Tseng,Dornyei&Schmitt,2006)
Self-regulation&vocabularylearning• InstrumentdevelopedbyTsengetal.(2006)
– SRCVoc• Confirmedinanumberofsubsequentstudiestobearobustinstrument– Mizumoto&Takeuchi(2012)– Ziegler(2015)
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Item Learning experience Stronglyagree
Agree Partlyagree
Slightlydisagree
Disagree Stronglydisagree
1. Once the novelty of learning vocabulary is gone,I easily become impatient with it.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
2. When I feel stressed about vocabulary learning,I know how to reduce this stress.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
3. When I am studying vocabulary and the learningenvironment becomes unsuitable, I try to sort outthe problem.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
4. When learning vocabulary, I have special techniquesto achieve my learning goals.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
5. When learning vocabulary, I have special techniquesto keep my concentration focused.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
6. I feel satisfied with the methods I use to reduce thestress of vocabulary learning.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
7. When learning vocabulary, I believe I can achievemy goals more quickly than expected.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
8. During the process of learning vocabulary, I feelsatisfied with the ways I eliminate boredom.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
9. When learning vocabulary, I think my methods ofcontrolling my concentration are effective.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
10. When learning vocabulary, I persist until I reachthe goals that I make for myself.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
11. When it comes to learning vocabulary, I have myspecial techniques to prevent procrastination.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
12. When I feel stressed about vocabulary learning,I simply want to give up.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
13. I believe I can overcome all the difficulties relatedto achieving my vocabulary learning goals.
œ œ œ œ œ œ
98
SELF-R
EGULATIO
NIN
VOCABULARYACQUISITIO
N
at Bodleian Library on December 7, 2015 http://applij.oxfordjournals.org/ Downloaded from
Astate-basedfocusneednotbelostinmulti-itemscales:Forexample,Mizumoto(2018)praisesTsengandSchmitt’s(2008)questionnairewhichexploremasteryinvocabularylearning,shiftingthescaleitemfocusfromquantitytoquality,andusingmultipleitemstoexplore
thesameconstruct…
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Istherea‘problem’withquestionnaires??
• Theremaybealackofreliabilityofstudiesusingquestionnaires,astheyarenotsamplespecific.
• Aqualitativeapproachisrecommendedtomeasurelanguagelearningstrategiesmorerichly(Woodrow,2005)
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Think-alouds
• Gu(2014,p.74)claimsthatitis‘widelyagreedthatvariousversionsofthinkingaloudarethemostdirectandthereforebesttoolsavailableinexaminingtheon-goingprocessesandintentionsasandwhenlearninghappens’.
• Hyland(2010,p.197)supportsthisnotioninhisassertionthatthinkaloudtechniqueshavebeenextremelyproductiveintheinvestigationofthewritingstrategiesthatstudentsdeploywhencomposing,planning,andrevisingtexts.
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Retrospectiveinterviews
• Takeuchietal.(2007,p.94)makethefollowingobservation:“Asthefieldmovestowardsadeeperunderstandingofstrategyuseinfluencedbyparticularcultural,contextual,andindividualfactors,retrospectiveinterviewsre-emergeasanimportanttoolprovidingopportunitiesforexplorationandelaborationofaspectsofstrategyuse.”
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Stimulatedrecall
• Tsengetal.(2006),observethatstimulatedrecallisahighlypromisingbutyetunder-utilizeddatacollectiontechnique– Ihavefoundthat,whenusedeffectively,stimulatedrecalldataaremorerevealingandmorereliablethanotherself-reportinstruments,suchasquestionnairesandinterview
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Technologicaladvances• Eye-trackingisbecomingincreasinglypopularinappliedlinguisticsresearchtoexploretopicsthatweretraditionallydoneviathinkaloudprotocols(ConklinandPellicer-Sánchez,2017):– Eye-trackingtechnologycanaddnewinsightintostrategicprocesseswhenlearningreading
• Keystrokelogging“logsandtimestampskeystrokes,pauses,cutting,pasting,anddeletingandmouseactivity,allowingtheresearchertoreconstructtextproductionprocesses”(Hyland,2016:118-119):– Keystrokeloggingcanaddnewinsightintostrategicbehaviouralpracticeswhenwriting
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Systematicreview(Roseetal.,2018)
• 18predominatelyquantitative(11exclusivelyso)– Ardasheva(2016)usedtests,achievementscores,astrategy,motivationandbackgroundquestionnaire
• 6exclusivelyqualitative– Lam’s(2015)studyofHongKongeselearnersusedstimulatedrecall,interviews,learnerhistoriesandtextanalysis
• Questionnairesthemostprevalentdatacollection:– theSILLin11studies,MSLQin4studies,andSRCVocin3studies
• Qualitativedataweremorevariedbutoftennotreportedsystematically
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FUTUREEVOLUTION:IMPLICATIONSFORTEACHINGANDRESEARCH
PartFour
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1.Opportunitiesfortheoreticaldevelopment
• Veryfewresearchershavelookedatskill-specificself-regulationbeyondvocabularylearning,despiteevidencethatthisisafruitfulendeavor
• Veryfewresearchershaveexploredself-regulationfromothertheoreticalstandpoints
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Ranalli(2012),makesthefollowingassertion:
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Source:Dornyei&Ryan,2015
*RuiZhang
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2.Resolving(?)definitionalissues
Gu(2012)contends:“Thedefinitionquibbleisgoingbeyondtheadvancementofknowledgeindelineatingconceptualboundaries.”(Gu,2012)• Likeanyfield,itmaybeuptoresearcherstoadoptdefinitionsthatsuittheirneeds:– SLAresearchersmaypreferSR-likeconstructs– TESOLresearchersmaypreferproduct-likeconstructs
• Wecannotdismisstheimportanceofteachersandstudentsdesireforteachable/learnable‘strategies’
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Bringingbackspacefortheclassroom
• AsaTESOLresearcher,Iprefertokeepmydefinition‘basic’fornowtoallowforbreadthinexplorationsofdynamicchangeinstrategyuse:– ‘thoughtsandactionsusedbylearnerswithsomedegreeofconsciousnessforpurposesassociatedwithlanguagelearning’(Thomas&Rose2019)
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3.Opportunitiesformethodologicalinnovation
• Ofthe556articlespublishedonLLS,16percentmetrigorousresearchcriteria(HadwinandWinne,1996:711)– Roseetal.(2018)didn’tlookatallstudies,butexclusionprocesspaintsa
similarpicture– Needmoresystematicreviewsandmeta-analysestomakestrong
recommendationsofmethodology• Eye-trackinginstrategyresearchhasnotbeenutilizedasmuchas
inotherareasofSLA• Westillneedabodyofgoodqualitativeresearch(despitecallsfor
over15yearsforthis)• Maturationinthefieldofadvancedquantitativedataanalysis
opensupavenuestoexplorestrategiesinrelationtootherkeyconstructsandalsoasadynamicconstructitself(seecallsbyPlonsky;Mizumoto)
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Wheretonow?
(1) continuevis-à-vishistoricalmethodsàthisdoesnotharnesstheadvancementsinthefielddrivenbycriticism
(2) abandonlanguagelearnerstrategyresearchinfavourofself-regulationàlossofresearchbase;lossofcognitivestrategies;lossofteachablestrategiesas‘products’
(3) acknowledgeself-regulationwithinconceptualizationsoflanguagelearnerstrategiesre-conceptualizelanguagelearnerstrategy
(4) continuelanguagelearnerstrategyresearchwithsensitivitytocriticisms
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Wheretonow?
(1) continuevis-à-vishistoricalmethodsàthisdoesnotharnesstheadvancementsinthefielddrivenbycriticism
(2) abandonlanguagelearnerstrategyresearchinfavourofself-regulationàlossofresearchbase;lossofcognitivestrategies;lossofteachablestrategiesas‘products’
(3) acknowledgeself-regulationwithinconceptualizationsoflanguagelearnerstrategiesre-conceptualizelanguagelearnerstrategy
(4) continuelanguagelearnerstrategyresearchwithsensitivitytocriticisms
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Thankyou…ifyouwanttoreadmore…
www.heathrose.net
orfindmeonResearchGate