Everything to Know About...

CHINA CHINA is the oldest continuous civilization on the planet, hav-ing continued without interruption since at least 3000-2500 BCE. Early China was based heavily around the HUANG-HE (or YELLOW) River Valley. For much of its early history, China referred to itself as ZHONG GUO or the MIDDLE KINGDOM (meaning the “center of the world”) demonstrating an early sense of both national pride and ethnocentrism. Despite trade and some mild cultural diffusion with Korea and Japan, China attempted to remain largely isolated through much of its (especially early) history.

The Early Dynasties The existence of the XIA DYNASTY is debated; Many historians believe it is only legendary. While there are SECONDARY SOURCES that speak

to its existence, there is little real archaeological evidence. Many of the associated stories focus on characters like Xia founder YU THE GREAT and demonstrate the early need to control the frequent issues of FLOODING within the early Huang-He Valley.

XIA DYNASTY (2000-1600 BCE)

The SHANG DYNASTY (possessing Kings, and not yet true emperors) is the first documented dynasty. Developed a strong WRITING SYSTEM used originally for religious reasons (not business). Shang mastered METALLURGY, PORCELAIN, and some of the first SILK PRODUCTION. Very strict social system. Kings claimed a connection to the GODS and communicated with them through ORACLE BONES (divination).

SHANG DYN. (1600-1046 BCE)

The ZHOU DYNASTY takes power by claiming the Shang were unfit to rule. Establish the idea of a MANDATE OF HEAVEN. Zhou begin a strong period of expansion, governing new territories under a system of decentralized FEUDALISM. Many important advancements such as the building of CITIES, IRON use, expansion of ROADS, TRADE, new FLOOD CONTROL SYSTEMS, invention of the CROSSBOW. CONFUCIAN-ISM, TAOISM, and LEGALISM all have their start here. Power is lost in the last 200 years of the dynasty (resulting in a massive period of civil war known as the ERA OF WARRING STATES).

ZHOU DYNASTY (1046-256 BCE)

Chinese Belief Systems Seen as more of an ethical system and less as a true

“religion.” Established by K’UNG FU TZU (CONFUCIUS) in about 500 BCE. Emphasizes the FIVE RELATIONSHIPS (Ruler:Subject, Parent:Child, Husband:Wife, Old:Young,

Friend:Friend). Strong emphasis on FILIAL PIETY (respect for parents and elders, arguing family is a mini

-version of society). Strong emphasis on rituals at various life stages. Books like the I CHING and the ANALECTS are valued, but not considered “holy.” CO

NFUC

IANI

SM More of a philosophy than a true religion.

Founded by LAOZI (500 BCE) and based on the TAO-TE-CHING. Is polytheistic like traditional

Chinese religion, but emphasizes the idea of “TAO,” an energy which flows through all life. Taoists emphasize balance and Wu Wei (“Way of Nature”). Major part of this is in establishing the balance of Chi (flow of energy

within the body). Emphasizes the ideas of YIN and YANG, as well as naturalness and non-action.

TAO

ISM

Based on the ideas of HAN FEI at the end of the Zhou Dynasty (Era of Warring States). Argues that humanity is naturally selfish,

greedy, and violent, and need a strong government to rule over them and keep them

under control. Heavily admired by the QIN, but not terribly influential otherwise.

LE

GAL

ISM

Claims that the gods give new leaders the power to rule, but may also take that power away; If the rulers did not govern properly, their man-date would be lost (demonstrated by crop loss,

plagues, peasant rebellions, etc.). First used by the Zhou to justify the overthrow of the Shang.

Classical China The QIN emerged as a major power following the Era of Warring States, conquering both the Zhou and northern China. Became the first IMPERIAL DYNASTY (actual empire, ruled by an EMPEROR) in Chinese history. Only one emperor: QIN SHI HUANG (“First Emperor”). The Qin promoted LEGALISM which placed them at odds with CONFUCIANISM, which was heavily persecuted. Established a strong CENTRAL-IZED GOVERNMENT, establishing uniform LAW CODES, standardized MEASUREMENTS, building new ROADS (communication). Begins the GREAT WALL (and his own TOMB) using forced labor. The Dynasty’s harsh rule will not be continued after the Qin Emperor’s death.

QIN DYNASTY (221-206 BCE)

THREE KINGDOMS PERIOD (220-581 CE) - Intense Period of Civil War… again...

Founded by LIU BANG in 206 BCE. Makes few political changes from the Qin (except to change the harsh rule, work with nobles rather than against them). Greatest emperor is WUDI (the sixth Han emperor). Wudi brings about a period of rapid expansion (Conquers the north, Korea, Manchuria, SE Asia, and to the borders of N. India) -- also places China in communication with the Parthian Persians and -- after a expeditionary team sent by Wudi -- the Romans (leads to SILK ROAD). Wudi also establishes the practice of CIVIL SERVICE TESTS and the so-called PAX SINICA (Period of Chinese Peace, flourishing of culture and ACHIEVEMENTS. Falls beginning with the YELLOW TURBAN REBEL-

LION, revolts/uprisings, barbarian attacks, weak emperors.

HAN DYNASTY (206 BCE-220 CE)

Very short-lived dynasty that takes root after several centuries of uncertainty in China. Instantly set about repairing the Great Wall and attempting to boost China’s economy through PUBLIC WORKS PROJECTS (most importantly, the massive GRAND CANAL from the Huang He river to the Yangtze Delta, which allows North-South trade and communication). Attempt to re-distribute lands to peasants (EQUAL FIELD SYSTEM), but peasants are so overworked (and starved and tired of expensive wars), they protest and overthrow the dyn-asty. Important for the re-centralization of China, but not terribly successful...

HAN DYNASTY ACHIEVEMENTS Establishment of the SILK ROAD and CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS (Brings about a much more effective BUREAUCRACY based on MERITOCRACY, not BIRTHRIGHT -- in theory -- tests applicants on knowledge of law, mathe-

matics, and the teachings of Confucius). CAI LUN invents the first PAPER in 105 CE. Similarly, the Han will develop WOOD BLOCK PRINTING and, soon after, the first DICTIONARY. Also produce LAQUERWARE (objects coated in

lasting varnish), improved CROSSBOWS, iron FARM TOOLS, BOLTS, AD-JUSTABLE WRENCHES, MACHINE PARTS (gears, cog wheels), CARTOG-

RAPHY, MAGNETIC COMPASSES, SHIP RUDDERS, SUSPENSION BRIDGES, WHEELBARROWS, first SEISMOGRAPHS, STIRRUPS, HOT AIR BALLOONS, first creation (though not military use) of GUNPOWDER. All of China’s

“FOUR GREAT INVENTIONS” (Compass/Gunpowder/Paper/Printing) get their start during this period in some form. SUI DYNASTY

(589-618 CE)

Post-Classical China

An overland trade network established during the Han Dynasty and continued until the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire. Never an actual “road,” but a network of popular TRADE ROUTES for merchants. Extended over 4000 MILES (varies). Initially, Rome and China are the economic forces behind it, but other regions (Persia, India, etc.) will play a part. ROME will often export glassware, statues, art, and slaves (pottery and gold-embroidered rugs are also valued) - PARTHIA (PERSIA) will export exotic fruits and rare birds - Regions of INDIA

will export ivory, precious gems, and lumber - China will specialize almost exclusively in silk, this giving the Silk Road its name. Rome/Persia/Han will be

replaced by BYZANTIUM/CALIPHATE/TANG DYNASTY at its peak.

Far more effective than the Sui, the TANG make an effort to improve the lives of peasants and avoid massive projects. Also much more effective in attempts at expansion than the Sui (take Tibet and Korea, make contact with JAPAN). Re-establish the SILK ROAD, which brings about the major establishment of BUDDHISM in China. Establish specific departments for functions within government (business, military, etc.) as well as a strong bureaucracy (based on civil service exams), establish the MANDARIN class of government administrators. Flourish-ing of the arts: New styles of PAINTING, SCULPTING, POETRY, PRINTING become popular. At one point, ruled by WU ZHAO (Famous em-press, opposed by male-based traditions). Toward end, extravagance/culture masks political weakness, regions break away as dynasty falls.

TANG DYNASTY (618-907 CE)

SONG take power after brief period of anarchy, but KHITAN/JURCHEN push into China and take control over China’s northern half. Song will continue in the SOUTH with many achievements: SMALLPOX VACCINES, military use of GUNPOWDER, the ABACUS, high-yield CROPS (tea, rice) many artistic successes. First Chinese NAVY protects naval trade with India, Southeast Asia. Conquered by MONGOLS.

SONG DYNASTY (960-1279 CE)

Mongols conquer both halves of the Sui within 70 years. First to rule both is Mongol KUBLAI KHAN. Kublai controls Chinese with restrictions (i.e. no weapons), but rebuilds BEIJING, constructs roads/canals/hospitals, etc. Very tolerant of Chinese beliefs, but favor Mongols in government. Despite great prosperity, native Chinese hate the Mongols (Mongols diffuse Chinese tech to the world).

YUAN DYNASTY (1279-1368 CE)

Hatred of Mongols leads to overthrow by ZHU YUANZHANG (Buddhist monk gone general, AKA HONG WU). Establishes the MING DYNASTY. Great peace/stability, reorganizes taxes and government. Strict law codes, civil service tests brought back. Use farmers to re-construct the Mongol-destroyed northern regions (offer lands and tools, etc.). Re-build the GREAT WALL in its current, stone form. Establish a great treas-ury of literature. Begin to push for exploration under ZHENG HE (Massive fleet, explores Africa, Middle East, SE Asia) as a means of POWER PROJECTION. Ultimately ended and fleet destroyed after Zheng He’s death and the discovery that nothing found can “benefit” China (a.k.a ethnocentrism -- also voyages are a huge expense). Establish new capital at BEIJING (along with the FORBIDDEN PALACE).

MING DYNASTY (1368-1644 CE)

MANCHUS swing south from Manchuria, conquer the weakened Ming Dynasty and establish the “QING” (pure) or “MANCHU” Dynasty. Acts as the second time China had been conquered by a foreign power, and will serve as the final dynasty. Vastly expand China’s borders into Mongolia, Tibet, and Taiwan (largest Chinese empire in history). Manchus attempt to “blend in” with the native Chinese, but still en-

sure their position within government. Attempt to impose their own styles into China: Demand men wear tight, high-collared jackets and a single hair braid (QUEUE). First few emperors are skilled (reduce taxes, great public work projects) who make few changes to the econo-

my. 1600-1800: China’s population grows from 150 million to 350 million (largely due to new crops introduced from the New World). Agriculture focuses on “LABOR-INTENSIVE FARMING” rather than labor-saving technologies (keeps peasants busy and not rebelling).

Internal trade flourishes but external trade grinds to a halt (causing resentment amongst European powers…). The Qing battles with outside influence (especially the CATHOLIC JESUITS) for some time. Finally in the early 1800’s, British merchants will ignore Qing

resistance and open China to trade and dominance from foreign SPHERES OF INFLUENCE (causing many issues, see below). Finally toppled in 1911 by the ideas of SUN YAT-SEN who declares independence from Imperial control and establishes a republic based on the THREE PRINCIPLES OF THE PEOPLE (independence, democracy, socialism). The republic will quickly fall, replaced by WARLORDS.

FIRST OPIUM WAR: 1839-1842 By the 1830’s, British begin to sell

opium as a way of creating a favorable BALANCE OF TRADE. Qing attempt to stop the trade,

British send fleet to invade China. Qing have no navy, cannot re-

spond. Brits take Hong Kong in the TREATY OF NANJING.

TAIPING REBELLION: 1850-64 1850: Chinese people (lead by a

man claiming to be Christ’s broth-er) attempt to overthrow the Qing

Dynasty, which calls on foreign powers to assist. 14-year civil war

results, the Qing (and the Euro-pean/Japanese powers) remain in

control.

SECOND OPIUM WAR: 1856-60 During the Taiping Rebellion,

French and British imperialists resume the opium trade. A second Opium War results, ending in the

TREATY OF TIENTSIN, which opens even more ports to foreign nations and continues the sale of opium in

China.

FURTHER CONFLICTS: Late 1800’s, Chinese satellites fall to foreign control (Burma to UK,

Indochina to France, Manchuria to Russia). Japan takes control of Taiwan and Korea in the SINO-

JAPANESE WAR (1984). 1899: US-BACKED “OPEN DOOR

POLICY” IS ESTABLISHED.

BOXER REBELLION: 1900-1901 By early 1900’s, Chinese hate for imperialists spurs the “Righteous

and Harmonious Fists” (“BOXERS”) to rise up against them. Finally crushed by the 8-NATION ALLI-ANCE (UK, France, USA, Japan, Russia, Germany, Italy, Austria-

Hungary).

SELF-STRENGTHENING MOVEMENT: Attempt from 1861 to 1895 to reform, industrialize, and modernize China; Failed due to widespread support...

The Chinese Civil War (1927-1950) Sun Yat-Sen’s republic was quickly toppled, pushing Sun to organize the GUOMINDANG (Nationalist) Party (and army). The republic fell into fragments controlled by warlords until 1923, when CHIANG KAI-SHEK took control of the Guomindang, forced the warlords to step down and united China (under a dictatorial regime based in the city of NANJING). By 1927, COMMUNISM had strongly taken root within China, and had attempted to take control of the Guomindang party. This forced Chiang into a purge of the party, forcing tens of thou-sands of communists to flee into the mountainous south. Here they gathered strength (as the RED ARMY) under MAO ZEDONG and significant popular support. By the 1930’s, Chiang began to chal-lenge Mao’s influence, sparking a military conflict. Mao would be forced to retreat, leading about 100,000 followers out of the region in a year-long attempt to survive (THE LONG MARCH). The conflict was interrupted with the invasion from JAPAN and the resulting WWII, which brutalized the Chinese population (i.e. the RAPE OF NANKING). Civil War began again after Japan’s withdrawal. In 1949, Mao’s communist forces were victorious, and the Communists pro-claimed the PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA with a capital at BEIJING. The defeated nationalists fled to the island of TAIWAN, where they established the REPUBLIC OF CHINA where it remains today.

Mod

ern

Chin

a Mao and the Communists began a totalitarian takeover after taking power. Women were made equal to men under the law (but were not relieved of traditional do-

mestic laws). Established several FIVE-YEAR PLANS as a COMMAND ECONOMY as well as the GREAT LEAP FORWARD (attempted to reform agriculture/industry, but failed). Initiates the CULTURAL REVOLUTION (using his LITTLE RED BOOK) as a way

of curbing criticism about his principles. Ultimately detaches China from Soviet alliance; Gets nuclear bomb in 1964. M

AO Z

EDON

G

(r.19

45-1

979

CE)

A PRAGMATIST (unlike Mao, desires practical reforms, not those in line with Marx-ist principles). While still maintaining a command economy, introduces new FREE-MARKET ideas. Backs the FOUR MODERNIZATIONS (need to improve agriculture, industry, science, and defense). Largely successful. Welcomes foreign business into specific SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES. Reforms create a wealthy class, which angers many. Desires for democracy sparks the TIANANMEN SQUARE MASSACRE in 1989.

DENG

XIA

OPIN

G

(r.19

82-1

989

CE)

TIBET China struggles with the desire for inde-pendence in TIBET. The DALAI LAMA, a Buddhist religious leader, is a major critic of Chinese

leadership.

OVERPOPULATION China’s current

population is over 1.3 billion. Attempts have been made to lower this, including the

ONE-CHILD POLICY (though this has favored males).

HUMAN RIGHTS China continues to

struggle with HUMAN RIGHTS (working

conditions, religious persecutions, etc.) causing strain on

relations with West-ern countries.

3-GORGES DAM 1990’s: Millions

were relocated to create the 3 GORGES

DAM, the world’s largest public works

project (meant to control flooding and generate electricity).

Conflicts in Imperial China

QING DYNASTY (1644-1912 CE)