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Anabel Marín (Cenit/CONICET)Pablo Burkolter (Cenit)ARGENTINA
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INTRODUCTION
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An historical problem and an historicalsolution in LAC
• Heavily specialised in NRs
• NRs are problematic: concentration, lowinclusion, environmental damage, poorinstitutions…
• A common view in LAC: induce structural changetowards manufacturing, NOT VERY SUCCESSFULL
▫ Still % of NR exports over total 70 in average in LAC
How can we tranform them in a more sustainable direction?
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REGION% NR EXPORTS/
TotalGDP (1970‐2008)
Latin America 70 1.64
NR Producers(developed)
59 2.29
Asian developingcountries
30 4.77
Developed economies 24 2
It is realistic?
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How do industries get transformed?
• Industries get transformed and re‐structured through the development and growth of alternatives/niches,
▫ which propose technologies and organisational practices that departure from the conventional ones.
• The dominant ways to exploit NRs are the ones more widely spread that privilege from the mainstream
• The alternatives are practices that departure from these highly institutionalised ways of solving problems, promising better outputs
▫ They are less diffused and have less support but promise todeliver better outputs
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• Better social outputs (social inclusion, in the process of decision making and in the benefits)
• Better environmental outputs: (a) danger of exhausting non‐renewable resources, (b) destruction of ecosystems, and (c) the threat of serious pollution of air, soil
• Better economic outputs: dependency on the resources (e.g. through diversification)
We consider alternatives those that promiseimprovements regarding three types of outputs:
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Our proposal
Three types of niches or alternatives:
• The more radical ones or (1) path‐breaking, aim to transform the industry radically to take it in a different direction of change – or pathway.
• The less radical ones, or (2) path‐repairing, offers partial solutions to some of the problems of the dominant regime, but do not challenge its main logic of development;
• A third option, (3) path‐creating, new developments closely related but different to the dominant one, augmenting the density of links among different industrial sectors.
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Our proposal
We want to understand:
The possibilities of each type of alternative to survive, expand, and eventually transform or replace problematic NR industries
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• 1) Distances and interactions with the dominant system
• 2) Diffusion through the creation of support
• 3) Outputs
• 4) Barriers that block that the alternative does not become more widespread?
Specific questions
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METHODOLOGY
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Identifying and studying alternative waysto exploit NRs
THREE KEY NR SECTORS IN LAC
• Agriculture in Argentina
• The Brazilian Amazon
• Copper Mining in Chile
We define alternatives as ventures that address some or all of the problems of the dominant
1. We characterise the dominant practices and its problems.
2. We conducted thirteen case studies of alternatives:
Three path‐breaking, six path‐repairing, and four path‐creating
FIELDWORK: STEPS
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ANALYSIS
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Dominant System: General FeaturesAgriculture Argentina Mining Chile Amazon Brazil
Extensive production of industrial crops.
Copper extraction Road‐logging‐livestock‐crops
Intensive use of NRs and inputs: water, energy, land‐intensive...
Product: Commodities (crops, wood and copper)
Externally oriented
Capital intensity and regulatory requirements are complex imposing a high barrier for entry
High share of illegal activity, low barriers to entry
Innovation in suppliers, mainly oriented to improve efficiency (throgh machineries, seeds..)
Control over key parts of the processes is highly concentrated, typically in foreign hands (e.g. Monsanto)
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Dominant System: economic challenges
Agriculture Argentina Mining Chile Amazon Brazil
(a) Concentration:
• Economic (87.688 small and medium farms disappeared between 1992‐2002),
• Of activities (soybean at the expense of other production)
• Of knowledge (in few MNCs, such as GM seeds and herbicides
(a) Concentration
• Economic: (94%) large conglomerates
• Of activities (macro): 56,4% of otal exports (2010), 22,8% GDP and 20% tax revenues.
• Reduction in ore grades
• Of knowledge (in few MNC)
(b) Isolation: an enclave economy
(a) Illegality
(b) Prices: Increases in land prices
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Dominant System: social challenges
Agriculture Argentina Mining Chile Amazon Brazil
(b) Employment losses and shifts within the rural economy: soya farms employ only two workers every 1000 hectares;
(c) Little involvement of farmers in decisions because of contractors and concentration
(c) Low employment generation: Large scale mining is not labor intensive,
(d) Low inclusion: in decision‐making process because of concentration.
(c) Illegality and precariousness of jobs:one third of workers are direct or indirectly connected to the illegal activities associated with wood sector.
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Dominant System: environmental challenges
Agriculture Argentina Mining Chile Amazon Brazil
(d) Environmental damage:
Deforestation, high water/energy consumption, soil degradation, lost of biodiversity, etc.
‐> Loss of resilience, due to genetic uniformity
(e) Health risks, from increasing use of herbicides and GM seeds.
(e) Three types of pollution:
• Air pollution (high electricity needs)
• Water pollution and depletion (30% consumption in some regions).
• Soil pollution: industrial waste, tailings basins.
(f) Emergence of conflicts
(d) DEFORESTATION:• Lost of about 19% of its forest cover by 2011.
• Between 1988 and 2011 reached 392,021 square Km – an area larger than Austria and Italy combined.
(d) High levels of air pollution: due to deforestation.
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Overview of Alternatives: Argentina
Path‐breaking Path‐repairing Path‐creating
StudiedVenture
Two ventures: organic/agroecological
A large cooperative that produces, trade and manufactures crops in the country side
A knowledge intensive initiative connected to agriculture
BriefDescription
•Honey and cotton:
• Coopsol: 150 small producers from Santiago del Estero
• ACL: 50 small cotton producers from Chaco
•Certified (organic, fairtrade).
Agricultores FederadosArgentinos (AFA):
•33,000 small, medium and large producers from Pampas
• 60% crops, 40% industrial (oils, biodiesel, machineries)
Don Mario:
• Development and production of soy seeds.
•Innovation: based on classical breeding (non transgenic)
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Path‐breaking Path‐repairing Path‐creating
StudiedVenture
Cosmetic company based on organic inputs
Three cases of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)
Supplier of natural and organic certified inputs forcosmetics, health and nutrition
BriefDescription
Chamma da Amazônia:
• Small from Belém.
• Strong interactionwith public efforts.
•Strong productdifferentiation
E.g. Mamirauáfrom Manaus:
• Training and Community SFM
•Licensing
•Environmental Control Plans;
Beraca Sabará:
• Large from Sao Paulo
• Main asset: eco‐relationship with local communities
Overview of Alternatives: Brazil
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Overview of Alternatives: Chile
Path‐repairing Path‐creating
Studiedventure
Two resource saving initiatives Two knowledge intensive solutions
BriefDescription
Paduel: a medium size companies
• “Thickened” tailings technologies.
• Use sea water in the productive process.
•Laboratory of Geomechanics for Mining (University of Chile JV Codelco): mathematical solutions to deal with the problem of rock blastings.
• Aguamarina: applications of microorganisms and biotechnology for mining.
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III. EVALUATING THE ALTERNATIVES: OUTCOMES
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Improving Outcomes
Path‐breaking
Economic: Less concentration of:Production: Diversification of the agricultural production. Economic: Tests models better suited to small farmers.Of knowledge: dispersed between farmers.
Others: food security, quality of food….
Social: Increases inclusion through:Employment in the country side. Participation: Models that encourage and rely on higher local participation
Environmental: Reduces long term damage by:Exhaustion of the resourcesDestruction of the ecosystems: Respects and recreates biodiversityPollution: by limiting the uses of herbicides
Enhancing Sustainability by breaking: Argentina
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Improving Outcomes
Path‐creating
Economic: Less concentration of:Production: diversification towards knowledge intensive activitiesOf knowledge: to improve seeds across domestic firms.
Economic: creating opportunities for domestic firms in seeds
Others: Seed varieties adapted to local ecological conditions; opportunities for organic production.
Social: POTENTIAL! Increases inclusion through:Demonstration effects: possible to improve seeds using non GM technologies; using free available knowledge…..OPPORTUNITIES FOR SMALL SCALE BUSINESS
Environmental: Less potential environmental damage by:Reducing dependency on the resources
Enhancing Sustainability by creating: Argentina
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Enhancing Sustainability by repairing: Argentina
Improving Outcomes
Path‐repairing
Economic: Less concentration of:Production: due to manufacturing in the country side (40%). Economic: Increasing business opportunities for small scale farming.Of knowledge: though technical assistance, education and training for farmers.
Social: Increases inclusion through:Employment in the country side: Corporative Social Balance; promote access to small and medium‐size producers.Increasing participation in decisions making: Co‐operative model
Environmental: through long term objetives: Co‐operative model, Corporative Social Balance
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Enhancing Sustainability: Brazil
Improving Outcomes
Path‐creatingand path‐breaking
Economic: increase value of biodiversity; opens up a space to innovation and to new markets.
Social: increases inclusion through:Production models that benefit the local communities;Opportunities to improve living standards.
Environmental: sustainable exploitation of Amazonian biodiversity.
Path‐repairing
Economic and social: strong chain of production with potential economic and social improvements for the local population.
Environmental: sustainable forest management can reduce deforestation and GHG emissions.
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Enhancing Sustainability: Chile
Improving Outcomes
Laboratory of Geomechanics for
mining
Productive: Can help increase extraction speed and avoid accidents that paralyze operations.
Economic: Training of people in applied research. Might contribute to diversification, produce marketable products, and demonstration effects
Social: Increased safety in the operation of underground mines.
Thickened tailings
Productive: Increased water efficiency.
Economic: Has a path‐creating dimension.
Social: No risk of liquefaction‐related accidents, reduced pollution, reduced water demand from mining companies.
Environmental: Reduced use of fresh water, reduced dust emissions, surface used, and risk of underground water pollution.
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Enhancing Sustainability: ChileImproving Outcomes
Seawater in the productive process
Productive: Possible to exploit deposits where fresh water is not available.
Economic: Has a path‐creating dimension.
Social: No competition for fresh water resources between communities and mining companies.
Environmental: No negative impact on fresh water sources.
Aguamarina
Productive: Increased production levels and reduced processing times.
Economic: potential for diversification and lateral migration. Training of people in applied research.
Social: Affirmative action employment policies. Indirect benefits through reduced pollution from mining companies.
Environmental: environmentally friendly products. Some reduce different forms of pollution.
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IV. EVALUATING THE ALTERNATIVES: BARRIERS TO GROWTH
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1. Capabilities: channel technical developments into restricted subsets of possible directions
2. Economic: economic benefits gained from investment in in the dominant system
3. Vested interests: sunk investments in existing activities:
4. Politics and power: Incumbent businesses, regulators and others enjoy important positions in the current system.
5. Infrastructure: roads, machineries, transport equipment, etc..
6. Institutions: Government regulations and subsidies, professional associations, and market rules.
We have classified barriers in six types
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CLASSICAL
• Lack of specialized knowledge: forest management, certification, genomics
• Synergies and complementarities between dominant diffused technologies. Eg. GM crops+glyphosate+ZT technologies.
LESS CLASSICAL: knowledge uniformity, lack of diversity about:
• Alternative technologies e.g. AGRICULTURE: agronomists loosing knowledge about plant selection; MINING: no capital goods available for small scale mining
• Local environments (e.g. Amazon, Chaco): RISK of losing local communities’knowledge. Lack of models, understanding, trust, etc.
CHALLENGE: HOW TO CODIFY AND DIFFUSE BEST PRACTICES FROM ALTERNATIVES?
Capabilities
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CLASSICAL
• Sunk costs and investments in setting up (e.g. see water)
• Difficulties to evaluate and fund alternatives (not elegible for loans)
• Huge dependency on commodity exports, 8 and 20% tax in Arg and Chile
LESS CLASSICAL
• Lack of incentives due to disconnection with local demands (exports)
• Lack of local demand (low willingness to pay premium for quality)
• Problems to create incentives within local communities (e.g. Amazonia)
Availability of resources (machineries, land) for alternatives due to contaminationand prices.
CHALLENGE: HOW TO CREATE THE INCENTIVES?
Economics
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Of companies: sunk costs. Difficult for incumbents to try new things (mining).
Of governments: collects resources, have control.
Of academics: with interests in the dominant system can influence national budget in their favour, in detriment of new knowledge or nascent firms
Of landowners: over land ownership in local communities.
Of large MNCs which want to diffuse their own technologies, e.g. GM
CHALLENGE: HOW TO AVOID PATH‐DEPENDENCY AND LOCK IN SITUATIONS?
Vested Interests
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CLASSICAL
Influencing regulations: Land owners and large companies, eg. Monsanto, Syngenta, Dow and Bayer have a place in Conabia (Arg. for GM approvals).
Influencing farmers: Business associations run by large farmers and large companies influence farmers practices, etc. Eg.: extension systems run by MNCsand large companies instead of public institutions.
LESS CLASSICAL
Difficulties tomanage conflicting interests, e.g. illegal production in the Amazon, soya vs. apiculture, conventional cotton vs. agroecological
CHALLENGE: HOW TO REPRESENT THE INTERESTS OF SMALL PRODUCERS AND OF THE POOR?
Politics and Power
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Lack of appropriablity of existing equipment to deal with demands in thealternatives. E.g. deal with different tailings in large scales; with sea water use.
Transportation costs: difficult access to remote communities, e.g. producers of organic honey and organic inputs for cosmetics.
Contamination (1): of machinery can only be used in organic if clean… but they are mostly contaminated.
Contamination (2): of the environment (loss of biodiversity, deforestation, possible negative health effects, and water scarcity) damages honey, organic cotton. E.g. Herbicides kill most of the flora form that feed bees.
CHALLENGE: HOW TO PRESERVE CLEAN, NON CONTAMINATED SPACES AND INFRASTRUCTURE?
Infrastructure
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Certification: usually performed by foreign companies, very expensive. Need forintermediate systems, more flexibility and participation of locals. E.g. to certify co‐operatives.
IPR systems not prepared to protect alternatives. E.g. (1) UPOV 78) weakly protects seed varieties obtained by classical breeding (e.g. breeders’ exception); patents protect new genetic constructs.
Regulations: complex, expensive… Not accessible for small business. eg. biotechevents, use of local knowledge.
Public funding schemes able to evaluate alternatives, that priorice longer termover short term objectives.
CHALLENGE: FULFILL INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS AND PROTECT LOCAL NEEDSINCORPORATE LONG TERM OBJECTIVES
Institutions
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Conclusions• In process…
• NRs: Not a curse, high potential to transform in sustainabledirections via alternatives
• But: Important barriers in the supply/demand side andinstitutions. ROLE FOR POLICIES
• Differences across activities: related to technology, institutions, history, main actors.
▫ In Mining no available path‐breaking, all innovationscoming from incumbents, WHY?
▫ Importance to understand the drivers…• DANGER: Can Chile be seen as the future?
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Conclusions
Important issues: • Virtuous feedbacks between social and environmental otucomes:
▫ E.g. co‐operative models increases inclusion through local participation, and incorporate long term objectives
• Local ownership matters to incorporporate sustainability goals.
• Future research:▫ What is the best practice, and how this wins and diffuses▫ Drivers, dynamics, different roles of path‐breaking and path‐repairing in transformations, etc.
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Conclusions
For further information:
• Webpage: nrpathways.wix.com/home
• Email: a.i.marin@fund‐cenit.org
Thank you!