EVERYMAN’S · PDF fileProf. Dr. Anup Kumar Kapoor (Delhi) Prof. Anand Prakash Mishra ......

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Everyman’s ScienceEveryman’s ScienceEveryman’s ScienceEveryman’s ScienceEveryman’s Science VVVVVololololol..... XLIX No. 2 XLIX No. 2 XLIX No. 2 XLIX No. 2 XLIX No. 2 June ’14June ’14June ’14June ’14June ’14 — July— July— July— July— July ’14’14’14’14’14

73

EVERYMAN’SSCIENCE

Vol. XLIX No. 2 (June ’14 – July ’14)

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Dr. S. K. Mahapatra (New Delhi)

Prof. M. K. Jyoti (Jammu)

Prof. Dr. Anup Kumar Kapoor(Delhi)

Prof. Anand Prakash Mishra (Sagar)

Prof. Kanhaiya Lal Shrivastava(Jodhpur)

Prof. Atul Sitaram Padalkar (Pune)

Dr. Kashinath Bhattacharya (Santiniketan)

Prof. Aparajita Ojha (Jabalpur)

Dr. Arvind Kumar Saxena (Kanpur)

Prof. Ajay Kumar (Delhi)

Dr. (Mrs.) Shashi Bala Singh (Delhi)

Dr. Sib Sankar Roy (Kolkata)

Dr. V. P. Mahadevan Pillai(Thiruvananthapuram)

Prof. (Dr.) Arun Kumar Pandey(Delhi)

COVER PHOTOGRAPHS

Past General Presidents of ISCA

1. Dr. T. N. Khoshoo (1986)

2. Prof. (Mrs.) Archana Sharma(1987)

3. Prof. C. N. R. Rao (1988)

4. Dr. A. P. Mitra (1989)

5. Prof. Yash Pal (1990)

6. Prof. D. K. Sinha (1991)

For permission to reprint orreproduce any portion of thejournal, please write to theEditor-in-Chief.

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor-in-Chief

Dr. Ashok Kumar Saxena

Area Editors

Dr. (Mrs.) Vijay Laxmi Saxena(Biological Sciences)

Dr. Pramod Kumar Verma(Earth Sciences, Engineering & Material Sciences)

Dr. Manoj Kumar Chakrabarti(Medical Sciences including Physiology)

Dr. Arvind Kumar Saxena(Physical Sciences)

Dr. (Mrs.) Vipin Sobti(Social Sciences)

General Secretary (Membership Affairs)Dr. Nilangshu Bhushan Basu

General Secretary (Scientific Activities)Prof. Arun Kumar

Editorial SecretaryDr. Amit Krishna De

Printed and published by Dr. Ashok Kumar Saxenaon behalf of Indian Science Congress Associationand printed at Seva Mudran, 43, Kailash BoseStreet, Kolkata-700 006 and published at IndianScience Congress Association, 14, Dr. Biresh GuhaStreet, Kolkata-700 017, with Dr. Ashok KumarSaxena as Editor.

Annual Subscription : (6 issues)

Institutional 200/- ; Individual 50/-

Price : 10/- per issue

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EDITORIAL :

Science and Technology for Sustainable DevelopmentDr. Arvind Kumar Saxena 75

ARTICLES :

Sulpha Drugs and their Action

Md. Rashid Tanveer and Lokeash Bhatt 78

Does Science have a Gender ?

Paromita Ghosh 88

Focus on Hypertension

Rekha Govindan 93

Nutraceutical, Pharmaceutical and Industrial Value of CoffeePlum : Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch

V. N. Pandey and Neeharika Dubey 98

Remote Sensing and its Applications in Diaster ManagementRoopa V. 105

Gnotobiotic Animals : A Potent Tool for Life Science Research

S. Parthiban, S. Malmarugan, J. Johnson Rajeswar and V. Kumar 110

Biological Weapons and Detection Systems in Human Population

S. Parthiban, P. Pothiappan, M. Ranjithkumar, M. S. Murugan,S. Malmarugan, J. Johnson Rajeswar and V. Kumar 113

Biohydrogen Production from Algae : An OverviewChiranjib Banerjee, Pratyoosh Shukla, Ramesh Chandraand Rabin Bandopadhyay 117

Tubulin Targeting Agents : An Indispensable Class for Cancer TreatmentVijay K Patel, Avineesh Singh, Deepak K Jain, Harish Rajak. 121

KNOW THY INSTITUTIONS 127

CONFERENCES / MEETINGS / SYMPOSIA / SEMINARS 131

S & T ACROSS THE WORLD 133

CONTENTS

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ISCA PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS (1986 TO 1991)

President Title of Presidential Address*

Dr. T. N. Khoshoo Role of Science and Technology in Environmental

73rd Indian Science Congress Management

1986, Delhi

Prof. (Mrs.) Archana Sharma Resources and Human Well Being–Inputs from Science and

74th Indian Science Congress Technology

1987, Bangalore

Prof. C. N. R. Rao Frontiers in Science and Technology

75th Indian Science Congress

1988, Pune

Dr. A. P. Mitra Science and Technology in India : Technology Mission


1989, Madurai

Prof. Yash Pal Science in Society


1990, Cochin

Prof. D. K. Sinha Coping with Natural Disasters : An Integrated Approach


1991, Indore

*Available in the Book “The Shaping of Indian Science” Published by University Press

(India) Pvt. Ltd., 3-5-819 Hyderguda, Hyderabad 500 029.

As per decision of Council meeting held on May 3, 2014, Presidential Addresses will not beprinted henceforth in Everyman’s Science as they are already printed in the above mentionedbook.

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Creation & destruction is a continuous naturalprocess of evolution. Sustainable developmentis an inbuilt phenomenon of the nature.Thesenatural development processes are so perfectthat in such course of action the nature doesnot yield any waste and every component ofthe product is recyclable and usable. Thesephenomena are so designed that they do notcauses any depletion of natural resource andthus maintaining all ecological balances.Modern technological advancements in everyfield of our life as brought out by our scientistand technologist is also indebted and inspiredby the nature. But the science and technologywhich we are doing now days for developmentof our industrial growth to benefit society is intrue sense any way close to the biomimetictechnology and sustainable or not? We shouldcertainly pay attention to it so that it shouldnot be too late to cause imbalance in nature.

In fact, most of the problems which everyone of us facing today, like health hazards dueto environmental, soil and water pollution,natural disasters viz., earth quakes, flood,draught, landslides and greenhouse effect etc.,are our own creation due to our life style andimbalanced industrial development. The ironyis that we have even spoiled the two mostessential gifts i.e., water and air, given bynature free of cost with inbuilt sustainablemechanism, on the name of development. Weare crying for the energy which has also beengifted abundantly in the form of sun by the

EDITORIAL

nature.But the fact is that it is only the humanbeing who is responsible for these problems.No other living being on earth has ever creatednatural imbalance and are living with naturalcycle yet they are also sufferer because of ourdeeds.

Environmental issues are one of the primarycauses of disease and other health issues andlong term livelihood impact for India. So, wehave to use our knowledge in a proper scientificmanner with all in built element of BiomimeticTechnology to make sure that neither presentgeneration nor future generation should faceany problem for their survival and livelihood.Our predecessors have taken due care for suchimbalance and time to time preached thesociety for its protection. Yajnavalkya Smriti,

a historic Indian text on statecraft andjurisprudence, suggested to have been writtenbefore 5th century AD, prohibited the cuttingof trees and prescribed punishment for suchacts. Kautalya’s Arthashastra, written inMauryan period, emphasized the need for forestadministration. Ashoka went further, and hisPillar Edicts expressed his view about thewelfare of environment and biodiversity asgiven below-

“Happiness in this world and the next isdifficult to obtain without much love for

the dhamma, much self-examination, much

respect, much fear of evil, and much

enthusiasm. [...] Beloved-of-the-Gods, King

Piyadasi (Ashoka), speaks thus: Animals were

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declared to be protected – parrots, mainas,

aruna, geese, wild ducks, nandimukhas,

gelatas, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless

fish, vedareyaka, gangapuputaka, sankiya fish,

tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls,

okapinda, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic

pigeons and all four-footed creatures that are

neither useful nor edible. Also protected were

nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with

young or giving milk to their young, and so are

young ones less than six months old. Cocks are

not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings

are not to be burnt, and forests are not to be

burnt either without reason or to kill creatures.

One animal is not to be fed to another. Our

king killed very few animals.”

So, we have to be very cautious to generateand use our knowledge of science andtechnology which should not cause anydepletion of natural resources, ecologicalimbalances and pollution.

Dr. Arvind Kumar SaxenaDMSRDE, Kanpur

“Imagination is more important than knowledge”—Albert Einstein

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SULPHA DRUGS AND THEIR ACTIONSULPHA DRUGS AND THEIR ACTIONSULPHA DRUGS AND THEIR ACTIONSULPHA DRUGS AND THEIR ACTIONSULPHA DRUGS AND THEIR ACTION

Md. Rashid Tanveer and Lokeash Bhatt

This is entirely a review article intended to promote further research oversulpha drugs. Sulpha drugs are highly effective on a number of bacterialinfections, but it is found to be resistant on Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Typhoidand Paratyphoid bacilli etc. In fact, those bacterial cells which can utilizeperformed folic acid from the host’s diet, will not be affected by sulphanilamidedrugs. The most characteristic feature of sulpha drug is that its effectivenessvaries from person to person. For one person a sulpha drug may be suitableagainst a particular disease but for the same disease on another person the samemedicine may show reactions and may cause deadly side effects. A literaturereview was done to present a summary of relevant literature on sulpha drugsand their actions. The review addresses the classification, mode of action onhuman body and side effects of sulpha drugs. The review also identifies potentialareas of further research on sulpha drugs.

* St. Andrew’s College, Gorakhpur (U.P.)-273001Email : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

T he sulpha drugs are the derivativesof sulphanilamide1, 2. These were the

first effective chemotherapeutic agents to bewidely used for the cure of the bacterialinfection in human3-5. Sulpha drugs have broadspectrum activity against both gram-positiveand gram-negative bacteria. They are activeagainst certain gram-positive and gram-negative cocci, gram-negative bacilli andprotozoa. The Sulpha drugs are highly sensitiveagainst Streptococci, Staphylococci,corynebacterium, E. coli, salmonella, klebsiella,pasteurella etc.

Sulpha drugs are used to treat some typesof bacterial pneumonia, urinary tractinfections, shigellosis, Nocardia infections (atype of bacterium with an unusual waxy cellwall) and specific protozoal infections.

Sulpha drugs are said to be bacteriostaticin nature because they prevent growth andmultiplication of bacteria PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) is needed for the growthand multiplication of bacteria. Sulpha drugscompete with PABA due to similarity in itsstructure and thus cut down the food supplyfor bacteria. Thus the microorganism gets“starved” of food and cannot reproduce. Therecovery from the disease is due to naturalhealing and immune system of the patient.

Sulpha drugs brought a new revolution inthe field of chemotherapy due to followingreasons :

● It has low cost.

● Their relative efficacy in many commonbacterial diseases.

● pKa for sulpha of therapeutic interestranges from 4.79 to 8.56.

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● Sulphas have low water solubility & inbody, they are more or less acetylatedand become more or less soluble in water.

● Many highly soluble sulphas are retainedin lumen of gut for prolonged periodsand are called “gut active sulphas”.

● Synergistic action of sulpha with specificdiaminopyrimidines has added asignificant dimension to the sulphatherapy.

HISTORY

Sulpha drugs were the first antimicrobialdrugs and paved the way of antibioticrevolution in medicine. The first sulpha drugwas prontosil. Experiments with prontosilbegan in 1932 in the laboratories of Bayer AG,at that time a component of the huge GermanChemical Trust I.G. Farben. The Bayer teambelieved that coal-tar dyes able to preferentiallybind to bacteria and parasite might be used totarget harmful organisms in the body. Afteryears of fruitless trial and error work onhundreds of dyes, a team led by physician andresearcher Gerhard Domagk who was workingunder the general direction of Farben executiveHeinrich Hoerlein finally found one suitabledye. It was a red dye synthesized by Bayerchemist of Joseph Klarer that had remarkableeffects on stopping some bacterial infections inmice.6

Prontosil, as Bayer named the new drug,was the first medicine ever discovered thatcould effectively treat a range of bacterialinfections inside the body. It had a strongprotective action against infections caused byStreptococci, including blood infections, childbed fever, erysipelas and a relatively lessereffect on infections caused by other cocci.

Later, it was accidentally discovered by aFrench researcher team, led by ErnestFourneau, at the Pasteur Institute that the

drug was metabolized into two pieces insidethe body, releasing from the inactive dyeportion a smaller, colorless, active compoundcalled Sulphanilamide.7

The discovery helped to establish theconcept of “Bioactivation” and dashed theGerman corporation’s dream of enormousprofit; the active molecule sulphanilamide(popularly called sulpha) had first beensynthesized in 1906 and was widely used inthe dye making industry; its patent had sinceexpired and the drug was available to anyone.8

The result was a sulpha craze.9 For severalyears in the late 1930s, hundreds ofmanufacturers produced tens of thousands ofmyriad forms of sulpha. This nontexistenttesting requirements led to their elixirsulphanilamide disaster in the fall of 1937,during which atleast 100 people were poisonedwith diethylene glycol. This led to the passageof the Federal food, Drug and Cosmetic Act in1938.

As the first and only antibiotic available inthe years before Penicilline, sulpha drugscontinued to thrive through the early years ofWorld War II10. They are credited with savingthe lives of tens of thousands of patients,including Winston Churchill and the son ofPresident Franklin Delano Roosevelt, FranklinDelano Roosevelt, Jr. in 1936. Sulpha had acentral role in preventing wound infectionsduring war. American soldiers were issued afirst-aid kit containing sulpha pills and powderand were told to sprinkle it on any openwound.

During the years 1942 to1943, Nazi doctorsconducted sulphanilamide experiments onprisoners in concentration camps. Thesulphanilamide compound is more active inthe protonated form, which in case of the acidworks better in the basic environment. The

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solubility of the drug is very low and sometimescan crystallize in the kidneys, due to its firstpKa of around 10. This is a very painfulexperience, so patient are told to take themedication with copious amounts of water.Newer compounds have a pKa of around 5-6,so the problem is avoided.

Many thousands of molecule containing thesulphanilamide structure have been createdsince its discovery by 1945, yielding improvedformulations with greater effectiveness andless toxicity. Sulpha drugs are still widelyused for the conditions such as acne andurinary tract infections and are receivingrenewed interest for the treatment of infectionscaused by bacteria resistant to otherantibiotics11.

Objectives for developing newer Sulphas :

● More soluble at urinary pH

● To prolong their half life

● In a mixture of sulpha, each componentof drug shows its own solubility, thereforea combination of Sulphas is more watersoluble than a single drug at the sametotal concentration.

CLASSIFICATION OF SULPHA DRUGS

Sulpha drugs or sulphas are classified intoseveral types, based mainly on indications andduration of action in body12 :

(a) Rapidly absorbed and rapidlyexcreted sulphas : These includeSulphadiazine, Sulphapyridine, Sulphathiazole,Sulphamerazine, Sulphamethazine,Sulphamethoxazole, etc.

(b) Rapidly absorbed and slowlyexcreted sulphas : These includesulphamethoxypyridazine,, sulphadimethoxine,sulphamethoxydiazine, sulphaethoxypyrid-azine, etc.

(c) Poorly absorbed (enteric) sulphas :These include sulphaguanidine andsuccinylsulphathiazole.

(d) Special purpose sulphas : Theseinclude sulphaisoxazole (used in urinaryinfection) sulphaquinoxaline (used in coccidiosisin poultry) and sulphacetamide (used in eyeinfection).

MODE OF ACTION OF SULPHA DRUGS

Mode of action of sulpha drugs has beenwidely studied by many workers13. This isshown schematically in Fig 1. In 1940, Woodsand Fildes discovered that para-amino benzoicacid (PABA) inhibits the action ofsulphanilamide. They conclude thatsulphanilamide and PABA, because of theirstructural similarity must compete with eachother within the organism even though theycannot carry out the same chemical function.Further studies indicated that Sulphanilamidedoes not directly kill bacteria but inhibitstheir growth. In order to grow, bacteria requirean enzyme-catalyzed reaction that uses Folicacid as a cofactor. Bacteria synthesize folicacid, using PABA as one of the components.When sulphanilamide is introduced into thebacterial cell, it competes with PABA for theactive site of the enzyme DHPS(Dihydropteroate synthetase). DHPS convertsPABA to Folic acid.

Sulpha drugs resemble PABA sufficientlywell to bind to the active site of the enzymeDHPS. So as sulpha drug binds with hisenzyme, no folic acid can be produced by theenzyme for the bacteria. As a result, bacterialgrowth is arrested until the body’s immunesystem can respond and kill the bacteria.

Antibacterial sulphanilamides target abacterial metabolic pathway as competitiveinhibitors of the enzyme dihydro pteroatesynthetase, DHPS. Dihydro pteroate

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Cell Wall

Cell Membrane

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Fig 1. Mode of action of sulpha drug

Protein

DNA

PABA

DHF

THF

Bacteria Cell

Rifampin

Aminoglycosides

Protein Synthesis

Lincosamide

Macrolides

Tetracyclines

Structure and Functionof

DNA

Quinolones

Nitrofurantoin

Ntimidazole

PABA =para-aminobenzoicacid

DHF =Dihydrofolate

THF =Tetrahydrofolate

Folic AcidSynthesis

Trimethoprim

Sulfonamides

Glycopeptides

Fosfomycin

β-lactams

Bacitracin

Cell Wall Constuction

Structure and Functionof the

Cell Membrane

Colstin

Polymyxin B

Cell Wall

Cell Membrane

RNA

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synthetase activity is vital in the synthesis offolate, and folate is required for cells to makenucleic acids, such as DNA or RNA. So if DNAmolecule cannot be built, the cells cannotdivide, and the effect is bacteriostatic (ratherthan bactericidal).

Actually when the bacteria stops dividing,the white blood cells and the reticuloendohelialsystem of the host comes into action and killsthe bacteria and eliminates the infection.

Antibiotics are chemotherapeutic agentsused to inhibit or kill bacteria (prokaryoticorganisms). Infact Sulphonamides impactbacteria without hurting our cells.

Bacterial cells are prokaryotic primitive cellsthat differs significantly for human eukaryoticcells. Our cells require performed folic acid,which comes from our diet. However, most ofthe micro-organism are having such cellmembranes which are impermeable to theperformed folic acid and thus these micro-organisms need to synthesize folic acid fromPABA. PABA is involved in synthesis of folicacid with help of enzyme DHPS. Sulpha drugsact as competitive inhibitors of the enzymeDHPS. So in the presence of sulpha drugs,these micro-organisms cannot synthesize folicacid.

Sulpha drugs cannot cause same effect inour cells because our cells do not synthesizefolate. Since we cannot make folate, we needto consume it, and folate is our dietaryrequirement.

CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SULPHATHERAPY

● Should be given to the patients as earlyas possible.

● Parenteral injection should be preferredin critical cases.

● Maintenance doses should be given tomaintain effective concentration in blood.

● Plenty of water and urinary alkalizersshould be given.

● In anuria and dysuria sulpha therapyshould be stopped.

● Treatment should not be continued forlonger than 7-8 days.

● If no response of sulpha is shown withinfirst 2-3 days, treatment by sulphashould be stopped.

● Dosing should be continued for 48 hourseven after disappearance of symptoms.

SALIENT FEATURES OF SOMESULPHONAMIDES

(a) Sulphanilamide : It is the firstsulphonamide applied in vet. Practice. Itreplaced other medicine because it is moreeffective and has less toxic effect. It is topical,intrauterine intramammary and are still in use.

(b) Sulphapyridine : It is more effectivethan sulphanilamide. It leads to crystalluria.

(c) Sulphathiazole : It is rapidly excretedby kidney. It is less potent. It is administered inDW. It is included in sulpha combinations.

(d) Sulphaisoxazole : It is relatively safe.It is used in treating urinary tract infections indogs and cats. It is rapidly absorbed and rapidlyexcreted.

(e) Sulphacetamide : It is used in aqueoussolution on eyes, mammary glands, wounds etc.It is available in 10% soln. and 30% ointment.

(f) Sulphaquinoxaline : It is low levelfeeding, effective in controlling Coccidiosis inpoultry.

(g) Sulphadiazine : It is used widely inhuman medicine.

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(h) Sulphamerazine : It is effective insystematic chemotherapy. It is synergisticactivity with erythromycin. It is currently notin common use.

(i) Sulphamethazine : It is Rapidlyabsorbed, slowly excreted. It is Available asbolus, crystalline powder and I/V inj.

(j) Sulphamethoxy pyridazine andacetyl sulphamethoxy pyridazine : It isgiven in the case of dogs and cats, orally. Itsabsorption is rapid. It is safer, effective and usedas long acting sulpha.

(k) Sulphaethoxypyridazine : It is givenin the case of sheep and goats, orally. It is longacting drug.

(l) Sulphadimethoxine : It is well absorbedfrom GIT. It is available in the form of tablets,boluses and solution. It is used in dogs andcattle.

(j) Trisolizine and Tribrissen : It is apotentiated sulpha. It is combination ofsulphadiazine and TMP. It is given rally incalves, foals, sheep, goat, cat and dog. It rapidlyachieve plasma level. It is recommended for gutinfections.

(h) Trivertin : It is also a potentiatedsulpha. It is combination of sulphadoxin andTMP. It is given parenterally. It is recommendedin severe systemic infections.

SULPHONAMIDE MIXTURES

These are mixture of sulphamethazine,sulphamerazine, sulphathiazole and sulphapyrimidine.

POTENTIATED SULPHAS

Sulphas are used in combination withpyrimethamine to treat protozoal disease likeleishmaniasis & toxoplasmosis. These areknown as potentiated sulphas. For exampleseptran, tribrissen and trivertin. These are

the combination of sulphas likesulphamethoxazole, sulphadiazine andsulphadiazine respectively with trimethoprim(TMP). Some more examples of potentiatedsulphas are the combination of sulphadiazine,sulphamethoxazole and sulphadoxine withTMP. There is also a combination ofsulphadimethoxine with ormetoprim which haspowerful action against bacteria.

Action of Potentiated sulphas

These include the following :

● They belong to group ofdiaminopyrimidines (Trimethoprim,Methoprim, Ormetoprim, Aditoprim,Pyrimethamine etc.)

● They have proved to be much effectivein inhibition of dihydrofolate reductasein bacteria and protozoa.

● They exhibit bactericidal activity withsulphas.

● They act as basic drugs and accumulatein acidic media as urine, milk andruminal fluid.

ADVANTAGE OF COMBINATION OFSULPHAS WITH TRIMETHOPRIM (TMP)

● Effectiveness of Sulphas can be improvedby combining them with inhibitors ofbacterial dihydrofolate reductase likeTMP.

● The combination decreases amount ofsulpha.

● The combination increases therapeuticindex.

● The combination widens antibacterialspectrum.

The action of combination is bactericidaland are effective against Actinomyces, Bacillusanthracis, Brucella, Clostridium,

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Corynebacterium, E. coli, Haemophilus,Klebsiella, Proteus, Salmonella, Staphylococcus,Streptocossus, Vibrio, etc.

USES OF IMPORTANT SULPHA DRUGS

1. Sulphapyridine : It was found to bevery active against pneumonia causing bacteriaand once was most popular drug which loweredthe mortality rate in those days. It was alsoused in the treatment of streptococcal andmeningococcal infections. However, because ofits high toxicity, it has been replaced by moresuperior, less toxic drugs such asSulphamerazine.

2. Sulphadiazine : It is highlybacteriostatic and is somewhat less toxic tohuman being and animals. It is of general use,but is particularly used against all coccusinfections.

3. Sulphathiazole : It is about 50 timesmore potent than sulphanilamide. It is highlybacteriostatic. It is of general use, butparticularly useful against staphylococcalinfections and in bubonic plague. It is relativelyless toxic.

4. Sulphamethoxazole : It was approvedby the FDA in 1961. According to the FDAdatabase, all brand and generic formulationsof Sulphamethoxazole have been discontinued.Although it was once a very useful antibiotic,it is almost absolute as a single agent todaydue to the development of bacterial resistanceto its effects. It is used for the treatment ofmalaria in combination with quinine sulphateand pyrimethamine. It was once used to treatconjunctivitis and urinary tract infections. Nowa day, Sulphamethoxazole is used as a part ofsynergistic combination with the compoundTrimethoprim in a 5 : 1 ratio in co-trimoxazol,also known as Bactrim and Septrin.

5. Sulphaguanidine : It is only slightlyabsorbed in the intestinal tract and possessesno toxic and after effects, so it is one of best

sulpha drugs against bacillary dysentery. Onlyin rare cases, slight toxic effects such as rashesand haematuria have been observed that alsoonly when taken in excess.

6. Sulphasuccidine or SuccinylSulphathiazol: Because of its low absorptionand low toxicity, it is useful in intestinalinfections such as bacillary dysentery andcholera. It is prepared by refluxing succinicanhydride with sulphathiazole. A long-actingsulphonamide preparation Sulphamethoxydia-zine (Durenate) was examined for itsantibacterial activity and pharmacologicalactions. The peak urinary level ofSulphamethoxydiazine 8-2 mg. per ml. occurredafter 15 hours and at 48 hours the level was4-6 mg. per 100 ml, both levels beingbacteriostatic to over 80% of all urinarypathogens tested. One hundred and twentyantenatal women with bacteriuria of pregnancywere treated with Sulphamethoxydiazine and93 (78%) remained clear of infection five weeksafter treatment. This group was comparedwith a similar number of antenatal womentreated with sulphadimidine, the cure ratebeing 91(76%). No side or toxic effects toeither the women or the infants were noted.

7. Co-trimoxazole or Septrin :Sulphamethoxa-zole is most often used as partof a synergistic combination with Trimethoprimin a 5:1 ratio in co-trimoxazole (abbreviatedSMZ-TMP and SMX-TMP, or TMP-SMZ andTMP-SMX), also known under trade namessuch as Bactrim, Septrin, or Septra. In EasternEurope, it is marketed as Biseptol. Its primaryactivity is against susceptible forms ofStreptococcus, Staphylococcus aureus (includingMRSA), Escherichia coli, Haemophilusinfluenzae, and oral anaerobes. It is commonlyused to treat urinary tract infections. Inaddition, it can be used as an alternative toamoxicillin-based antibiotics to treat sinusitis.It can also be used to treat toxoplasmosis and

˛

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it is the drug of choice for Pneumosystispneumonia, which affects primary patientswith HIV9.

8. Trimethoprim : It is a bacteriostaticantibiotic mainly used in the prophylaxis andtreatment of urinary tract infections. It belongsto the class of chemotherapeutic agents knownas dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors.Trimethoprim was formerly marketed undertrade names including Proloprim, Monotrimand Triprim; but these trade names have beenlicensed to various generic pharmaceuticalmanufacturers. In clinical use, it is oftenabbreviated TRI or TMP; its commonlaboratory abbreviation is W. Trimethoprimacts by interfering with the action of bacterialdihydrofolate reductase, inhibiting synthesisof tetrahydrofolic acid.

SIDE EFFECTS OF SULPHA DRUGS

(a) Allergies to sulpha drugs are common(about 3% of general population). Sosulphonamides are prescribed carefully.Hypersensitivity reactions are lessfrequently seen in non-antibioticsulphonamides. The most commonmanifestations of a hypersensitivityreaction to sulpha drugs are rash andhives (Fig. 2). However, there are several

life-threatening manifestations ofhypersensitivity to sulpha drugs,including Steven-Johnson syndrome (Fig.3), anaphylaxis (Fig 4), toxic epidermalnecrolysis, agranulocytosis, hemolyticanemia, thrombocytopenia and fulminanthepatic necrosis, among others.

Fig 2. Hives-Urticaria of Hand Fig 4. Sign and symptom of anaphylaxis

Fig 3. A patient suffering from Stevens–Johnson syndrome.

Central nervous system

lightheadednessloss of consciousness

confusion

headache

anxiety

Respiratory

shortness of breathwheezes of stridor

hoarseness

pain with swallowing

cough

Gastrointestinal

crampy abdominalpain

diarrhoeavomiting

Loss ofbladder control

Pelvic pain

Skin- hives- itchiness- flushing

Swelling of lips,tongue and/or throat

Heart and vasculature- fast or slow heart rate- low blood pressure

Runny nose

Swelling of the conjunctiva

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(b) Sulphonamides have a potential to causea variety of untoward reactions, includingurinary tract disorders, haemopoeticdisorders, porphyria and hypersensitivityreactions. When used in large doses,they may cause a strong allergicreaction(Fig. 5). Two of the most seriousare Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxicepidermal necrolysis (also known as Lyellsyndrome).14

(c) Approximately 3% of the generalpopulation has adverse reactions whentreated with sulphonamideantimicrobials. Of note is the observationthat patients with HIV have a muchhigher prevalence, at about 60%. Peoplewith a hypersensitivity reaction to onemember of the sulphonamide class arelikely to have a similar reaction to others.

(d) Hypersensitivity reactions are lesscommon in non-antibiotic sulphonamides,and though controversial, the availableevidence suggests those withhypersensitivity to sulphonamideantibiotics do not have an increased riskof hypersensitivity reactions to the non-antibiotic agents.

(e) Symptoms typically include generalizedhives, itchiness, flushing or swelling ofthe lips. Those with swelling orAngioedema (Fig. 6) may describe aburning sensation of the skin rather thanitchiness. Swelling of the tongue or throatoccurs in up to about 20% of cases.Other features may include a runny noseand swelling of the conjunctiva. The skinmay also be blue tinged because of lackof oxygen.

CONCLUSION

Even though a number of antibiotics arenow a days discovered and they are beingused for the treatment of several diseases,sulpha drugs are still proved to be one of themost potential medicines which are found tobe much effective in the treatment of manydiseases. However, these sulpha drugs areneeded to be modified further to improve theiraction and make them more effective.

Although sulpha drugs are available formany disease, due to its severe side effects, itis always advisable that it should be used onlyunder supervision of a competent doctor.These drugs should not be sold withoutprescriptions of doctors.

Fig 5. Allergic urticaria of the skin inducedby an allergen exposure.

Fig 6. Angioedema of the face such that theboy cannot open his eyes. This reaction was

caused by an allergen exposure

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REFERENCES

1. Amalendu Pal, Surbhi Soni, Fluid PhaseEquilibria., 334, 144-151, 2012,

2. A. Devlin, R. Ramsey-Goldman, K.H.Costenbader, Women and Health (SecondEdition)., 803-819, 2013.

3. L. Buxton Terrence, A. Caruso Joseph,Talanta., 20, 254-256, 1973.

4. Jannik Helweg-Larsen, Thomas LBenfield, Jesper Eugen-Olsen, Jens DLundgren, Bettina Lundgren The Lancet.,354, 1347-1351, 1999,

5. Pier G. De Benedetti, Chiara Frassineti,Journal of Molecular Structure,THEOCHEM, 92, 191-196, 1983.

6. Thomas Hager, The Demon Under theMicroscope: From Battlefield Hospitalsto Nazi Labs, One Doctor’s Heroic Searchfor the World’s First Miracle Drug, (2006-09-01) ISBN 978-0-307-35228-6

7. J. et Th. Tréfouël, F. Nitti et D. Bovet,dans C. R. Soc. Biol., 120, 756, 1935.

8. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/372460/history-of-medicine/35670/Sulfonamide-drugs

9. http://blogofbad.wordpress.com/2009/02/09/bad-health-elixir-sulfanilamide/ Error !Hyperlink reference not valid.

10. h t t p : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o r g / w i k i /Sulfonamide_%28medicine%29

11. Emily Su, Andrea Honda, Paul Latkany,Toxoplasma Gondii (SecondEdition), 161-192, 2014.

12. A. Z. El-Sonbati, M.A. Diab, M.M. El-Halawany, N.E. Salam, SpectrochimicaActa Part A, 77, 755-766, 2010.

13. Simon J. Foote, Alan F. Cowman ActaTropica., 56, 157-171, 1994.

14. h t t p : / / a l l e r g i e s . a b o u t . c o m / o d /medicationallergies/a/sulpha.htm

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DOES SCIENCE HAVE A GENDERDOES SCIENCE HAVE A GENDERDOES SCIENCE HAVE A GENDERDOES SCIENCE HAVE A GENDERDOES SCIENCE HAVE A GENDER ?????

Paromita Ghosh

Science is idealized as objective hence gender-neutral. But in reality it is genderedin favour of males. Some theories opine that gendering of science emanates fromsupposedly inborn gender differences which render males more suited for science.But compelling evidence is lacking. Other theories hold gendered socializationand masculine culture of scientific enterprise responsible. Perceived masculinityof sciences differs. Physical sciences are deemed masculine; biology is regardedrelatively feminine. Male-bias of science especially physics generally excludeswomen. Counselling, gender sensitization, overhaul of science curricula, textbooksand institutional policies may redress gender-inequity in science.

* Department of Home Science, University of CalcuttaKolkata (India)E-mail : [email protected]

T he word science originates from theLatin word scientia. The Compact

Oxford Reference Dictionary mentions twomeanings of science. Firstly, it is systematicstudy of structure and behaviour of physicaland natural worlds through observation andexperiment. Secondly, it is an organized bodyof knowledge on any subject. Similar definitionsof science abound. Many such definitions havebeen collated to arrive at the essence of theterm science. Thus science is described as anenterprise that builds and organizes knowledgein the form of explanations and predictionsabout the natural world which can be tested.Besides, the knowledge must be based onobservable phenomena. It must be capable ofbeing tested for it’s validity by otherresearchers working under same conditions. Itis further stated that science involves objective,careful and systematic study of an area ofknowledge1.

It is obvious that science is by definitionobjective. So it is assumed that it is gender–neutral. But in reality science is not immuneto gendering. Bias of science in favour ofmales is not only covert but also frequentlyquite overt. Physical sciences are stronglygendered in favour of males. Biological sciencesappear to be relatively less so. But overall,science is considered a male preserve. It isopined that scientific thought refuses to admitthat it’s own conclusions often depend onunexamined ideas of masculinity andfemininity2. For instance it is virtuallycustomary to regard all medical problems ofmen and women as disparate even in the faceof overriding similarities in anatomy andphysiology. Masculinity and femininity areconsidered rigid opposites; the underlyingcontinuum is often ignored. Departures fromXY chromosomal make-up in males and XXchromosomal make-up in females areconsidered aberrations. It is all too evidentthat gender-bias of science has resulted inwomen’s under-representation in and flight

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from science. It is a problem of globalproportion. But it is particularly evident inIndia.

Three intertwined strands of theoreticalperspectives attempt to explain thisphenomenon. The first strand emphasizesinherent biological differences between menand women. According to this viewpoint, thesedifferences render men much more suitablefor study of science. The second strand focuseson socialized differences between genders whichsuggest that females are not meant to engagewith science. The third strand holds masculineculture of science responsible for trying, withmuch success, to exclude women3. Thesestrands need to be examined one by one ingreater detail to understand gender inequityin science.

INNATE GENDER DIFFERENCES

This perspective emanates from researcheswhich suggest that genders differ in geneticsand consequent brain organization. Males arereportedly superior in visuo-spatial skills whilefemales seem to show greater facility in verbalskills. Noteworthy gender differences have beenreported in performance on science test-itemsthat involved visual content and required theapplication of knowledge acquired throughengagement in extracurricular activities. Boysgenerally perform better on such test-itemspartly because of their supposedly better visuo-spatial skills. Superior performance of boys isalso explained by the argument that theyengage more in extracurricular activities thatdevelop science and mathematical skills. Ithas been found that boys outperform girls inmathematical reasoning. This has beenattributed to inherent biological differencesbetween genders. But it was admitted thatthese differences are somewhat enhanced by

environmental influences. One has to realizethat stimulating influence of extracurricularactivities is environmental in nature4. Itindicates that innate gender differences (firststrand) are closely linked with socializeddifferences (second strand).

It has been opined on the basis of researchthat gender difference in mathematicalreasoning may partly explain gender differencein science participation and achievement.Mathematical ability forms the basis of scienceespecially physical sciences. Genders evidentlydiffer in spatial abilities required for masteringmathematics. This may be because normalprocesses of brain development operate slightlydifferently in the genders. So neural assembliesused during mathematical thinking tend to beconfigured differently for males and females.It has been argued that males are more likelythan females to acquire optimal configurationof neural assemblies dedicated to mathematics.This arguably endows males with superiorityin mathematical reasoning which helps themmaster science5. But gender difference ingenetics and resultant brain organization arestill not well understood. Many of the researchoutcomes presented to reinforce the perspectiveemphasizing innate gender differences areessentially inconclusive. Besides, role ofenvironment in the so called inherentdifferences between genders requires probe2.

SOCIALIZED GENDER DIFFERENCES

Agents of socialization advocate genderdifference. Processes of socialization operatedifferently for males and females. Throughthese processes individuals generallyinternalize gender schema. Gender schema isa set of beliefs about gender. It is transmittedthrough daily practices (including thoserelating to socialization) of the culture.

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It teaches individuals to view everythingthrough the lens of gender. It makes themevaluate their self-worth in terms of their self-perceived masculinity or femininity. Femalesare socialized to view science as masculineand too difficult to understand. This isparticularly the case with physical science. Sowomen tend to experience fear of success inchoosing to study and doing well in sciencewhich is considered masculine. They feel theywould be considered less feminine and wouldlose their popularity if they ventured into themasculine domain6, 7.

Therefore boys generally manifest morepositive attitudes towards science and seem tohave better understanding of science. Theytend to perceive themselves as high achieversin science. Boys generally exhibit more selfefficacy in mastering science subjects thangirls. Preference for studying mathematics andscience is more among boys than among girls.Aspiration for science-oriented careers ispronounced among boys as compared to theirfemale counterparts. These appear to be theoutcomes of gender-discriminatorysocialization. It is interesting to note thatfemales who have affinity for mathematicsand science possess masculine or androgynousself-perceptions. Psychological androgyny refersto combination of conventionally masculineand feminine attributes in an individual6.

In patrifocal societies like India, womenare actively discouraged from pursuing scienceeducation. Parental discouragement, lack ofmoney, involvement in housework, paucity offemale role models, early marriage etc. aresome stumbling blocks to girls’ scienceeducation in India. In some educated middleclass families especially in urban India,parental encouragement helps girls preparefor careers in science. But this phenomenon isnot extensive.

GENDERED CULTURE OF SCIENCE

Science appears to favour males. Male–biasin science curricula, textbooks, teaching-learning-evaluation styles etc. is manifest.Interactions in science classrooms generallyfavour boys. So girls tend to feel excluded3. Amodel of the relation between gender andscience in schools has been developed. It isbased on interactions among six factors: (a)student behaviour in the science classroom,(b) teacher behaviour in the science classroom,(c) observable student outcomes, (d) studentbeliefs/attitudes (e) teacher beliefs / attitudesand (f) previous experience in socio-culturaleducational context for teachers and students8.It is obvious therefore that perceived masculineculture of science stems from patrifocal cultureof the larger society9. This is reflected bygender inequity in functioning of scientificestablishments. Successful careers in sciencedemand so much of involvement that womenwith children usually face problems2. Manygirls anticipate such problems and either decideagainst studying science or do not aspire forcareers in science.

Thus a theory of sexual division of Indianscientific labour has been proposed. Accordingto this theory, macro-structural features (e.g.,educational system, occupational and classstructure) intersect cultural models of family,gender and science to frame the academicdecision making process. Ultimately apredominantly male scientific community isproduced in India. It follows from this theorythat females in our country generally avoid orflee from science because pursuing a sciencecourse is more rigorous, competitive and costly.So science education for females does not findmuch of social favour9.

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EXTENTS OF PERCEIVED MASCULI-NITY OF SCIENCE SUBJECTS

Although science per se is consideredmasculine, degrees of masculinity differ fordifferent sciences. Physical sciences areperceived more masculine than biological ones.This may be because physical sciences areregarded as most difficult of the sciences.Among physical sciences chemistry isconsidered less masculine than physics.Attitudes of high school students towardschemistry are reportedly more positive thantowards physics. Biology is rated more feminineby women. Men regard biology as neutral interms of masculinity-femininity. This may bebecause biology careers are perceived ashumanitarian. It seems that careers in biologyagree with conventional, socially prescribedroles of women as care-givers. Besides, amongscience students, biology is viewed asparticularly enjoyable. It is apparent thereforethat perceived masculinity of a science isclosely associated with its perceived difficultylevel. The more difficult or abstract a scienceseems the greater is it’s perceived masculinity.Extents of perceived masculinity of sciencesubjects are reflected by gender-specificacademic achievement patterns of thosesubjects. Boys are found to achieve higherthan girls in physics and earth sciences. Butboys’ achievements in biology and chemistryare similar to those of girls. Gender differencein achievement is reported to be widest inphysics and earth sciences than in life sciences.Females may even have a slight edge overmales in life sciences in schoolexaminations3, 4, 5, 10.

REDUCING GENDER–INEQUITY INSCIENCE

At this stage of research it is not definitelyknown whether men are indeed biologically

better suited for science–education. More in-depth and objective research needs to beconducted. Meanwhile, socialized genderdifferences and male-oriented culture of sciencerequire interrogation. Such examination willhelp in discovering ways of ushering in genderequity in science. Remedial actions may startwith consistent school-based counsellingprogramme to boost self confidence and nurtureself efficacy among girls. Boys can also begender-sensitized through such a programme.Parent counselling must also be included asparts of programmes of education initiated bythe government so that women’s long-termengagement with science is encouraged. Sciencecurricula at different educational levels requirerevamp to include topics/activities of interestof both genders. Language used in sciencetextbooks should balance precise analyticalstyle with anecdotal and chatty ones to appealacross the board. Classroom teaching in sciencemust aim for greater inclusivity andcollaboration. Science and mathematicsteachers require being trained to refrain fromconveying false notions that science andmathematics are male domains. Institutionalpolicies need to be changed to make themmore female–friendly. This will facilitatewomen balancing family responsibilities andcareers in science.

REFERENCES

1. http://enwikipedia.org/wiki/science,retrieved on 14.11.2010.

2. V. Geetha, Theorizing feminism: Gender.Stree, Calcutta, pp. 41-42, 2006.

3. www.unr.edu/homepage/crowther/ejse/potvin.pdf , retrieved on 20.3.2010.

4. E. E. Maccoby and C. N. Jacklin, Thepsychology of sex differences, 1, StanfordUniversity Press, Stanford, CA, 1978.

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5. J. P. Byrnes, Gender differences in math:Cognitive processes in an expandedframework, In A.M. Gallagher and J.C.Kaufman (Eds.) Gender differences inmathematics: An integrativepsychological approach, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge, UK, pp.73-98, 2005.

6. S. L. Bem, The lenses of gender:Transforming the debate on sexualinequality, Yale University Press, NewHaven, CT, 1993.

7. M. S. Horner, Sex differences inachievement motivation and performancein competitive and non competitive

situations, Doctoral dissertation,University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1968.

8. I. B. Kahle, L.H. Parker, L.J. Rennieand D. Riley, Educ Psychol, 28, 4, 379-404, 1993.

9. C. Mukhopadhyay, The cultural contextof gendered science: An Indian casestudy, Proceedings of 8th internationalconference on gender, science andtechnology towards sustainabledevelopment: Achieving the 4 e’s:Education, employment, equality,empowerment 1, SATWAC, Ahmedabad,pp. 286-304, 1996.

10. www.uiowa.edu/grpproc/crisp/crisp 5.9htm, retrieved on 14.11.2010.

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FOCUS ON HYPERTENSIONFOCUS ON HYPERTENSIONFOCUS ON HYPERTENSIONFOCUS ON HYPERTENSIONFOCUS ON HYPERTENSION

Rekha Govindan

Hypertension is an important public health problem in developing countriesespecially in adults, aged 40-55 years. Prospective cohort and case-controlstudies conducted in developed as well as developing countries have supportedthe findings that both systolic and diastolic blood pressure have significantrelationships to coronary heart disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, impairedrenal function and other mortality risk factors. Increased life expectancy,urbanization, development and affluence show a strong correlation with increasedhypertension prevalence in urban and rural populations of India. These modifyingfactors operate with other risk factors of hypertension in different combinationsin different parts of the world. Such socio-demographic and lifestyle factorsneed to be focused to bring down the hypertension epidemic that is currentlysweeping India and other parts of South Asia. The nature of genetic involvementin the development of hypertension also requires more studies.

* Department of Biotechnology, Aarupadai VeeduInstitute of Technology, Vinayaka MissionsUniversity, Paiyanoor, Kanchipuram, TN – 503604Email : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

H ypertension is defined as systolicblood pressure (SBP) which is more

than or equal to 140mmHg and diastolic bloodpressure (DBP) more than or equal to 90mmHg(WHO, 2001). Hypertension is considered asone of the most frequent contributor to pre-mature death in developing countries. Recentreports indicated that nearly 1 billion adultshave hypertension and this is predicted toincrease to 1.56 billion by 2025. Borderlinehypertension (SBP 130-139mmHg and/or DBP80-89mmHg) is also an important contributorfor the increased mortality rate1.

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OFHYPERTENSION

The definition of hypertension is usuallymeasured as the level of arterial blood pressureassociated with doubling of long-termcardiovascular risk. The seventh report of theJoint National Committee on Prevention,Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of HighBlood Pressure provides a classification of bloodpressure for adults aged 18 years3. Theclassification is based on the mean of two ormore properly measured seated blood pressurereadings on two or more office visits5.

● Normal : Systolic pressure < 120mmHgand Diastolic pressure < 80mmHg.

● Pre-hypertension : Systolic pressure120-139mmHg and Diastolic pressure80-89mmHg.

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● Stage 1 Hypertension : Systolic pressure140-159mmHg and Diastolic pressure90-99mmHg.

● Stage 2 Hypertension : Systolic pressure≥ 160mmHg and Diastolic pressure≥ 100mmHg.

Hypertension is also classified as Primaryand Secondary, based on its underlying cause.Primary hypertension is by far the mostcommon, making up more than 95% of allcases. The exact causes for primaryhypertension are still unknown, but acombination of factors may be involved,including genes for high blood pressure, lowlevels of nitric oxide, insulin resistance andobesity. Secondary hypertension has anunderlying treatable cause, which may includefor e.g., kidney disorders, endocrine disorders,chronic heavy alcohol and tobacco use1, 5.

PREVALENCE OF HYPERTENSION

Hypertension is assuming epidemicproportions in developed and developingcountries2. It affects nearly 26% of thepopulation worldwide. The prevalence ofhypertension among adults in developedcountries is 25%. Similar prevalence has alsobeen observed in developing countries rangingfrom 10% to 20%. The prevalence ofhypertension in India is reported as rangingfrom 10 to 30.9%. The average prevalence ofhypertension in India is 25% in urban and10% in rural inhabitants. Previously a lowerprevalence of hypertension was reported fromrural Indian populations. However, there hasbeen a steady increase of prevalence over timein rural population studies due to urbanizationof villages into mini towns and towns intocities. At an underestimate, there are 34million in urban and 31.5 million hypertensivesin rural populations. A total of 70% of these

would be Stage I hypertension (systolic BP140–159 and/or diastolic BP 90–99mmHg).With the prevalence of hypertensioncomparable to other countries like U.S, andwith second largest population, in the comingyears India will have one of the largestnumbers of hypertensive patients. Thiscombined with the growing populations,overthrowing China from its position and atendency of hypertension to show up a steeprise, will have the largest number of peoplewith hypertension in the world which willjustify the title for India as the hypertensioncapital of the world1.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF HYPERTENSION

Epidemiological studies conducted in manyparts of the world have consistently identifiedan important and independent link betweenhigh blood pressure and coronary heartdiseases, stroke, congestive heart failure andimpaired renal function. Hypertension isdirectly responsible for 57% of stroke deathsand 24% of coronary heart disease deaths inIndia. The association of blood pressure (BP)with cardiovascular disease risk is continuous.In a study of individuals aged 40 to 69 yearsfor a period of 10 years, the risk doubled witheach 20/10mmHg increase in BP. However,large proportions of most populations havenon optimal BP values. This fact is importantbecause hypertension can be controlled and a2mmHg population-wide decrease in BP canprevent 151,000 stroke and 153,000 coronaryheart disease deaths in India. Recent reportsshow that borderline hypertension (systolicBP 130–139 and/or diastolic BP 85–89mmHg)and Stage I hypertension carry a significantcardiovascular risk and there is a need toreduce this blood pressure1, 4.

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Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the mostoccurring form of secondary hypertension.There is evidence both clinically andexperimentally that “blood pressure goes withthe kidney”. Sodium retention and activationof the renin-angiotensin system have beenconsidered the most important mechanismsinvolved in the elevation of blood pressure insubject with kidney disease. High bloodpressure may permanently damage the narrowblood vessels in the kidney which play a vitalrole in filtration of blood. Over time, thisdamage will keep the kidney from workingproperly5.

HYPERTENSION, GENETIC ANDMODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS

Significant hypertension risk factors aregenetic and environmental. There are a largenumber of genes that are responsible forhypertension. Single-gene-related hypertensionis, however, rare. Intermediate phenotypesare more important and prevalent. Populationand animal studies suggest a polygenic oroligogenic model for hypertension, whereinsusceptibility imparted by any single gene ismodest and quantitative. Such geneticvariations would be expected to modulateresponse to environmental exposure and mayonly achieve significance through cumulativeintegration of lifetime experiences. Themodifiable risk factors operate in differentcombinations in different part of the world.Majority of them include age (> 50 years),male gender, socioeconomic group,anthropometric parameters like body weightespecially truncal obesity, increased insulinlevels, abnormal lipid profile, metabolicsyndrome and lifestyle conditions such asalcohol consumption. Other importantenvironmental factors are smoking, physicalinactivity, dietary excess of sodium and fat,

deficiency of potassium, fibre intake andpsychosocial stress. There is epidemiologicalevidence that population demographic changesin India have increased hypertension riskfactors. There is increasing life expectancy,urbanization, development and affluence inIndia. Affluence, as measured by evaluation ofper capita net domestic product, growth ofproduction and human development index, hasalso increased sharply in India in the recentyears and correlates positively withhypertension. Tobacco production, which is asurrogate for its consumption, is increasing ata very high rate in India. The summation ofthese socio-demographic and lifestyle factorsis accelerating the hypertension epidemiccurrently sweeping India and other developingcountries1, 5.

MEDICATIONS FOR HYPERTENSION

The overall goal of treating hypertension isto reduce hypertension-associated morbidityand mortality. The selection of specific drugtherapy is based on evidence that demonstratesrisk reduction. Non-pharmacologic therapyincludes modifications in lifestyle, food habitsand physical activity. These approaches arerecommended by the JNC 7 but provide onlyminimal control over blood pressure. This modeof treatment chiefly restricts salt intake,alcohol consumptions and focuses on weightreduction in case of overweight and obesepatients. Pharmacologic therapy is based onthe different classes of anti-hypertensive drugs.The important ones are diuretics, ACEinhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers,calcium channel blockers, alpha blockers, betablockers, central alpha agonists andvasodilators. The JNC 7 recommends thiazidetype diuretics as the first line of treatment.Thiazide diuretics control hypertension byinhibiting Na+ and Cl– absorption in the

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kidneys by blocking the sodium-chloride ionsymporter. The ACE inhibitors work byinhibiting the conversion of angiotensin I toangiotensin II, thereby decreasing arteriodarresistance and increasing venurs capacity, asvasoconstriction by angiotensin is curbed.Calcium channel blockers exert their effect byblocking the voltage gated calcium channels incardiac muscles and blood vessels. This leadsto a decrease in intracellular calcium levels.Various drug combinations can be prescribedby the physician based on the stage ofhypertension and patient’s response to drugs3.

COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVETHERAPY

There are many different types ofcomplementary and alternative treatmentsbelieved to be effective against high bloodpressure. Scientific evidence indicates that adiet that containing low saturated fat and saltand high levels of carbohydrates can be helpfulin reducing blood pressure. It has beenscientifically proved that men and women ofall age groups who have a physically activelifestyle, have lower blood pressure or bettercontrol over the blood pressure levels. Ancientrelaxation methods such as yoga, qigong andtai chi are effective in regulating blood pressurelevels. Changes in the diet and lifestyle are amust for improved life. The following lifestylechanges will help treat high blood pressuresuch as reducing body weight, stayingphysically active, quitting smoking or drinkingand eating more nutritious and dietarysupplements5.

PREVENTIVE CARE FOR HYPERTEN-SION

Studies suggest that the following actionscan help prevent high blood pressure:

● Maintaining a proper weight – Accordingto several large-scale, population-basedstudies, being overweight is one of thestrongest indicators of high bloodpressure. Hence, staying at a healthyweight is one of the most effective thingsto prevent hypertension.

● Reducing salt intake – The currentrecommended amount of sodium forhealthy people is no more than 2,400mgper day, and less is better.

● Getting more exercise – Several studiessuggest that sedentary people may be athigher risk for developing hypertension.According to some studies, men who leadphysically active lives can lower theirrisk of developing hypertension by 35 -70 %. Regular exercise also helps to ourweight in check.

● Limiting alcohol - Studies suggest thatpeople who have three or more alcoholicdrinks per day increase their risk fordeveloping hypertension.

The goal in treating high blood pressure isto reduce the risk of serious complications,including heart disease and stroke, by gettingblood pressure under control. Ideally thatmeans reducing blood pressure to 120/80mmHg. However, even a partial lowering ofblood pressure brings benefits. Often, the earlystages of hypertension i.e. when blood pressureelevation is mild, lifestyle changes alone canbe recommended for lowering the BP values5.

CONCLUSION

Epidemiological studies to assess theprevalence of Hypertension are urgently neededin developing countries like India to bringthese populations into preventive care andreduce the mortality risk associated with

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hypertension and associated disorders. Studiesare needed in rural areas to have a base linedata about the prevalence of hypertension andits association with the risk factors. Alsoidentification of subjects with pre-hypertensionaround 35 years of age and using high riskstrategy of prevention of hypertension amongthem is important in the prevention ofhypertension in rural societies to prevent theemerging pandemic of hypertension.

REFERENCES

1. R. Gupta, J Hum Hypertens; 18 : 73-78,2004.

2. PM Kearney, M Whelton, K Reynolds,P Muntner, PK Whelton and J He,Lancet ; 365 : 217-23, 2005.

3. Nelson Mark, Australian Prescriber ; 33,108-112, 2012.

4. Staessen JA, Gasowski J, Wang JG, ThijsL, Hond ED, Boissel J et al., The Lancet

355 : 865-872, 2000.

5. World Health Organization, InternationalSociety of Hypertension Writing Group,Journal of Hypertension; 21 :1983-1992,2003.

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NUTRACEUTICAL, PHARMACEUTICAL AND INDUSTRIALNUTRACEUTICAL, PHARMACEUTICAL AND INDUSTRIALNUTRACEUTICAL, PHARMACEUTICAL AND INDUSTRIALNUTRACEUTICAL, PHARMACEUTICAL AND INDUSTRIALNUTRACEUTICAL, PHARMACEUTICAL AND INDUSTRIALVALUE OF COFFEE PLUM : VALUE OF COFFEE PLUM : VALUE OF COFFEE PLUM : VALUE OF COFFEE PLUM : VALUE OF COFFEE PLUM : FLACOURTIA JANGOMASFLACOURTIA JANGOMASFLACOURTIA JANGOMASFLACOURTIA JANGOMASFLACOURTIA JANGOMAS

(LOUR.) RAEUSCH(LOUR.) RAEUSCH(LOUR.) RAEUSCH(LOUR.) RAEUSCH(LOUR.) RAEUSCH

V. N. Pandey and Neeharika Dubey*

Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch is an indigenous traditional fruit crop ofIndia. The biofunctional parts of the plant have multifarious utilization. Manybiofunctional biomolecules and alkaloids are the secondary power of the fruit.The special emphasis on the plant for sustainable utilization, extensive cultivationand conservation has been given for nutraceutical, industrial and pharmaceuticaluse. The proper agro-techniques will provide health, economy, environment andfood security to the country.

* Experimental Botany and Nutraceutical Laboratory,Department of Botany, DDU Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur-273009 (UP) E.mail:

Edible wild plants are exploited assources of food in many nations

because they provide an adequate level ofnutrition to the inhabitants. Recent studiesshowed that these plant resources play asignificant role in nutrition, pharmaceuticals,food security and income generation.In thismodern era,they can promote good health andhelp to reduce the risk of disease.Thus theyare very important and on this basis the term“Nutraceutical” was coined by Stephen DeFelice.

The word “Nutraceutical” consists of twowords “Nutrition” and “Pharmaceutical”.According to Stephen De Felice, nutraceuticalcan be defined as “A food (or a part of food)that provide medical or health benefitsincluding the prevention and/or treatment of a

disease. Nutraceutical a portmanteau of“nutrition” and “pharmaceutical” refers toextracts of food claimed to have a medicinaleffect on human health.The use ofnutraceuticals as an attempt to accomplishdesirable,therapeutic outcomes with reducedside-effects as compared with other therapeuticagent has met with great monetary success.Thepreference for the discovery and production ofnutraceuticals over pharmaceuticals is wellseen in pharmaceutical, industrial andbiotechnological companies. However, with allof the aforementioned positive pointsnutraceuticals still need support of an extensivescientific study to prove “Their effect withreduce side-effect”8. Examples of nutraceuticalsincludes fortified dairy products (eg.milk) andcitrus fruits (eg.orange juice).

Technically a fruit is the ripened ovary.Fruits are undoubtedly man’s oldest food andmust have always been a source of pleasure

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for him because of their flavour and taste. Inpre-agricultural days, humans lived on wildgame, fruits and succulent herbage.

Cultivation of fruits is a highly profitableenterprise and are classed as “protective foods”absolutely essential for the maintenance ofhealth.Dietitians recommend the consumptionof at least 5-7g of fruits in our daily diet inaddition to cereals,pulses, milk and vegetables.Vegetables and fruits contain water and arelow in proteins and fats and are importantsources of both digestible and indigestiblecarbohydrates. In general, fruits are goodsource of minerals and vitamins, particularlyA and C. Apart from the constituentsmentioned above, fruits contain organic acids(chiefly malic, citric and tartaric acids)etherealsubstances, pigments, tannins and the mostimportant is antioxidants1. Antioxidant is asubstance that opposes oxidation or inhibitsreactions promoted by oxygen or peroxides.Many of these substances being used aspreservatives in various products as in fats,oils, food products and soaps for retarding thedevelopment of rancidity in gasoline and otherpetroleum products for retarding gumformation and other undesirable change andin rubber for retarding ageing. Antioxidantsare a type of complex compounds found in ourdiet that act as a protective shield for our bodyagainst certain disastrous enemies(diseases)such as arterial and cardial diseases, arthritis,cataracts and also premature ageing alongwith several chronic diseases6, 2, 5.

Plants are susceptible to damage caused byactive oxygen and thus develop numerousantioxidants. Different compounds such asvitamins, phytochemicals, carotenoids,flavonoids, phenols and minerals, function asantioxidants.Different phytochemicals arebeing extracted from different plants and areused as nutraceuticals.Many research works

has been done on different fruits related toestimation of phytochemicals, antioxidants andtheir implications in treatment of differentdiseases9, 10.

FLACOURTIA JANGOMAS (LOUR)RAEUSCH

F. jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch commonlyknown as Coffee plum, belongs to familyFlacourtiaceae is very important fruit crop ofGorakhpur region and indigenous to North-Eastern Terai region of U.P., Assam, BiharMaharashtra,Bengal and Orissa and someparts of South India (Fig. 1).

F. jangomas is a small deciduous tree of6-14m height. Old tree trunk and branchesare without thorn whereas woody thorns arepresent when young. Bark is light brown tocopper red or pinkish buff, flaking into thinlamels, smooth and lenticelled. Young branchesare white dotted by numerous sub orbicularlenticels, puberulous or mostly glabrous. Itsfruits are edible with pleasant tart flavor. Theflesh is firm, brownish green and fairly juicy.It is stewed as dessert, made into juice, syrup,jam, marmalade and pickles and also used inchutneys.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

Petiole 6.0-8.0 mm long, leaves alternate,deciduous, pale pink when young, spirally

Fig. 1 : Tree of F. jangomas

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arranged, oval-lanceolate, long point toothed,very thin, both surfaces glossy, blade elliptic,serrate, 7.0 cm-11.0 cm x 3.5cm-4.0cm,papperyand show 3-6 pairs of secondary nerves (Fig. 2and 3).

Inflorescence axillary racemes 1.0-2.0cmlong, subcorymbose, glabrous, few flowered,the male 1.5 -3.0cm and the female 1.0-1.5cmlong.The flowers are white to greenish andcomprise 4 or 5 ovate triangular, flowers bearfragrance of honey before or with the youngfoliage. Pedicels very slender, 0.5-1.0(-1.5) cm.Flowersdioecious, in shortly branched glabrousracemes; male flowers solitary or in clusters;female flowers are solitary.

The no. of sepals are 4(-5). They are ovate,obtuse, greenish, pubescent on both sides,2mm. Disk fleshy, entire or slightly lobed,white or yellow (Fig. 4 and 5). Sepals are

puberulous outside. The androecium consistsof numerous anthers,which are ovate to suborbicular14.

In female flowers sepals are orbicular;stamens 3.0-5.0mm long. Ovary is 4-6 celled,with two ovules per locule. Ovary first flaskshaped, soon subglobulose, with 4-6 stylesconnate into a distinct, 1mm high column, notor slightly free at their apices, each bearing adilate, bilobed, recurved stigma.

Fruit is an ellipsoid berry. They are roundor slightly oval, subglobose, 3/4 to 1 inch(2.0-2.5cm) long, dark maroon to nearly black;the flesh greenish to white or amber, varyingfrom acid to sweet, and containing 7 to 12 flat,hard, pale-yellow seeds (Fig.6 and 7).13

The term “Agro-techniques” is used inscientific techniques to increase the qualityand quantity of a crop. Different types of

Fig. 2 : Leaves of F. jangomas

Fig. 3 : Twig showing woody thorns

Fig. 4 : Staminate flowers of F. jangomas

Fig. 5 : Pistillate flowers of F. jangomas

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agro-techniques have been used for differentcrops as per requirements.

For F. jangomas,simple agro-techniques likeinarching and budding are used and this typeof agriculture will help the farmers to improvetheir crop productivity, quality and economicstatus. F.jangomasis propagated throughseeds.The seeds are slow to germinate;therefore propagation is usually by inarchingor budding onto self-seedlings. It is culturedunder full sun and rich well drained soil.Thisis a multipurpose useful plant, so its cultivationshould be encouraged. This species should beincluded in various tree plantation programs13,12.

F. jangomas is an important biofunctionalplant of this region which contains manybiofunctional molecules viz;phenolic glucosideester, flacourtin, steroid and beta-carotene.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY

Medicinal Properties : The leaves andyoung shoots, which taste like rhubarb areastringent and stomachic. The fruits are usedto overcome biliousness, nausea and diarrhea.The leaf decoction is taken to halt diarrhea.Powdered dried leaves are employed to relievebronchitis and cough. The leaves and bark areapplied on bleeding gums and aching teeth,and the bark infusion is gargled to alleviatehoarseness. Pulverised roots are poultice onsores and skin eruptions and held in themouth to soothe toothache. Dried leaves areused for bronchitis. The ripe fruits have highfiber content together with good proteincontent, low fat and higher amount ofmonosaturated fatty acids as compared topolysaturated fatty acids. It contains significantamount of beta carotene followed by luteinand zeaxanthin, retinol and phylloquinone(vit.k) which are important in the regulationof hemoglobin and fibrinogen in human body.11

Besides these, ascorbic acid (vit.c) and niacinare also present in significant amounts. Ripefruits contain good amount of potassium whichhas a definite role in regulation of bloodpressure followed by phosphorus andmagnesium having their role in controllingosteoporosis. The fruits are eaten in Burma topromote digestion. In Malaysia a decoction ofleaves is used as a drink to treat diarrhea, topromote digestion and the juice squeezed fromthe roots is used to treat herpes infection. InCambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, a decoction ofthe leaves is used as a drink to abort, or thefruits are eaten for the same purpose. A pasteof roots is applied to sores, ulcers, and tosoothe an inflamed throat.

Bark contains a phenolic glucoside ester,flacourtin. The heartwood contains the steroid,

Fig. 6 : Fruits of F. jangomas

Fig. 7 : Seeds of F. jangomas

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ramontoside, beta-sitosterol and its beta-D-glucopyranoside. Fruits are given in jaundiceand enlarged spleen.

BIOACTIVE NATURAL PRODUCTS OFFLACOURTIA JANGOMAS

The bioactive natural products found inF.jangomas are Corymbulosine, Hydnocarpic

acid, Chaulmoogric acid, Tremulacin, Limoninand Jangomolide (limonoid) (Table-1).

Bioprospection : Fruits have a pleasanttart flavour. The flesh is firm brownish greenand fairly juicy. Sometimes the fits may beastringent. For eating out of hand, the fruit isrolled between the hands to reduce astringency

Table-1: Bioactive molecules, Chemical structure and their Properties.

Properties

Natural Product withAntitumor Activity

Curative action in treat-ment of Leprosy

Curative action in treat-ment of Leprosy

Anti-inflammatory action

Neuroprotective effects andantiviral properties.

Antibilious and effective inliver infections.

Bioactive Products

Corymbulosine

Hydnocarpic acid

Chaulmoogric acid

Tremulacin

Limonin

Jangomolide(limonoid)

Chemical Structure

H O

H

O

O O O

O

O

O

COOH

hydnocarpic acid

COOH

chaulmoogric acid

HO

OOHHO

O

O

OH

O

O

O O

H

O

O

H

HOO

O

O

O

H2CCr H

O

H O H

OCHO O

O

HC2

O

O

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and is better liked than that of other species.

When slightly under ripe, it is used to make

jellies. The acidic young shoots are eaten in

Indonesia. It contains moisture 78.28%; protein

: 6.16%;fat : 0.8%;sugar: 9.85%; ash : 2%;

carbohydrates : 11.78% and crude fibre : 9.6%.

The wood is red or scarlet, is closed grained,

hard, brittle, durable and polishes well. It is

used for agricultural implements or for block

sheaves7. Bioprospection of F. jangomas as

nutritional food, medicinal, industrial,

biofunctional biomolecules and other

importance has been given (Fig.8).

Thus F.jangomas is a very important and

useful plant so special emphasis should be

given for its sustainable utilization, cultivation

and research work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS :

Authors are thankful to Head, Department

of Botany, DDU, Gorakhpur University,

Gorakhpur for providing the laboratory

facilities.

REFERENCES :

1. R.G. Alscher and J.L. Hess, Antioxidants

in Higher Plants 1993.CRC Press, BocaRatan.

2. Boyer and Liu, Nutr. J. 1, 3, 5, 2004.

Fig. 8 : Polyvalent Utilization and Bioprospection of Flacourtia jangomas.

Propagatedthrough seeds

Indigenous in the area of Terairegion of U.P. (Gorakhpur)

Fruits are used in biliousness,nausea, diarrhoea, osteoporosis,jaundice, etc.

Fruits are edible.Used in making jamsand jellies etc.

Origin and Evolution Seeds are antirheumatic

High FoodValue

NutritionalFood

Bioprospection MedicinalImportance

Leaves and youngshoots are astringentand stomachic, used intoothache, bleedinggums, bronchitis,abortion purpose etc.

Bark is used in bleedinggums, aching teeth andits infusion is gargled toalleviate hoarseness.

Gum is used asanticholerin, used as agargle, applied to eczemaand skin diseases.

Roots are used on soresand skin eruptions heldin mouth to smoothtoothache.

Nutraceuticallyimportant

Industiralvalue Biomolecules

Nutraceuticals can beused in the food andhealth industries.

Phenolic glucoside ester,flacourtin, steroid, romontoside,beta-sitosterol and its beta-D-glucopyranoside, bexta-carotene,lutein, zeaxanthin, retionl andphylloquinone

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3. Q.C.B. Cronk, and J.L. Fuller, Plantinvaders 241, 2001. EarthscanPublications, Ltd., London.

4. S.L. De Felice, FIM Rationale andproposed guidelines for the NutraceuticalResearch and Education Act. – NREA,November 10. Foundation for innovationin medicine 2002.

5. L. Giamperi, D. Fraternale, A. Bucchiniand D. Ricci, Fitoterapia,75, 2, 221-224,2004.

6. C. Guo, J. Yang, J. Wei, Y. Li, J. Xu, Y.Jiang. Nutrition Research, 23, 12, 1719–1726, 2003.

7. Julia F.Morton and F.L. Miami In: Fruitsof Warm Climates Kei Apple p. 315-319,1987.

8. E.K. Kalra, AAPS pharma Sci. 5, 2, 25,2003.

9. M. Messina and V. Messina, NutritionalImplications of Dietary Phytochemicals,

In: Dietary Phyto-chemicals in CancerPrevention and Treatment 1996, PlenumPress, New York.

10. V.N. Pandey, Nidhi Gupta, A.K.Dwiwedi, A.K. Srivastava and R.K.

Pandey, SCITECH OPI- Vol.1, 1-24,

2006.

11. Deepanjali Srivastava, S.K. Prabhuji and

G.P. Rao, International Journal of

Phytomedicines and Related Industries.

1, 1, 2009.

12. Smith and C. Albert, FolraVitiensis nova:

a new flora of Fiji. 2 p. 810, 1981.

13. Van Steenis, C.G.G.J., Flora

Malesiana,series I, 14, 1954.

14. L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz, The

Families of Flowering plants:

Descriptions, illustration identification

and information retrieval, 9th September

1992.

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REMOTE SENSING AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN DISASTERREMOTE SENSING AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN DISASTERREMOTE SENSING AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN DISASTERREMOTE SENSING AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN DISASTERREMOTE SENSING AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN DISASTERMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

Roopa V.

INTRODUCTION

R emote Sensing is a revolutionary toolthat can be used for obtaining

information about an object by observing itfrom a distance and without coming into actualcontact with it. In fact, when we see an objectand understand what it is, our eye is sensingthat object remotely. This is a broad definition,but we generally use this term for observingour earth’s surface from space using satellitesor from the air using aircraft which have beenmodified suitably.

Remote sensing is useful to many variety ofapplications in the areas of high relevance toevery country in the world. The civilianapplication areas include Agriculture, Forestry,Oceans, the study of Biodiversity, monitoringurban growth, mapping of waste lands,

* Department of Electronics, Sree Siddaganga Collegeof Arts, Science and Commerce for Women, Tumkur,Karnataka, India. Email : [email protected]

Impact of natural disasters on life and property and ability to predict themwould be one of the main contribution of remote sensing technology. Involvingremote sensing with GIS and web technology makes it an extremely powerfultool to identify indicators of potential disasters. Information sharing throughInternet reduces data acquisition time and thus providing efficient way to carryout real time disaster predictions (floods, forest fire, tsunami and hurricaneetc.). Changing land use and assessment of its impact on the system in generalwithin reasonable time frame and with greater degree of accuracy becomespossible with new technology.

Disaster management and managing waterResources. These studies are of very important,especially to the developing countries.

Space platforms or Satellite systemscomprise of (i) Space segments (ii) Sensorsystems & (iii) Ground segments.

The Space segment consists of the satellitewhich is placed in the orbit and in which asensor system is mounted on it, which in turnacts as the instrument that observes andtransmits information to the earth receivingstations. In some cases provision exists in theform of a tape recorder which records theobserved information, and transmits it to theearth receiving station located at a differentplace other than the place which is beingobserved. The process of observing andtransmitting the information to the earthreceiving station is a continuous process.

Sensors are instruments which sense theobjects on the surface of the earth and recordsthem. Camera is also a form of sensor, which

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● Coverage of inaccessible or difficultterrain like mountains, thick forestsetc. are imaged.

● Since data is obtained in digital form &in different channels, computerprocessing and analysis becomespossible.

● Economic in cost and time.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The impact of natural disasters can bereduced through a proper disastermanagement, including disaster prevention,disaster preparedness (forecasts, warning,prediction), rapid and adequate disaster relief.Reduction of natural disasters can be successfulonly when adequate knowledge is obtainedabout the expected frequency and magnitudeof hazardous events. Some types of disasters,like, floods or earthquakes may originate veryrapidly and may affect larger areas. The useof synoptic earth observation methods hasproven to be especially suitable in the field ofdisaster management. In a number ofcountries, where warning systems and buildingcodes are more advanced, remote sensing ofthe earth has been found successful to predictthe occurrence of disastrous phenomena andto warn the people on time.

(a) Earthquakes

Remote sensing techniques can giveadditional information available throughseismic techniques. Generally, the faultsassociated with earthquakes can be identifiedon good resolution satellite imagery. For thispurpose land use and geological maps can givevital pointers towards potential earthquakezones. Satellite sensors that are active in thevisible and near infrared spectral band wouldbe useful. Though IRS, NOAA (www.usgs.gov),

records the object it looks at and the lightreflected reacts with the sensitized coating onthe film which, when processed, reveals theobject.

Satellite mounted sensors sense the variousobjects in the form of digital format of theenergy reflected. The data obtained in digitalform can be converted to picture format byelectro-optical conversion. Thus, we get apicture or image of each scene covering on theearth’s surface. Different satellite systems mayhave different types of sensors, depending uponthe design and specific needs1.

Fig 1. Remote Sensing Process

Remote sensing technology uses the visible,infrared and microwave regions of the solarradiation to collect information about thevarious objects on the earth’s surface. Theelectromagnetic spectrum has a visible region,which we use to view an object with our eyes.The sun’s energy, when it falls on the earth,gets reflected that we generally use in remotesensing.

ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE REMOTESENSING

● A large or wide area can be covered bya single image/Photo. DifferentSatellites with different sensor systemsmay cover different extent of areas.

● We can get the data of any arearepeatedly at regular intervals of time,enabling monitoring of changes.

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SPOT (www.SPOTimage.fr), LANDSAT(www.nasa.gov) and IKONOS(www.spaceimaging.com) all of them collectthe required data, LANDSAT imageries aremore popular because of the long historicaldata archives of the satellite and its costeffectiveness. Conventionally, aerial remotesensing (airborne radar) would be thought asmore effective to delineate unconsolidateddeposits sitting on fault zones, upon whichmost of the destruction occurs, and to identifyareas where an earthquake can triggerlandslides but now with 1m resolution satelliteimageries professionals are very hopeful toapply more and more of remote sensingtechniques.

(b) Volcanic Eruptions

Volcano monitoring is important simplybecause an unexpected awakening can savethousands of lives over a wide area. Remotesensing techniques can play an important roleby providing the vital information with onlylimited fieldwork, which saves effort andmoney. Thermal infrared (TIR) imagery cancapture the volcanic heat provided the spatialresolution is high enough7. Also, PAN stereo-pair imagery, due to its 3-D capabilities, ofmoderate resolution would serve the purposeof finding out the evidence of hazardousactivities. An IR pattern of geothermal heat inthe vicinity of a volcano is an indication ofthermal activity, which many inactivevolcanoes display. Changes in thermal patternscan be obtained for a volcano only throughperiodic IR imageries of very high resolution,like that of IKONOS, taken under similarconditions of data acquisition. The temperatureand gas emission changes, however, can bemonitored, through a geostationary satellite,at ideal locations identified on the thermalimagery5.

(c) Tsunamis

Tsunamis are water waves or seismic seawaves caused by large-scale sudden movementof the sea floor (due to earthquakes; landslides;volcanic eruptions or man-made explosions).With increasing population and developmentalong most coastlines, there is a correspondingincrease in tsunami disaster risk in recentyears. Tsunamis differ from other earthquakehazards in that they can cause serious damagethousands of kilometers from the causativefaults. Once they are generated, they are nearlyimperceptible in mid ocean, where their surfaceheight is less than a meter. They travel atincredible speeds, as much as 900 km/hr, andthe distance between wave crests can be asmuch as 500 km. As the waves approachshallow water, a tsunami’s speed decreasesand the energy is transformed into waveheight, sometimes reaching as high as 25 m,but the interval of time between successivewaves remains unchanged, usually between20 and 40 minutes. When tsunamis near thecoastline, the sea recedes, often to levels muchlower than low tide, and then rises as a giantwave. Satellite or aerial photography, especiallywhen combined with a good GIS database ofan area, can provide critical information foremergency managers, including damage tostructures, transportation and communicationlinks, and other “life-line” infrastructurecomponents.

(d) Hurricanes

These large-scale low-pressure systemsoccur throughout the world over zones referredto as “tropical cyclone basins”. Thedetermination of past hurricane paths for theregion can be derived from remotely senseddata from the U.S. National Oceanographicand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

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satellite sensors designed and operated formeteorological purposes. The Tropical Analysisand Forecast Branch of the Tropical PredictionCenter (TPC) provides year-round productsinvolving marine forecasts, aviation forecastsand warnings (SIGMETs), and surfaceanalyses. The unit also provides satelliteinterpretation and satellite rainfall estimatesfor the international community. The TechnicalSupport Branch provides support for satellitedata processing. One of the key lessons NASAlearned during Hurricane Andrew was that itis critical to select appropriate data and put ittogether to make informed decisions. Due tothe lengthy process required to gather thedata, it was suggested that communities notwait until a disaster happens to do so. Imageryis an important aspect of a community’sdatabase. The next generation of satellitessuch as Earth watch’s Early Birds andAstrovision will significantly enhance theremote sensing capabilities. At present, forplotting new data, the best sensor is theAVHRR with its 2,940 km swath, twice-a-daycoverage and appropriate resolution. The redband is useful for defining day time cloudsand vegetation, while the TIR band is usefulfor both day time and night time cloudobservations.

(e) Floods

According to the Federal EmergencyManagement Agency (FEMA) of the USA,floods are the second most common andwidespread of all natural disasters. Withinthe USA an average of more than 225 peopleare killed and more than $3.5 billion inproperty is damaged by heavy rain and floodingeach year 6,11. Scientists and researchers havebeen investing valuable hours and funds infinding out more accurate and fastermethodologies to predict and estimate flood

depth and extent. Satellite imagery can bevery effective for flood management in thefollowing way:

● Detailed mapping that is required forthe production of hazard assessmentmaps and for input to various types ofhydrological models;

● Developing a larger scale view of thegeneral flood situation within a rivercatchment or coastal belt with the aimof identifying areas at greatest riskand in the need of immediate assistance;and

● Monitoring land use/cover changes overthe years to quantify prominent changesin land use/cover in general and extentof impervious area in particular8-10.

Floods are result of excess runoff, whichcould increase or decrease depending onvarious factors, such as, intensity of rainfall,snow melt, soil type, soil moisture conditionsand land use and land cover. Runoff fromrural and urban areas is generally a responseof excess water after the processes ofinfiltration. Obviously, urban regions will havemore of impervious land where infiltrationcannot occur. On the other hand, rural drainagearea will have some water absorbed in the soiltill it reaches saturation level sending the restto contribute to direct runoff. Soil erosion, too,is greatly controlled by vegetation. Hence,land use classes, as determined by remotesensing, have an implicit hydrologicalsignificance in terms of water yield, peak flowsand soil erosion. Continuing deforestation leadsto more sediment yield downstream causingdamages in flood plain agricultural fields.Since, sudden increase in river flows mightalso cause floods, the stakeholders here arenot only the watershed management agencies

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and people living in the region but alsoinsurance agencies who provide insuranceagainst flood damages2-4.

CONCLUSION

Natural disasters cause damage to life andproperty all over the world in various forms.The pressure on the earth’s resources causedby increased population has resulted inincreased vulnerability of human and theirinfrastructure to the natural hazards, whichhave always existed. The result is a dynamicequilibrium between these forces in whichscientific and technological development playsa major role. Recurring occurrences ofearthquakes, floods, landslides and forest firesneed to be studied using today’s advancedtechnology to find effective preventivemeasures. Space technology can help thedisaster mitigation process through betterfuture scenario predictions; detection ofdisaster prone areas; location of protectionmeasures and safe alternate routes etc. Post-disaster satellite data acquisition helps indisaster recovery; damage claim process andfast compensation settlement.

REFERENCES

1. E.C. Barrett, M.J. Beaumont, and R.W.Herschy, Remote Sensing Review, 4,2,351-466, 1990.

2. H.N. Feidas, C. Cartalis and A.P.Cracknell, International Journal ofRemote. Sensing., 21, 5, 1047-1072,2000.

3. B.G.H. Gorte, ‘Land-use and CatchmentCharacteristics” in Remote Sensing inHydrology and Water Management,edts., G.A. Shhultz, and E.T. Engman,Springer,133-156, 2000.

4. K. Okamoto, S. Yamakawa, and H.Kawashima, International Journal ofRemote Sensing, 19, 2, 365-371, 1998.

5. C. Oppenheimer, International Journalof Remote Sensing, 18, 1, 5-37, 1997.

6. G.S. Pankiewicz, International Journalof Remote Sensing, 18, 4, 887-898, 1997.

7. L. Petkov, M. Pieri, F. Maselli, and G.Maracchi, Journal of American Society.PE&RS, 51, 3, 127-136, 1996.

8. D. Shrubsole, Canadian WaterResources Journal, 26, 4, 461-479, 2001.

9. S.P. Simonovic, Canadian WaterResources Journal, 24, 3, 203-223,1999.

10. P.A. Townsend, and S.J. Walsh,Geomorphology, 21, 295-312, 1998.

11. http://www.fema.gov/library.

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GNOTOBIOTIC ANIMALS : A POTENT TOOL FOR LIFEGNOTOBIOTIC ANIMALS : A POTENT TOOL FOR LIFEGNOTOBIOTIC ANIMALS : A POTENT TOOL FOR LIFEGNOTOBIOTIC ANIMALS : A POTENT TOOL FOR LIFEGNOTOBIOTIC ANIMALS : A POTENT TOOL FOR LIFESCIENCE RESEARCHSCIENCE RESEARCHSCIENCE RESEARCHSCIENCE RESEARCHSCIENCE RESEARCH

S. Parthiban, S. Malmarugan, J. Johnson Rajeswar and V. Kumar

Gnotobiotics is the scientific study of animals or other organisms that are raisedin germ free environments or ones that contain only specifically known germs.The gnotobiotic laboratory animal is potentially a very valuable tool forinvestigating any suspected interaction between the host and its associatedmicroflora or between different components of that flora. However, like manyother good ideas, the production of gnotobiotes is simple in concept butcomplicated in execution. In the early stages the greatest obstacles to thegeneral use of germ free animals were the expense and the restricted amount ofspace that could be maintained free from contaminants. Nowadays, with modernisolators and facilities it is easier to produce gnotobiotic animals at relativelymodest price.

INTRODUCTION

G notobiotic animals (or) gnotobiote arean animal stock or strain in which

only certain known strains of bacteria andother microorganisms are present. Technically,the term also includes germ-free animals, asthe status of their microbial communities isalso known4. Gnotobiotic animals are derivedby aseptic hysterotomy or hysterectomy,embryo transfer or sterile hatching of eggsand are continuously maintained using aseptictechnique where the microbial status of theanimal is fully defined; includes both germfree and defined flora animals. Animals rearedin a gnotobiotic colony are devoid of normalflora, has poorly developed immune systems,

lower cardiac output, thin intestinal walls,low antibody titers low metabolism rate andhigh susceptibility to infectious pathogens3.Lower amounts of serum gamma-globulinshave been observed in germ-free animals ofseveral species, and the quantity increases onassociation with microorganisms. Nuttall andThierfelder are considered pioneers ofgnotobiotics and germ free research. Germfree mice have adapted anatomically andphysiologically to life without microbes.

DERIVATION OF GNOTOBIOTICANIMALS

The production of germ-free animals orbirds depends upon the fact that embryosdeveloping inside an egg or the mammalianuterus are microbiologically sterile, providedthat they come from healthy parent stock. Theuterus is removed and passed into the isolator

* Department of Veterinary Microbiology, andDepartment of Veterinary Pathology, VC & RI,Tirunelveli and TANUVAS. Email: [email protected].

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through germicidal dip tank. Once inside theisolator, the uterus is opened and young onesare removed, cleaned, and then placed withfoster germ free females. Hysterectomy doesnot eliminate pathogens that may contaminatefetus after uterine implantation or that isvertically transmitted. Vertical transmissionof pathogens can be avoided by using embryotransfer2.

Birds are relatively easy to be producedgerm-free. Germfree chicks, turkeys, andJapanese quail can be obtained by passingsurface-sterilized eggs through a germicidaltrap into a sterile isolator, where they areallowed to hatch. The fertilized eggs must beobtained from flocks free from microorganismsthat invade the egg in the oviduct.

Rats and mice have been bred germ-freethrough many generations; other species havebeen bred but are not yet availablecommercially. The guinea-pig is well-developedat birth and readily takes solid food within aday or two, but the operator must work fastduring delivery into the isolator as the fetusesdo not survive more than few minutes afterremoval from the mother.

ISOLATOR TECHNOLOGY INGNOTOBIOTICS

Isolators are enclosures used to create thesterile environment. They must be made ofmaterial with an impervious physical barrier;main components are the chamber, air supply,air inlet and outlet, transfer port, and gloves;they come as rigid, semi-rigid, and flexiblefilm isolators made of plastic or stainless steel. All manipulation of animals and suppliesoccurs within the chamber via the use ofgloves and sleeves that are attached to theisolator walls. The glove is the most vulnerablepart of the isolator in terms of contamination

potential. The transfer port is the enclosurethat provides a transition between the isolatorchamber and room environment; used forloading and removing items from the chamberit is the physical barrier to preventcontamination of the chamber. Isolators haveHEPA filtration on air entry and exhaust. Positive pressure is used to preventintroduction of airborne contaminants throughany punctures and is maintained when rearinggermfree or gnotobiotic animals. If biohazardousagents are used in the incubator, negativepressure should be used. Air exchange ratesare usually higher than the animal room someare 30 or more air exchanges per hour insidethe chamber. Test the chamber for leakageusing the gas leak detection test. The longterm success of any gnotobiotic operationdepends on the sterilization of the isolatorchamber and the equipment/supplies that enterit6.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OFGNOTOBIOTIC ANIMALS

Mammals must be aseptically derived byhysterectomy or hysterotomy as late as possiblebefore term. Inside the isolator the young arehand-fed on a sterilized liquid diet similar incomposition to the mother’s milk. If the animalsare successfully brought to sexual maturitynatural breeding can continue in the germ-free environment and other strains or evenother species may be fostered on to lactatingfemales. Rats and mice have been bred germ-free through many generations; other specieshave bred but are not yet availablecommercially. Among the larger animals thedifficulties of sterile delivery increase withtheir size. Beagle dogs have been satisfactorilyreared and used for physiological experiments.Germ-free pigs have been produced for manyyears, although the problems of handling and

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caging limit their usefulness beyond the firstfew weeks of life. Lambs, calves and goatshave all been maintained germ-free throughoutthe life.

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TOGNOTOBIOLOGY

Germfree (axenic) animal is free of allforeign life forms (e.g., bacteria, viruses, etc.)apart from it thought to be hypothetical statebecause indigenous or heretoforeuncharacterized viruses may be integrated intohost genome.

Defined flora animals are maintained inisolated environment and are intentionallyassociated with one or more known life forms,usually microorganisms.

Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) areanimals free from specific pathogens butotherwise have an undefined flora.

Restricted flora – gnotobiote associatedwith altered Schaedler flora from isolator butis then moved into a maximum barrier roomwhere it can become colonized with additionalorganisms (but remains free of adventitialpathogens); higher level of SPF.

Conventional animal – animal reared ina room with an unknown microflora andunknown disease status.

IMPORTANCE OF GNOTOBIOTICANIMAL

The gnotobiotic principles used in theproduction of infection free laboratory animalsevolved from the efforts to rear and studyanimals in the absence of microbes or in

association with one or more pure cultures ofmicrobes3. The gnotobiotic animal is potentiallya very valuable tool for investigating anysuspected interaction between the host and itsassociated microflora or between differentcomponents of that flora. The study of nutritionand metabolism is one to which the gnotobiotehas made a significant contribution1. Germfreeanimals are used in research involving variousfields like toxicology, pollution control,autoimmune disorders, drug metabolism,genetic expression and vaccine tests5.

REFERENCES

1. M. E. Coates, D. Hewitt and P. Golob.British Journal of Nutrition, 24, 223-225, 1970.

2. J. W. Foster, and J. L. Slonczewski,Microbiology, an Evolving Science, 2010,Second edition. 871 W. W. Norton &Company.

3. B. S. Wostmann, Germfree andGnotobiotic Animal Models :Background and Applications 1996, 54-124 CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.

4. J.A.Reyniers, Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences, 78, 1, 3, 1959.

5. D.W. Van Bekkum, Radiation biology:In the germ-free animal in research1968, 202-243, Academic Press London& New York.

6. J. Fox, S. Barthold, M. Davisson,C.Newcomer, F. Quimby and A. Smith,The Mouse in Biomedical Research,2006, 2nd edition, 52-78, 200-246.Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego.

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BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS AND DETECTION SYSTEMS INBIOLOGICAL WEAPONS AND DETECTION SYSTEMS INBIOLOGICAL WEAPONS AND DETECTION SYSTEMS INBIOLOGICAL WEAPONS AND DETECTION SYSTEMS INBIOLOGICAL WEAPONS AND DETECTION SYSTEMS INHUMAN POPULATIONHUMAN POPULATIONHUMAN POPULATIONHUMAN POPULATIONHUMAN POPULATION

S. Parthiban*, P. Pothiappan, M. Ranjithkumar, M. S. Murugan,S. Malmarugan, J. Johnson Rajeswar and V. Kumar

This article gives an insight to the bioweapons and possible measures to betaken to strengthen the war against Biological Warfare agents. Biological weaponsare a threat to the health and well-being of human’s. Biological weapons shouldnot only be considered a national security issue, but also public health priority.This paper will clarify the definitions associated with biological weapons andclassification of Bio-weapons based on their effects. Adequate environmentaldetection and monitoring, improved vaccines and prophylactic drugs are allpathways toward defending against the biological attack.

* Department of Veterinary Microbiology, VeterinaryCollege and Research Institute, Tirunelveli,Email : [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

B iological agents are living organismscapable of infecting and causing both

sickness and death in people, animals andplants. There are seven types of biologicalagents: parasites, fungi and yeasts, bacteria,rickettsia and chlamydia, viruses, prions, andtoxins. Of these biological agents only bacteria,viruses and toxins are considered whenreferring to agents that can be used in abiological attack. While toxins are included inthe list of biological agents, they are not livingorganisms, but small proteins produced bybacteria that can poison a person, animal orplant. Bacteria, viruses and toxins can bespread through the contamination of food,water or fomites; via vectors such as insects;or as aerosols suspended in wet or dryformulations1, 4.

There are four classifications for howbiological agents can be used to harm or kill aperson, animal or plant. Biological Warfare(BW) is the military use of biological agents,where targets of agents are predominatelysoldiers, governments, or resources that mighthinder a nation’s ability to attack and/or defenditself. Bioterrorism (BT) is the threat or use ofbiological agents that, like most forms ofterrorism, is intended to make political,religious or personal statements togovernments and populations through attacksprimarily aimed at civilians or resources thataffect the civilian economy7. With fewexceptions, bioterrorism is non-state sponsored.Biocrime (BC) is the threat or use of biologicalagents for individual objectives such as revengeor financial gain. The fourth classification isBioaccident (BA), defined as the unintentionalrelease of an agent from a laboratory or otherfacility. Biocrimes and Bioaccidents compriseevents that typically have small effects onpopulations.

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With the realization that the threat ofbioterrorism was increasing, the Centers forDisease Control and Prevention (CDC) hasdeveloped a strategic plan for the response tobiological and chemical terrorism. The plan ofthe CDC outlines 3 categories of biologicalagents that could or have been used by terroristgroups. The categories are grouped by priorityfor preparation as follows5 :

Category A : This group consists of thehighest priority of agents. These agents pose arisk to national security because they can onlybe disseminated or transmitted person toperson, causes high mortality with potentialfor major public health impact, might causepublic panic and social disruption and requirespecial action for public health preparedness.The category A agents are variola major(smallpox), Bacillus anthracis (anthrax),Yersinia pestis (plague), Francisella tularensis(tularemia), arena viruses (Lassa fever andArgentine hemorrhagic fever and relatedviruses), filoviruses (Ebola hemorrhagic feverand Marburg hemorrhagic fever) andClostridium botulinum toxin (botulism).

Category B : This group consists of thesecond highest priority of agents because theyare moderately easy to disseminate, causesmoderate morbidity and low mortality ratesand require specific enhancements of diagnosticcapacity and surveillance activities. Thecategory B agents are Coxiella burnetti (Qfever), Brucella spp (brucellosis), Burkholderiamallei (glanders), alphaviruses (Venezuelan/eastern/western encephalitides), ricin toxinfrom Ricinus communis (castor beans), epsilontoxin of C perfringens, and Staphylococcusenterotoxin B. A subset of Category B agentsincludes pathogens that are food or waterborneand include Salmonella spp, Shigelladysenteriae, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Vibriocholerae, and Cryptosporidium parvum3.

Category C : The category C agents arethose that include emerging pathogens thatcould be engineered for mass dissemination inthe future because of availability, ease ofproduction, dissemination and potential forhigh morbidity and mortality and major healthimpact. The category C agents are Nipah virus,Hantaviruses, tickborne hemorrhagic feverviruses, tickborne encephalitis viruses, yellowfever and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.

DETECTING BIOLOGICAL WARFAREAGENTS

A satisfactory battlefield biological defenserequires a sensitive environmental monitoringsystem to be employed, one that can detectthe presence of toxic or infectious biologicalmaterials in the environment in a mannersimilar to chemical agent detectors2. Adistinction must be made here betweendetection of biological agents in theenvironment (detection, monitoring, or standoffdetection) and medical diagnostics (detectionof biological agents, components of biologicalagents, or antibodies to biological agents intissue samples such as blood or other bodyfluids). Environmental biological detectorsmust be reliable and sensitive to be useful,and also must be able to determine when apreviously contaminated area is safe. Medicaldiagnostics depend on fieldable laboratorytesting.

ENVIRONMENTAL DETECTION ANDMONITORING

Once a biowarfare agent has been dispersed,detection of the aerosol prior to its arrivalover the target, in time for personnel to dontheir protective equipment, is the best way tominimize or prevent casualties. Evolvingdetector systems are an area of intense interestwith the highest priority within the researchand development community. A Biological

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Integrated Detection System (BIDS) will bevehicle mounted and will test environmentalair samples, by concentrating appropriateaerosol particle sizes in the air samples, thensubjecting the sample to analytical- andantibody-based detection for selected agents.The Tactical Biological Standoff DetectionSystem will employ ultraviolet laser and laserinduced fluorescence to detect biological aerosolclouds at a standoff distance of up to 5 km.This system will be available for fixed-siteapplications or inserted into various transportplatforms such as fixed-wing or rotary aircraft,tactical vehicles, or unmanned aerial vehicles.The other standoff detection system now inthe research and development phase is theStrategic Biological Standoff Detection System,which will provide a long range/large areaaerosol detection, tracking, and mappingcapability6. This system has the potential todetect aerosol clouds out to ranges of 100 km.The information will be used to provide earlywarning, enhance contamination avoidanceefforts, and cue tactical-level (i.e., unit-level)detection assets.

The principal difficulty in detectingbiological agent aerosols stems fromdifferentiating the artificially generatedbiological warfare cloud from the backgroundof organic matter normally present in theatmosphere. Therefore, medical protection(vaccines and other prophylactic measures),intelligence, medical surveillance and medicaldiagnostics, and physical protection duringtimes of high threat must be relied on asprimary defenses in the absence of currentlyfielded environmental biological detectors8.

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SURVEILLANCE

An epidemiological surveillance system thatclosely monitors unusual illnesses or outbreaks

of disease is also extremely important. It isdifficult for command medical advisors to knowif a disease outbreak is consistent with abiowarfare attack unless background rates ofdisease for an area of operations are known.Surveillance programs must be specificallytailored to both the mission and thegeographical area where the mission is based,and they must be focused toward specific,diagnosable disease entities. Genericsurveillance systems that lump disease andinjury into broad categories such as“respiratory” or “dermatological” are nearlyuseless as epidemiological indicators of abiological warfare attack. Early and rapidanalysis of specific epidemiological surveillancedata may be the first clue, however, that suchan attack has occurred. In addition to specificclinical clues that suggest illness from biologicalthreat agents (eg, a widened mediastinum inthe terminal phases of inhalational anthrax),

MEDICAL DIAGNOSTICS

Medical diagnostics are also extremelyimportant. A field medical laboratory capableof identifying live agents or toxins quickly andaccurately in medical samples is an absolutenecessity if the use of biological weapons bythe enemy is a Possibility. Viral agents andtoxins present the most difficult diagnosticproblems for current diagnostic tests, whichare based on Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR), radioimmunoassays, or Enzyme-LinkedImmuno Sorbent Assays (ELISAs). Laboratorycapabilities must be tailored carefully tointelligence information on enemy biologicalwarfare capabilities and also to informationon specific endemic diseases that are likely tooccur in the theater of operations. Both ELISA-based testing and specific testing for minuteamounts of specific genetic material ofbiological agents in medical samples usingPCR techniques are feasible for deployment

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and use in a field setting. Both epidemiological

surveillance and field laboratory capabilities

are receiving a great deal of attention in the

control of biological warfare7.

REFERENCES

1. Carus Seth, The Threat of Bioterrorism

National Defense University Strategic

Forum. No. 127, September 1997.

2. G. Christopher, T.J. Cieslak, J. Pavlin,

& E. Eitzen, JAMA, 278, 5, 412-417,

1997.

3. T. Inglesby, The Germs of War: how

biological weapons could threaten

civilian populations, The Washington

Post, Washington DC, December 9,

1999.

4. Arnold, Kaufmann, “Basic Concepts ofInfectious Diseases and Bioterrorism”,Presentation at the OFDA/CDCWorkshop on Bioterrorism.

5. S.A. Khan, and J.M. Sage,MMWR weekly report, 49 (RR04), 1-14,April 21, 2000.

6. W.C. Patrick, Overview of BiologicalWarfare, Md, Frederick, October 30,1992. Unpublished manuscript.

7. R. Ursano Aviation Space &Environmental Medicine, 59, 12, 1123–1124, 1988.

8. US Army Medical Research Institute ofInfectious Diseases. MedicalManagement of Biological CasualtiesHandbook. Fort Detrick, Md, Frederick,USAMRIID, August 1993.

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BIOHYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM ALGAE : AN OVERVIEWBIOHYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM ALGAE : AN OVERVIEWBIOHYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM ALGAE : AN OVERVIEWBIOHYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM ALGAE : AN OVERVIEWBIOHYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM ALGAE : AN OVERVIEW

Chiranjib Banerjee, Pratyoosh Shukla, Ramesh Chandra and Rajib Bandopadhyay*

Few microalgae are able to produce hydrogen using light and water underanaerobic condition. Two enzymes viz. nitrogenase and hydrogenase areresponsible for the production of hydrogen in lower plant system. In this articleboth direct biophotolysis (green algae) and indirect biophotolysis (blue greenalgae) for the production of hydrogen are briefly described. The photoproductionof hydrogen from algae will have a positive impact on environment and is a keyto green fuel technology.

INTRODUCTION

Hydrogen is the lightest gas and abundant in form of hydrocarbon and

water. Hydrogen can be produced by differentmethods like chemical reaction and electrolysis.The electrolysis of water and thermo catalyticreformation of hydrogen rich compoundsrequire high input of energy from non-renewable source of energy, so biologicalhydrogen production receives much attentionnow a days. Biological hydrogen production canbe summarized as following methods.

(1) Direct biophotolysis (by green algae)(2) Indirect biophotolysis (by blue green

algae/cyanobacteria)(3) Photofermentation (purple non-sulfur

bacteria), and(4) Dark fermentation (anaerobic bacteria).First hydrogen production from green algae

(Scendesmus obliquus) was reported by HansGaffron and Jack Rubin under anaerobicconditions1. As in photosynthesis oxygen isproduced during photolysis of water andoxygen, is a potent inhibitor of hydrogenase,

so two stage biophotolysis is developed byMelis2 where oxygen and hydrogen isseparately produced in Chlamydomonasreinhardtii cells. In two stage photosynthesis,C. reinhardtii cells were first grown in normalmedium where water oxidation, oxygenevolution and biomass accumulation occur andin the next stage the cells of C. reinhardtiiwere transferred to sulphur deprived mediumand anoxygenic condition is introduced in thesystem which act as a metabolic switch for theproduction of hydrogen3. Major hydrogenproducing algae are listed in Table 1 1,4,5.

* Department of Biotechnology, Birla Institute ofTechnology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, India,E-mail:[email protected]

Table-1: Major Hydrogen Producing Algae

Name of Maximum rate of Referencethe algae hydrogen

production(ml/l.h)Green algaeScenedesmus 3.6 a 1,4obliquus

Chlamydomonas 4.5 a 4reinhardtiiChlamydomoas 10.0 a 4moewusiiBlue green algaeOscillotoria sp 90 5Miami BG7

a- ml/µg Chl a.l

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MECHANISM OF PHOTOBIOLOGICALHYDROGEN PRODUCTION

Algae can produce hydrogen by the followingmechanism :

(i) Direct Biophotolysis—By Green algae(Chlorophyceae)

(i) Indirrect Biphotolysis--By Blue Greenalgae (BGA) or cyanobacteria(Cyanophyaceae). In this text we willdescribe it as BGA.

(i) Direct Biophotolysis - Light energy isabsorbed by photosystem-II generateelectron from biophotolysis of water.

2H2O + LIGHT ENERGY 2H2+O2.

The pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids,phycobilisome) capture photons (packets ofenergy) and this energy excite an electronwhich either return to ground state or ifelectron acceptor is present the excited electroncan move to acceptor resulting in formation ofpositive charge on acceptor and referred asphotoinduced charge separation. Now thiselectron can reduce other species to store lightenergy in chemical forms. Electron thentransferred to ferredoxin using light energyabsorbed by PSI. Under aerobic photosyntheticconditions, reduced Fd is responsible for theconversion of NADP+ to NADPH catalyzed bythe ferredoxin-NADP-oxidoreductase enzyme(FNR). NADPH is used as a reductant in thedark reactions that fix CO2 and store sunlightenergy in the form of carbohydrates and starch.Hydrogen is produced by hydrogenase bycatalysing the following reaction,

2H+ + 2XRed H2 + 2XOxid (The X isconsidered to be ferredoxin).

Under anaerobic condition the stored starchis oxidised via glycolysis and tricarboxylic acidcycle. The reductant produced (NADH) provideto the photosynthetic electron transfer chainat the plastoquinone pool chain which will beused up for producing hydrogen (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Schematic drawing of Hydrogenproduction in green algae: Electron will beproduced from photolysis of water underaerobic but under anaerobic condition theelectron will come from oxidation of storedstarch. Electron will transported to ferredoxinvia PSI and then to hydrogenase.(Adapted andslightly modified from Melis and Happe, 2003)

In laboratory condition anaerobic condition

is obtained by flushing the medium with argon

to remove dissolve oxygen and sulphur

counterparts which is replaced with chloride

counterparts i.e. the medium is sulphur

deprived. Under this condition the hydrogenase

gene expression is triggered. Mitochondrial

respiration scavenges all oxygen (O2) generated

by residual photosynthesis as oxygen is a

potent inhibitor of hydrogenase. Long term

hydrogen production can be obtained by

transferring the algae (Chlamydomonas

reinhardtii) cells into sulphur deprived medium

(anaerobic) which should be placed near the

cool fluorescent light. Under deprived condition

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e– (electron) comes from degradation of protein

and starch which is produced during the first

phase (photosynthetic). Depletion of sulphur

blocks the synthesis of D1 poly peptide chain

which contains much sulphur containing amino

acid leading to declining in photosynthetic

activity6.

(ii) Indirect Biphotolysis - BGA can

synthesize and evolve hydrogen through the

following reaction.

12H2O + 6CO2 + LIGHT ENERGY

→

C6H12O6 + 6O2

C6H12O6 + 12H2O + LIGHT ENERGY

→

12H2 + 6CO2

BGA is a large and diverse group of

photoautotrophic microorganism. It contains

chlorophyll a, carotenoids and phycobiliprotein

BGA possess nitrogenase (catalyse the

production of hydrogen as a byproduct of

nitrogen fixation), uptake hydrogenase

(catalyse the oxidation of hydrogen synthesize

by nitrogenase) and bi-directional hydrogenase

which has the ability to both oxidise and

synthesize hydrogen7. Temporal separation of

hydrogen evolution and photosynthesis is

natural process because nitrogenase is also

inhibited by O2. The separation is achieved by

the formation of specialized cell called

heterocyst. In heterocyst nitrogen fixations

occur and hydrogen is produced as by product

while photosynthesis is occurring in vegetative

cells 7,8,9.

N2 + 8H++8e- + 16ATP

→

2NH3 + H2 +

16ADP + 16Pi

The above reactions occur in heterocyst to

fix nitrogen to ammonia and production of

hydrogen as a byproduct. Nitrogenases require

ATP and high partial pressure to produce

hydrogen7.

CONCLUSION

As fossil fuel is a limiting source of energy

so hydrogen can be used which is clean,

renewable and eco-friendly. Current state of

art for the production of hydrogen is either

steam reformation methane or by electrolysis

of water. The single cell organism

(Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) became a model

organism for hydrogen production. However,

more research and development is required in

the area of metabolic engineering, optimization

of photobioreacter culture condition, genetic

engineering of algae to enhance hydrogen

production for its commercial viability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All authors are highly thankful to Birla

Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi for the

financial support of this institute funded

project. Authors also acknowledgement the

Department of Agriculture, Government of

Jharkhand (Grant No.5/B.K.V/Misc/12/2001),

BTISNetSubDIC (BT/BI/04/065/04), from

Department of Biotechnology, Govt. Of India,

for providing infrastructural facilities.

REFERENCES

1. H Gaffron, J Rubin, J Gen Physiol, 26,219-240, 1942.

2. A Melis, L Zhang, M Forestier, MLGhirdi, M Seibert, Plan Physiol, 122,127-136, 2000.

3. A Melis, T Happe, Plan Physiol, 127,740-748, 2001.

..

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4. M Winkler, A Hemschemeier, C Gotor,A Melis, T Happe, Int J Hydrogen

Energ, 27, 1431-1439, 2002.

5. EJ Philips, A Mitsui, Appl Environ

Microbiol, 45, 1212-1220, 1983.

6. DB Levin, L Pitt, M Love, Int J

Hydrogen Energ, 29, 173-185, 2004.

7. P Tamagnini, R Axelsson, P Lindberg,F Oxelfelt, R Wunschiers, P Lindblad .Microbiol Mol Bio Rev, 66, 1-20, 2002.

8. D Das, TN Veziroglu, Int J HydrogenEnerg , 33, 6046-6057, 2008.

9. P Tamagnini, E Leitae, P Oliveira, DFerreira, F Pinto, DJ Harris, FEMSMicrobiol Rev, 31, 692-720, 2007.

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TUBULIN TARGETING AGENTS : AN INDISPENSABLE CLASSTUBULIN TARGETING AGENTS : AN INDISPENSABLE CLASSTUBULIN TARGETING AGENTS : AN INDISPENSABLE CLASSTUBULIN TARGETING AGENTS : AN INDISPENSABLE CLASSTUBULIN TARGETING AGENTS : AN INDISPENSABLE CLASSFOR CANCER TREATMENTFOR CANCER TREATMENTFOR CANCER TREATMENTFOR CANCER TREATMENTFOR CANCER TREATMENT

Vijay K. Patel, Avineesh Singh, Deepak K. Jain, Harish Rajak*.

Cancer is a global disease and its incidences are growing fastest in low and middleincome countries like India. Microtubules have long been identified as an attractiveand promising target for development of anticancer drugs. Microtubules, a vitalcell component are involved in a wide number of cellular functions such as division,motility, shape maintenance and intracellular transport. Interruption withmicrotubule assembly, either by inhibition of tubulin polymerization or by blockingmicrotubule disassembly, leads to death of cancerous cells. The scientific endeavorof last two decades in the field of anticancer research indicates that tubulin-

interactive agents would play a noteworthy role in the treatment of cancer.

INTRODUCTION

C ancer is a disease characterized byunregulated proliferation of cells. It

is a growing public problem whose estimatedworldwide incidences are 10.9 million newcancer diagnoses, 6.7 million deaths fromcancer, and 24.6 million individuals alive withcancer (within 5 years of diagnosis). Over thecoming decades, it is predicted that cancerincidence rates will grow significantly in linewith the increasing global elderly population;therefore, a need exists for new cancertherapeutic agents with improved efficacy thatare well tolerated.1,2.

Tubulin protein is a highly imperative andfeasible goal for anticancer drug discovery.Hundreds of naturally occurring, semi

* 1 Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, GuruGhasidas Central University, Bilaspur-495009,(C.G.) India E-mail : [email protected]

synthetic and synthetic antitubulin agents havebeen reported till now3-5. Microtubules arecomposed of two globular protein subunits, αand β-tubulin. These two subunits combine toform an α,

β-hetero-dimer which then

assembles in a filamentous tube-shapedstructure. The tubulin hetero-dimers arrangethemselves in a head to tail manner with theα-subunit of one dimer coming in contact withthe β-subunit of the other (Fig. 1). Thisarrangement results in the formation of longprotein fibres called protofilaments. Theseprotofilaments form the backbone of the hollow,cylindrical microtubule which is about 25nanometers in diameter and varies from 200nanometers to 25 micrometers in length. About12-13 protofilaments arrange themselves inparallel to form a C-shaped protein sheet,which then locks around to give a pipe-likestructure called the microtubule. The head to

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tail arrangement of the hetero dimers givespolarity to the resulting microtubule, whichhas an α-subunit at one end and a β-subunitat the other end. The α-tubulin end hasnegative (–) charges while the β-tubulin endhas positive (+) charges1-6.

FUNCTION

Microtubules are involved in a wide numberof cellular functions such as division, motility,shape maintenance and intracellular transport.Interruption with microtubule assembly, eitherby inhibition of tubulin polymerization or byblocking microtubule disassembly, leads to an

increase in the number of cells in Metaphasearrest1-4.

MECHANISM OF TUBULIN INHIBITOR

Tubulin inhibitors proceed by interferingwith the dynamics of the microtubule that isgrowing (Microtubule Stabilizers) andshortening (Microtubule Destabilizers). On thebasis of mechanism of action tubulin inhibitorsare divided in two class, first class operates byinhibiting the depolymerization of polymerizedtubulin and increases the microtubule polymermass in the cells are called MicrotubuleStabilizers second class of inhibitors operates

Fig. 1 : Structure of tubulin binding site with examples

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by inhibiting polymerization of tubulin to arecalled Microtubule Destabilizers. Structure oftubulin binding site with examples shown inFig. 2.

Class I. Microtubule Stabilizers

(a) Laulimalide binding site: Laulimalide,Peloruside A etc.

(b) Paclitaxel site ligands: Paclitaxel,Docetaxel, ABI-007, Cyclostreptin etc.

Fig. 2 : Structure of important tubulin binding drugs

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(c) Epothilone : Ixabepilone, Patupilone,ZK-EPO etc.

Class II. Microtubule Destabilizers

(a) Colchicine binding site: colchicine,combrestatin, 2-methoxy estradiol,methoxy benzenesulfonamides (E7010)etc.

(b) Vinca binding site: vinblastine,vincristine, vinorelbine, vinfluine,dolastatins, halichondrins, hemiaster-lins, cryptophysi, etc.

IMPORTANT TUBULIN BINDING DRUGS

The Taxanes : During the past twodecades, mitotic inhibitors have beencomprehensively explored through numerousexperimental and clinical trials which haveresulted in better treatment of breast, ovarian,lung, prostate, pancreas, gastric and head andneck cancers. The taxane class of anticanceragents effectively prevents growth and divisionof cancer cells. The taxanes group mainlycomprises of Paclitaxel (Taxol) and Docetaxel(Taxotere) as well as taxanes homologs, whichare derived from natural sources. Taxol isobtained originally from Taxus brevifolia, whileDocetaxel is a semisynthetic analogue of thelater. Key therapeutic indications of Praclitaxelinclude AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma, breastcancer, non-small cell lung cancer and ovariancancer. On the other hand, major therapeuticindications of Docetaxel includes breast cancer,gastric cancer, head and neck cancer, hormonerefractory prostate cancer. During course oftime, poor oral bioavailability, solubility andnumerous side effects were emerged aslimitations of taxane therapy, thus necessitatingthe requirement for the development of novel

similar antimitotics agents. Taxanes alsoknown to possess a radiosensitizing effect i.e.,taxanes are administered before application ofradiations leading to enhancement ofsensitivity of radiation therapy to the tumors.

Epothilones : The epothilones are a classof microtubule stabilizing compounds withextreme cytotoxicity and similar mode of actionto Taxol. Epothilone B is more active thanTaxol (in vitro). It was first isolated from thecommon soil bacteria Sorangium cellulosum

as early as 1987 by Höfle and Reichenbach.The epothilones are active against Taxolresistant cancer cell lines. One epothilonederivative, the semisynthetic analogueixabepilone has been permitted for clinical usein the United States, in addition, several otherepothilone derivatives (Epothilone B,Dehydelone and Sagopilone) are in advancedclinical trials.

Laulimalide : is a marine natural productand was isolated in 1999 from the marinesponge Cacospongia mycofijiensis. It stabilizesmicrotubules in a similar manner to paclitaxel,but it bind to the Laulimalide binding site ontubulin. It is a highly potent antimitotic agent,which inhibits proliferation of a range of humancancer cell lines, at nanomolar concentrations.It also kills cells resistant to epothilones andpaclitaxel, so it is an interesting leadcompound. In recent past, number of analogueshave been synthesized, but it has not yetentered in clinical trials.

The Vinca Alkaloids : Vincristine andvinblastine, the first natural products used foranticancer properties were isolated from theVinca rosea Linn. (periwinkle) of the familyApocynaceae. The major therapeutic

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applications of Vincristine include treatmentof acute leukemia, pediatric solid tumors andother lymphomas. On the other hand,vinblastine is mainly employed for treatmentof Hodgkin’s lymphoma, metastatic testiculartumors (with bleomycin and cisplatin) andadvanced breast cancer.7, 8

Vinorelbine is a semi-synthetic analogue ofvinblastine. It exhibited promising activityagainst cancer specially, breast cancer and isin clinical trial for the treatment of severaltypes of neoplasm.

Vinflunine has displayed superior antitumoractivity to vinorelbine and vinblastine. It is isa novel fluorinated vinca alkaloid, currently inPhase II clinical trials for treatment ofurothelial tract cancer and advancedtransitional cell bladder.

Colchicine : is an active component of themeadow saffron or autumn crocus Colchicum

autumnale. It inhibits the formation of themicrotubules required for chromosometransport during metaphase by forming a 1:1complex with tubulin, which binds to the endof the forming microtubule and inhibits furtherpolymerization. Its therapeutic applications inthe treatment of gout, familial Mediterraneanfever and certain liver disorders are directlyrelated to its tubulin binding activity. Itsanalogs have been established for anticanceractivity with some success.

2-Methoxyestradiol : is a novel antineo-plastic and antiangiogenic drug in phase I andII clinical trials for the treatment of multiplemyeloma, glioblastoma multiforme, prostate,and breast cancer. It binds to tubulin at

colchicine site, inhibiting microtubule assembly.

It also selectively targets endothelial cells of

the developing tumor vasculature without

affecting preexisting blood vessels and shows

lesser side effects.

Combretastatin A-4 (CA-4) is a low

molecular weight cytotoxic agent isolated from

the bark of the South African tree Combretum

caffrum and strongly inhibits of tubulin

polymerization by binding to the colchicine site

of tubulin microtubule. A number of CA-4

analogues such as CA-4P, AVE8062

(ombrabulin), EPC2407 (Crolibulin), OXi4503,

ABT-751 (E7010), T138067, BNC-105P, etc are

in different stages of clinical trial.9, 10

Conclusion: Tubulin is the biochemical

target for several clinically used anticancer

drugs. Antimitotic agents inhibit the normal

microtubule polymerization or depolymeriza-

tion process, leading to mitotic arrest of

eukaryotic cells. Thus microtubule tubulin

targeting agents is a well established approach

to anticancer therapy with some limitations

i.e., resistance and toxicity. Future challenges

in the application of microtubule-targeted

agents include increasing the understanding

of their basic mechanisms, improving their

clinical effectiveness, discovery of new small

molecule as tubulin targeting agents. These

agents hold great promise as inhibitors of

angiogenesis with potential critical applications

in cancer and other diseases associated with

aberrant vascularization.

REFERENCES

1. M. J. McKeage, and B. C. Baguley,Cancer, 116, 1859-1871, 2010.

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2. V. Srivastava, A. S. Negi, J. K. Kumar,M. M. Gupta and S. P. S. Khanuja,Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 13,5892–5908, 2005.

3. G. M. Cragg, D. J. Newman. Biochimica

et Biophysica Acta, 1830, 3670–3695,2013.

4. H. Prinz, Expert Review Anticancer

Therapy, 2, 695–708, 2000.5. H. Rajak, P. K. Dewangan, V. Patel, D.

K. Jain, A. Singh, R. Veerasamy P.C.Sharma, A. Dixit, CurrentPharmaceutical Design, 19, 1923–1955,2013.

6. B. Bhattacharyya, D. Panda, S. Gupta,and M. Banerjee, Medicinal Research

Review, 28, 155–183, 2008.7. J. Khazira, B. A. Mir, L. Pilcher, D. L.

Riley, Phytochemistry Letters 7,173–181, 2014.

8. R. L Noble, C. T. Beer, J. H. Cutts,Annals of the New York Academy of

Sciences 76, 882-894, 1958.9. G. R. Pettit, and S.B. Singh, Canadian

Journal of Chemistry. 65, 2390–2396,1987.

10. V. K. Kretzchmann and R. Furst,Phytochem Rev 13, 191–206, 2014.

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SOLAR ENERGY CENTRE, GURGAON

The Solar Energy Centre (SEC), establishedin 1982, is a dedicated unit of the Ministry ofNew and Renewable Energy, Government ofIndia for development of solar energytechnologies and its related science andengineering. To achieve its objective, the Centrehas been working on various aspects of solarresource utilization and technologydevelopment in collaboration with otherresearch institutions, implementing agenciesand industry. Over the years, the Centre hasdeveloped a variety of technical facilities fortechnology evaluation and validation, testingand standardization, performance reliability,monitoring and data analysis apart fromtraining.

KNOW THY INSTITUTIONS

CAMPUS

The campus of the Centre for its R&Dactivities is located at the 19th milestone onthe Gurgaon-Faridabad road which is about25 km south of main office of the Ministry.The surrounding area is predominantlyagricultural and beautiful green or yellow fieldscan be seen around the Campus dependingupon the season. The main approach to theCampus passes through the Arawalis, whichare considered to be the oldest mountain rangein India. Covering an area of about 81 hectares,the campus receives abundant sunshine forexperimenting with the energy from the sun.The buildings of the Centre have beenconstructed using solar passive techniques to

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achieve energy efficiency and envioronmentalfriendliness.

ACTIVITIES

The Solar Energy Centre (SEC) serves asan effective interface between the Governmentand institutions, industry & user organizationsfor development, promotion and widespreadutilization of solar energy in the country. Thefunctions of the Centre are as follows :

Research and development

● Cooperation with institutions andindustry Technology evaluation, testingand standardization.

● Evaluation of Technical, Environmental,and Economic performance.

● National Referral Test FacilityDevelopmental Testing

● Coordination with Regional Test Centers(RTCs) and Standards Organizations.

Human resource development

● Visitors Programme● Training, workshops, symposia and

seminars.

Advisory and consultancy services

● International cooperation● Plantation of Jatropha curcas for

production of Bio-diesel

ACHIEVEMENTS

The Centre has been playing a crucial rolein development and promotion of solar energytechnologies. The Centre has been the technicalfocal point for the National Solar EnergyProgramme. The facilities created at the Centreto enable it to perform its role are the mostadvanced and unique in India and south Asianregion. The Centre is recognised today as a

leading institution for :

1. Solar Resource Assessment2. Technology Assessment3. Solar Buildings4. System Designing5. Evaluation of Emerging Technologies6. Testing and Standardization of solar

devices.7. Bio-fuel Plantation

Apart from development of infrastructural andR&D facilities, the Centre has also many othersignificant achievements as given below, tohis credit.

● Technical assistance to industry fordevelopment for solar energy products.

● Development of National Standards forsolar thermal devices.

● Establishments of testing protocol forsolar thermal and solar PV devices forattaining uniformity in the testingcarried out by various authorizedagencies within the country.

● Preparation of a number of technicalreports/papers on important solarenergy topics, such as solar thermalpower generation, solar refrigeration,solar desalination, biofuel and othertechnologies.

● Establishment of a number oftechnology demonstration projectswhich includes a 46 KW solar PV powerproject at the Centre.

● Establishement of state-of-the-artfacilities for solar energy research andtesting under assistance from UNDP,USAID and GTZ.

● Establishment of a solar evaporativecooling system for a part of thetechnical blocks of the Solar EnergyCentre.

● Reviving 50 KWe Solar Thermal PowerPlant by indegninizing some critical

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components like Heat CollectionElements. Plant is in use as R&D,Demonstration & Educational facility.

● 26,000 & 500 saplings of Jatrophacurcas and Pongania pinnata have beenplanted respectively under the biofuelthe biofuel programme during 2005-06.

● Prepared a bio-diversity reportincluding both indigenous and exoticflora of SEC.

● Prepared presentation material i.e.posters giving technical details fromcultivation of Jatropha curcas productionof biodiesel.

NEW INITIATIVES

Details of the major Solar Thermal Projects /PV Systems & components recently undertakenat Solar Energy Centre (SEC)

● National Solar Thermal Power Testing,Research and Simulation FacilityThe facility envisages a grid connected SolarThermal Power Plant of 1 MW capacity. Thiswill also include a test set up that enablescompanies and reseach institutions to test theperformance of different solar concerntrators,coatings and materials, components and systemfor a Solar Thermal Power Plant. The projectis being implemented by IIT Mumbai and aconsortium partners consisting of Tata Power,Tata Consulting Engineers, Larsen & Toubro,Clique, KIE Solatherm.

● Concentrated Solar Thermal EnergyTechnology based on Parabolic DishcollectorsThe project is a cooperative effort betweenMegawatt Solutions Pvt. Ltd. and SEC underMNRE’s initiative to promote research,development and demonstration ofindigenously developed renewable energy

systems and technologies under a cost-sharingbasis. It involves demonstration and evaluationof 4 interconnected dish concentrators each of90m2 aperture area providing heated thermicfluids upto 4000C.

● Solar Thermal Stirling EngineThe project has been taken up in collaborationwith ONGC Energy Centre (OEC). Three unitsof engines of 3 kW capacity each have beeninstalled and commissioned in the campus.The objective of the project is to carryout longterm performance evaluation under Indianconditions. The engines have been connectedto the local grid and the electricity producedduring the sunshine hours is being utilized inthe Technical Block. The rated output of thefacility is 9 kW (peak power) at solar insulationof 850 W/m2 at 200C ambient temperature.

● Development of a Modular CentralReceiver Concentrated Solar Power Plantfor Decentralized Power GenerationSunBorne Energy with support from MNREwill be setting up a 1 MWTh CSP Central Towerpilot facility in partnership with SEC. The mainobjective is to develop the optimized designs ofthe heliostat field, volumetric air receiver andthermal storage, the three major componentsof a Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) CentralReceiver plant and also to develop the localsources for all the key components of the plantwith a focus on lowering costs.

● High Efficiency Solar Thermal Air-conditioning Systems - a collaborativeproject of Thermax Limited and solarEnergy CentreThe project (100 KW cooling capacity) is beingimplemented by M/s Thermax Limited at SolarEnergy Centre with an objective to integratesolar collectors, vapor absorption machine(VAM) and appropriate thermal storage system

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to achieve consistence performance of thesystem with coefficient of performance (COP)(1 : 1.7)

● Cold Storage with Solar - BiomassHybrid SystemIt is an APP project in partnership with TERI,Thermax Limited, SEC and CSIRO Australiawith an objective to develop cold storageparticularly in rural areas utilizing exhaustheat of biomass gasifier engine/solar schfflerdish.

Solar cell characterization laboratory

● Solar Cell Characterization laboratory hasa class AAA solar simulator based Solar CellTester of M/s ORIEL, USA make to study solarcell performance under standard TestConditions (STC) or other user selectedconditions. The conitinuous type solarsimulator, in which illumination is continuousin time, is certified to IEC 60904-9:2007

Edition, JIS C 8912 and ASTM E 927-05standard

At present, Solar cell testing facility at SEC iscapable of testing solar cells ( Only mono/multicrystalline Silicon Solar Cells with /havingextended ribbons) up to 6 inch X 6 inch areaas per IEC 60904-1:2006 /IS 12762 (Part1):2010 standards.

CONTACT :

Mailing Address : Solar Energy Centre,MNRE, B-14, CGO Complex LodhiRoad, New Delhi -110003, Telefax :0091-11-24360331

Campus: Solar Energy Centre, 19th Milestone,Institutional Area, Gurgaon-FaridabadRoad, Gwalpahari, Gurgaon Telefax No.: 0091-124-2579207 Email: [email protected]

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Conferences / Meetings / Symposia / Seminars

National Conference on Harmony with nature in context of environmentalissues and challenges of the 21st century’’ (HARMONY-2014)K 28th to 30th

November, 2014.Topics :● Air, Water, Soil and Noise Pollution and control strategies● Biodiversity - Conservation and Sustainable Development● Environmental Impact Assessment● Environmental Biotechnology and Microbiology, Bioremediation● Toxicology, Environmental health and Medicinal plants● Environmental Chemistry● Environmental Geology and Green Technology● Seri, Lac, Api and Pisciculture in Present era● Aquatic resource Management● Eco friendly Mining and reclamation, Groundwater Management● Remote sensing & Gis in environmental management● Ecotorism and Environmental management● Industries and Environment● Radioactivity and Environment● Natural Disasters : Management issues and strategies● Environmental Policies, Laws and Legislations● Environmental ethicsSubmission of registration from and abstract 15-09-2014Contact : Prof. Nidhi Rai, Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Earth Science,M.L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur (Rajasthan) - 313 001, e-mail:[email protected].

International Conference on Processing of Lean Grade and Urban Ores(IC-LGO 2015), January 20-22, 2015, NML, Jamshedpur

Topics :

Processing of lean grade ores, fines and slimes

● Characterization & Beneficiation.● Agglomeration/Pelletisation.● Metal extraction processes (Pyro-/Hydro-/Electro-/Bio-/Hybrid).

Processing of urban ores

● Collection, Recycling & Management of E-waste.● Industrial & Municipal Waste (solid/liquid) recycling.

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Energy and Environmental issues

● Sustainable alternative green energy resources.● Utilization of Solid Waste viz. Slag, Fly Ash, Red Mud, Anode Slime Jarosite, Flue Dust,

etc.● Environmental pollution and remediation● Life cycle assessment of processes.

Contact : Dr. Manis Kumar Jha, Chairman, IC-LGO 2015 & Assistant Director/SeniorScientist Metal Extraction & Forming Division, CSIR-National Metallurgical Laboratory,Jamshedpur–831 007, India, E-mail : [email protected], Ph. 91-657-2345302 (O),91-9430185563 (M)

3rd International Conference on Computer, Communication, Control andInformation Technology (C3IT-2015), 7th to 8th February 2015, Academy ofTechnology, Hooghly, West Bengal, India

Topics :

Computer :

Artificial Intelligence, Soft computing, Computer Graphics, Data Warehousing & Mining,Distributed Computing, System Security, Virtual Reality, Cloud Computing, Service OrientedArchitecture, VLSI and embedded Systems, Cryptography.

Communication :

Information Theory, Coding Theory, Mobile, Wireless and Broadband Communications, OpticalCommunications, RF and Microwave Communications, Antennas and Propagation, SatelliteCommunications, Green Communications.

Control :

Linear & Nonlinear Control, Process Control & Instrumentation, Drives & Controls, IntelligentControl, Industrial Automation, Controls in Aerospace, Robotics, Sliding Mode Control andrelated topics.

Information Technology :

Next Generation Networks, Ad hoc and Sensor Networks, Multimedia, Geographical InformaionSystems (GIS), Vehicular Networks, Information Security, Networks and Services Mangement,Performance Analysis, Image, Video and Signal Processing, Knowledge management, Gameand Software Engineering.

Submission last date : 31st August 2014.

Contact : Convener, Academy of Technology, Aedconagar, Hooghly—712121, West Bengal, India+91 9432926197, Mob : +919143229105, Mob : +91 9830312660, Conference E-mail :[email protected], Website : http://c3it2015.aot.edu.in/

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NEW METHOD COULD DETECT ALIENLIFE, SCIENTISTS CLAIM

Scientists say they have developed apowerful new model to detect life on planetsoutside of our solar system, more accuratelythan ever before.

The new model focuses on methane, thesimplest organic molecule, widely acknowledgedto be a sign of potential life.

Researchers from University College Londonin the U.K. and the University of New SouthWales in Australia developed a new method todetect the molecule at temperatures above thatof Earth, up to 1220 degrees Celsius, somethingnot possible before.

To find out what remote planets orbitingother stars are made of, astronomers analyzethe way in which their atmospheres absorbstarlight of different colors. They then comparethat to a model, or “spectrum,” to identifydifferent molecules.

“Current models of methane are incomplete,leading to a severe underestimation of methanelevels on planets,” said Jonathan Tennyson, aphysicist at University College London. “Weanticipate our new model will have a big impacton the future study of planets and ‘cool’ starsexternal to our solar system, potentially helpingscientists identify signs of extraterrestrial life.”

“The comprehensive spectrum we havecreated has only been possible with theastonishing power of modern supercomputerswhich are needed for the billions of linesrequired for the modeling,” added the study’slead author, Sergei Yurchenko, also of theuniversity.

“We limited the temperature threshold,” headded, “to fit the capacity available, so moreresearch could be done to expand the model tohigher temperatures still. Our calculationsrequired about three million CPU (centralprocessing unit) hours alone,” he said.

S & T ACROSS THE WORLD

ö

“We are thrilled to have used this technologyto significantly advance beyond previousmodels available for researchers studyingpotential life on astronomical objects, and weare eager to see what our new spectrum helpsthem discover.”

The model has been tested and verified byreproducing the way methane in failed stars,called brown dwarfs, absorbs light, theresearchers added. The study is published inthe journal Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, January 10, 2014.

ANXIOUS CHILDREN FOUND TO HAVEBIGGER “FEAR CENTERS” IN THEBRAIN

Children with high anxiety tend to have alarger “fear center” in the brain, with moreconnections to other parts of the brain,according to a study.

The report, in the current issue of thejournal Biological Psychiatry 2014; 75 (11): 892,says anxiety problems may stem in part fromchanges in its development of that center,called the amygdala.

Researchers at the Stanford UniversitySchool of Medicine recruited 76 children, sevento nine years of age. The parents completedassessments designed to measure the anxietylevels of the children, and the children thenunderwent scans of brain structure andfunction, through magnetic resonance or MRIimaging.

The researchers found that the moreanxious children had, besides a larger “fearcenter,” increased connectivity between theamygdala and other brain regions responsiblefor attention, emotion perception, andregulation. They also developed an equationthat they said reliably predicted the anxietylevel from the MRI measurements.

The most affected region was the basolateralportion of the amygdala, they said, implicatedin fear learning and the processing of emotion-related information.

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“It is a bit surprising that alterations to thestructure and connectivity of the amygdalawere so significant in children with higherlevels of anxiety, given both the young age ofthe children and the fact that their anxietylevels were too low to be observed clinically,”said Shaozheng Qin, one of the authors.

John Krystal, editor of the journal, addedthat future studies need to focus on whetherthe brain structure is a risk factor, or itself aconsequence, of “increased childhood anxiety.”This line of research “will provide importantnew insights into the neurodevelopmentalorigins of anxiety in humans,” Qin said.

INTACT PTEROSAUR EGGS REPORTEDFOUND WITH PARENTS

Researchers are reporting the finding of thefirst three-dimensionly preserved eggs ofpterosaurs, flying reptiles with wingspans upto half the length of a tennis court.

The eggs, found in China, turned up amongat least dozens of pterosaur fossils,representing a new species called Hamipterustianshanensis, scientists reported.

The animals lived together in colonies,according to the researchers, who presentedtheir work in the journal Current Biology onJune 5, 2014.

“Five eggs are three-dimensionly preserved,and some are really complete,” said XiaolinWang of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, whowas involved with the research. It was mostexciting to find many male and femalepterosaurs and their eggs preserved together,he added.

The pterosaur fossil record has generallybeen poor, with little information about theirpopulations, the researchers say. Only fourisolated and flattened pterosaur eggs wereknown to science before now.

The resting place of the pterosaurs nowdescribed was uncovered in 2005 in the Turpan-Hami Basin, south of the Tian Shan Mountainsin Xinjiang, northwestern China. The fossil-rich area is thought to possibly harbor

thousands of bones. Wang said sediments inthe area suggest that the pterosaurs died in alarge storm about 120 million years ago in theEarly Cretaceous period.

The researchers examined the largely intactpterosaur egg specimens to find that they werepliable, with a thin eggshell outside and a soft,thick membrane inside, similar to the eggs ofsome modern-day snakes. The researchers’observations of 40 male and female individualssuggested differences between the sexes in thesize, shape, and robustness of their head crests.

The combination of many pterosaurs andeggs strongly indicates the presence of anesting site nearby and indicates that thisspecies developed gregarious behavior, theresearchers said. Hamipterus most likelyburied their eggs in sand along the shore of anancient lake to prevent them from drying out,they added. While the new fossils are thoughtto shed light on their reproductive strategy,development, and behavior, there’s still muchleft to learn about them.

“Sites like the one reported here providefurther evidence regarding the behavior andbiology of this amazing group of flying reptilesthat has no parallel in modern time,” theresearchers wrote.

MYSTERIOUS DANCE OF DWARFS MAYFORCE A COSMIC RETHINK

A finding that many small galaxies don’t“swarm” around larger ones like bees butrather circle them in disc-shaped orbits iscreating a new conundrum for scientists.Last year “we announced our startlingdiscovery that half of the dwarf galaxiessurrounding the Andromeda Galaxy areorbiting it in an immense plane,” said physicistGeraint Lewis from the University of Sydneyin Australia. “This plane is more than a millionlight years in diameter, but is very thin, witha width of only 300,000 light years.”

Now, astronomers are extending the findingto other galaxies.

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The universe contains billions of galaxies.Some, such as the Milky Way, are immense,containing hundreds of billions of stars. Mostgalaxies, however, are dwarfs, much smallerand with only a few billion stars. For decadesastronomers have used computer models topredict how these dwarf galaxies should orbitlarge galaxies. They had always found thatthey should be scattered randomly.

“Our Andromeda discovery did not agreewith expectations, and we felt compelled toexplore if it was true of other galaxiesthroughout the universe,” said Lewis. Usingthe Sloan Digital Sky Survey, a resource ofcolor images and 3-D maps covering more thana third of the sky, the researchers dissectedthe properties of thousands of nearby galaxies.

“We were surprised to find that a largeproportion of pairs of satellite galaxies haveoppositely directed velocities if they aresituated on opposite sides of their giant galaxyhosts,” said Neil Ibata of the LycéeInternational in Strasbourg, France, leadauthor of a new study on the findings,published July 20 in the journal Nature.

“Everywhere we looked we saw thisstrangely coherent coordinated motion of dwarfgalaxies. From this we can extrapolate thatthese circular planes of dancing dwarfs areuniversal, seen in about 50 percent of galaxies,”said Lewis. “This is a big problem thatcontradicts our standard cosmological models.It challenges our understanding of how theuniverse works including the nature of darkmatter,” an unseen material that is detectedthrough its gravity.

The researchers believe the answer may behidden in some currently unknown physicalprocess that governs how gas flows in theuniverse. Some experts have made more radicalsuggestions, including bending and twisting thelaws of gravity and motion. “Throwing outseemingly established laws of physics isunpalatable,” said Professor Lewis, “but if ourobservations of nature are pointing us in this

direction, we have to keep an open mind. That’swhat science is all about.”

(Courtesy of the University of Sydney andWorld Science staff )

CONSCIOUSNESS RESEARCH NOTDEAD, SCIENTISTS INSIST

Why does a relentless stream of experiencesnormally fill your mind? Maybe that’s just oneof those mysteries that will always elude us.Yet, research suggests consciousness lies wellwithin the realm of scientific inquiry, asimpossible as that may currently seem.Although scientists have yet to agree on anobjective measure to index consciousness,progress has been made on the question inseveral labs around the world.

“The debate about the neural basis ofconsciousness rages because there is no widelyaccepted theory about what happens in thebrain to make consciousness possible,” said KenPaller, and director of the CognitiveNeuroscience Program at NorthwesternUniversity in Evanston, Ill.

Some brain scientists claim “consciousnessis never going to be understood” and soresearch should focus on other areas, Pallersaid. “On the other hand, many neuroscientistsare actively engaged in probing the neural basisof consciousness, and, in many ways, this isless of a taboo area of research than it used tobe.” He added: “scientists and othersacknowledge that damage to the brain can leadto systematic changes in consciousness. Yet,we don’t know exactly what differentiates brainactivity associated with conscious experiencefrom brain activity that is instead associatedwith mental activity that remains unconscious.”

In a new article, Paller and Satoru Suzuki,also a psychologist at Northwestern, discusswhat they call flawed assumptions aboutconsciousness to suggest that a wide range ofscientific perspectives can offer useful clues.

“It’s normal to think that if you attentivelyinspect something you must be aware of it andthat analyzing it to a high level would

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necessitate consciousness,” Suzuki noted. Butexperiments don’t always back this up.“Likewise, it feels like we can freely decide ata precise moment, when actually the processof deciding begins earlier,” through brainprocessing that doesn’t enter awareness, hesaid.

The authors write that unconsciousprocessing can influence our conscious decisionsin ways we never suspect. If these and othersimilar assumptions are incorrect, theresearchers say, then mistaken reasoningmight be behind arguments for taking thescience of consciousness off the table.

Experimental evidence has supported sometheories about consciousness that appeal tospecific types of communication among braincells, which can be described in biological termsor more abstractly in computational terms, theresearchers said. They added that furthertheoretical advances can be expected if specificmeasures of neural activity can be brought tobear on these ideas.

Paller and Suzuki both conduct researchthat touches on consciousness. Suzuki studiesperception, and Paller studies memory. Theysaid it was important for them to write thearticle to counter the view that it is hopelessto ever make progress through scientificresearch on this topic. They outlined recentadvances that provide reason to be optimisticabout future scientific inquiries intoconsciousness and about the benefits that thisknowledge could bring for society. “Forexample, continuing research on the brain basisof consciousness could inform our concernsabout human rights, help us explain and treatdiseases that impinge on consciousness, andhelp us perpetuate environments andtechnologies that optimally contribute to thewell being of individuals and of our society,”the authors wrote.

The paper, “The Source of Consciousness,”has been published online in the journal Trendsin Cognitive Sciences.

(Courtesy of North-Western University andWorld Science staff)

MYSTERIOUS BURSTS OF RADIOWAVES IDENTIFIED FAR OUTSIDEGALAXY

Mysterious split-second pulses of radiowaves are coming from deep in outer space,and nobody knows what causes them, accordingto astronomers.

Researchers led by Laura Spitler from theMax Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy inBonn, Germany say they have found the firstso-called “fast radio burst” in the sky’s northernhemisphere, using the Arecibo radio telescopein Puerto Rico.

The mystery is reminiscent of that ofgamma-ray bursts, discovered in the 1960s andnow thought to come from giant starscollapsing to form black holes. The newphenomenon, in the form of radio rather thangamma-rays—a different form of light—remains an enigma.

The flashes last only a few thousandths ofa second. Scientists using the ParkesObservatory in Australia had recorded suchevents before, but the lack of similar findingsby other telescopes led to speculation that theAustralian instrument might have been pickingup signals from sources nearby Earth.

The finding at Arecibo is the first detectionusing a different telescope: the burst came fromthe direction of the constellation Auriga in theNorthern sky, according to the scientists, whodetail their findings July 10 in the online issueof The Astrophysical Journal.

“There are only seven bursts every minutesomewhere in the sky on average, so you haveto be pretty lucky to have your telescopepointed in the right place at the right time,”said Spitler, the paper’s lead author. “The

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characteristics of the burst seen by the Arecibotelescope, as well as how often we expect tocatch one, are consistent with thecharacteristics of the previously observedbursts from Parkes.”

“The radio waves show every sign of havingcome from far outside our galaxy – a reallyexciting prospect,” added Victoria Kaspi of theMcGill University in Montreal and principalinvestigator for the pulsar-survey project thatdetected the burst.

Possible causes, scientists said, include arange of exotic astrophysical objects, such asevaporating black holes, mergers of neutronstars, or flares from magnetars—a type ofneutron star with extremely powerful magneticfields.

The pulse was detected on Nov. 2, 2012, atArecibo, with the world’s largest and mostsensitive single-dish radio telescope.

The result confirms previous estimates thatthe bursts occur roughly 10,000 times a dayover the whole sky, said the astronomers, whoinferred the huge number by calculating howmuch sky was observed, and for how long, tomake the few detections so far reported.

The bursts appear to be coming from beyondthe Milky Way galaxy based on measurementsof an effect known as plasma dispersion. Pulsesthat travel through the cosmos aredistinguished from man-made interference bythe effect of electrons in space, which causelonger radio waves to travel more slowly.

(Courtesy of the Max Plank Institute forRadio Astronomy and World Science staff)

NEWFOUND GENE COULD PLAY ROLEIN AGING FROM BIRTH

It’s something of an eternal question: Canwe slow or even reverse aging? Althoughgenetic manipulations can alter some cellularprocesses, not so much is known about themechanisms of the aging process in livingthings.

Now scientists have found in animal modelsthat one gene plays a surprising role in agingthat can be detected early on in development.They say the discovery could point toward thepossibility of one day using therapeutics, evensome commonly used ones, to manipulate theaging process itself.

This “developmental gene, known as Spns1,may mediate the aging process,” said ShujiKishi, a professor at the from the Floridacampus of The Scripps Research Institute wholed the study, published by the journal PLoSGenetics. “Even a partial loss of Spns1 functioncan speed aging.”

Using various genetic approaches to disturbSpns1 during the embryonic and/or larvalstages of zebrafish—which have emerged asuseful for studying diseases associated withdevelopment and aging—the scientists saidthey produced some models with a shortenedlife span, others that lived long lives.

While most studies of “senescence”—decreases in a cell’s power of division andgrowth—have focused on later stages of life,the new study explores early stages. “Mutationsto Spns1 both disturbs developmentalsenescence and badly affects the long-term bio-chronological aging process,” Kishi said.

The study found that Spns1, along with apair of “tumor suppressor genes,” called beclin1 and p53, can influence senescence throughtwo different mechanisms: the Spns1 defectwas enhanced by Beclin 1 but suppressed by‘basal’ p53. Spns1 also was found to hinderautophagy, a process whereby cells removeunwanted or destructive proteins and balanceenergy needs during various life stages.

Building on their insights from the study,Kishi and his colleagues noted in the futuretherapeutics might be able influence agingthrough Spns1. He said a commonly usedantacid, Prilosec, has been shown totemporarily suppress autophagic abnormalityand senescence seen in the Spns1 deficiency.

(Courtesy of the Scripps Research Instituteand World Science staff)

EVERYMAN’S · PDF fileProf. Dr. Anup Kumar Kapoor (Delhi) Prof. Anand Prakash Mishra ......

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