Richard de Ferranti

Department ofInternational Relations

Research School of Pacific Studies

Australian National University

M.A. (International Relations)

Sub-the sis

Supervisor: Dr. Coral Bell

Evatt and the Manus Negotiations

THIS SUB-THESIS IS ENTIRELY THE WORK OF

RICHARD DE FERRANTI.

ALL SOURCES USED HAVE BEEN ACKNOWLEDGED.

Richard de Ferranti

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction relations in

Chapter 1: Developments in the Pacific in the Closing Years of the War

at least in

ittempting to

Chapter 2: The Manus Negotiations, Phase 1 ghts to use a

on AustralianChapter 3: The Manus Negotiations, Phase 2 iack the

Chapter 4: The Significance of Manus for Evatt and Australia

, previously

extended

A Note on Sourcesr the state of

or not Dr.Bibliography ad contributed

Notes-US

during theAnnex A - Copy of UK Cable detailing US request over

Bases (December 1945)iberal and

emainder ofAnnex B - Copy of the US Draft Agreement on Manus and

attachments had ousted the

ad damaged

Americans out

andered a

3 in

r at the

'ding the

;xample of

.n this

1

I n t r o d u c t i o n

Most h i s t o r i e s of A u s t r a l i a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s i n

the p e r i o d immedia te ly a f t e r t h e war men t ion , a t l e a s t i n

p a s s i n g , t he c u r i o u s phenomenon of A u s t r a l i a a t t e m p t i n g t o

b a r g a i n w i t h t he Un i ted S t a t e s over t h e US’ r i g h t s t o use a

base which t he Americans t h e m s e lv e s had b u i l t on A u s t r a l i a n

mandated t e r r i t o r y i n the p r o c e s s of b e a t i n g back t he

Ja pan es e from A u s t r a l i a n s h o r e s . Manus I s l a n d , p r e v i o u s l y

shrouded i n o b s c u r i t y , became t he f o c u s of an e x t e nd ed

de ba t e both i n p a r l i a m e n t and i n t h e p r e s s over t h e s t a t e of

A u s t r a l i a ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t he USA and whe ther or no t Dr.

E v a t t ' s 'w h e e l i n g and d e a l i n g ' on t h e m a t t e r had c o n t r i b u t e d

t o a p e r c e i v e d d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t he A u s t r a l i a n - U S

r e l a t i o n s h i p , c o n s i d e r e d t o have been so c lo s e d u r i n g t h e

war . The m a t t e r was o f t e n b rou gh t up by t he L i b e r a l and

Count ry p a r t i e s i n p a r l i a m e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e m a in d e r of

t h e f o r t i e s and even i n t h e f i f t i e s when t hey had o u s t e d t he

ALP from the government benches . For i n p a r l i a m e n t i t was

r e g u l a r l y a s s e r t e d t o be t he case t h a t E v a t t had damaged

A u s t r a l i a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s by t h rowing t h e Amer icans out

of A u s t r a l i a n c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y and had squande red a

golden o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n v o l v e t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s i n1

A u s t r a l i a ' s r e g i o n a l d e f e n c e .

Some a c c o u n t s have l ooked q u i t e c l o s e l y a t t h e

n e g o t i a t i o n s between A u s t r a l i a and t h e US r e g a r d i n g t h e

i s l a n d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i n c i d e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t example of

E v a t t ' s work as M i n i s t e r f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s i n t h i s

2

crucial period of Australian history. Professor R.N.

Rosecrance's book, Australian Diplomacy and Jaoan:1Q45-1951.

devotes a chapter to examining the facts of the case and

T.R. Reese and J.G. Starke both examine the episode in somepdetail. The most comprehensive accounts are, however,

those of John Dedman, in his 1966 article in Australian

Qutlook.3 and R.J. Bell in his book, Unequal Allies. as one

might expect since the first is the account of a man who was

a member of the Australian Cabinet at the time and the

second (unlike previous academic accounts) is based on

extensive research using original documents. As this essay

will show both of these renditions are fairly accurate

tellings of the story of the Manus negotiations. The need

existed, however, to examine the Australian record, firstly

to establish that Dedman’s account was not subject to

political bias, as has been hinted at,^ and, secondly,

because the American and British records, which Bell relied

on, provide an incomplete picture, if an interesting and

valuable one, of the way in which the negotiations were

conducted. He concluded that "the absence of confidential

Australian and American documents relating to these

discussions has precluded a thorough investigation of the

relationship suspected to have existed between (negotiations

over base rights on Manus and a Pacific regional

arrangement)" .

The research upon which this essay is based

concentrated primarily on a series of "Top Secret" files of

the Department of External Affairs (DEA) dealing with the

3

n e g o t i a t i o n s i n q u e s t i o n . D e f e n c e f i l e s and P r i m e

M i n i s t e r ’ s f i l e s w e r e a l s o c o n s u l t e d , h o w e v e r , t o

c o r r o b o r a t e t h e DEA f i l e s and w h e n e v e r l a c u n a e a p p e a r e d i n

t h e r e c o r d . O c c a s i o n a l l y , i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t s u c h l a c u n a e

d e r i v e n o t f r o m t h e s o r t s o f bad h a b i t s ( w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e

k e e p i n g o f r e c o r d s ) w h i c h P e t e r E d w a r d s h a s r e c o r d e d a s

a f f l i c t i n g t h e o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s ando

1 9 4 0 ' s , b u t f r o m t h e e r r a n t p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n o f t e n

c o n d u c t e d by E v a t t w h i c h h a s b e e n n o t e d by S i r P a u l

H a s l u c k . 9 I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e no a mo u n t o f s e a r c h i n g t h r o u g h

o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s ' f i l e s w i l l b r i n g t o l i g h t r e l e v a n t

m a t e r i a l .

What e m e r g e s f r o m t h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e Manus

n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s l y

p u b l i s h e d h i s t o r i e s o f t h e a f f a i r . F i r s t l y , t h e e x t e n t t o

w h i c h E v a t t h a d t h e f u l l s u p p o r t o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n S e r v i c e s '

d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s i n h i s a p p r o a c h h a s n e v e r b e f o r e b e e n

b r o u g h t o u t . S e c o n d l y , Manus , f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f

t h e t i m e i n w h i c h P a c i f i c b a s e s w e r e b e i n g d i s c u s s e d , was

o n l y one o f many B r i t i s h b a s e s s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e S o u t h

P a c i f i c w h i c h w e r e b e i n g n e g o t i a t e d o v e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

a l t h o u g h t h e US t r i e d t o a p p r o a c h A u s t r a l i a ( a n d New Z e a l a n d

w i t h r e g a r d t o Samoa) on a b i l a t e r a l b a s i s , t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s

w e r e c o n d u c t e d much more on a f o o t i n g o f t h e i r b e i n gI

U S - B r i t i s h Commonweal th d i s c u s s i o n s . I n d e e d , A u s t r a l i a , New

Z e a l a n d a nd t h e UK c o o p e r a t e d v e r y c l o s e l y on t h e m a t t e r a nd

c o - o r d i n a t e d t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t . The f a c t

t h a t A u s t r a l i a ' s p o l i c y on P a c i f i c b a s e s was f i n a l l y a d o p t e d

7

4

by the British Commonwealth as a whole was another

indication that the Commonwealth was heading (if briefly)

where Evatt wanted it to go, namely in the direction of

increased Dominion direction of Commonwealth affairs in the

Dominion's particular area of interest. Most significantly,

though, crucial negotiations which Evatt believed had swung

the issue his way are here documented for the first time.

Whether they are evidence of Evatt’s powers of personal

persuasion or of his capacity for self-delusion is an issue

that is not as clear-cut as the final result might suggest.

5

C h a p t e r 1: D e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e P a c i f i c i n t h e C l o s i n g Y e a r s

o f t h e War

The d e f e a t o f J a p a n i n t h e S e c o n d Wor l d War came

a b o u t by means o f a t w o - s t a g e o p e r a t i o n w h i c h i n v o l v e d1

c o n d u c t i n g a " l o w - p r e s s u r e w a r " i n t h e S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c

u n t i l t h e d e f e a t o f H i t l e r had b e e n s e c u r e d i n E u r o p e

f o l l o w e d by a t w o - p r o n g t h r u s t t o w a r d s t h e P h i l i p p i n e s f r om

t h e s o u t h and t o w a r d s J a p a n i t s e l f f r o m t h e e a s t . D u r i n g

t h e f i r s t p h a s e w h i c h l a s t e d u n t i l t h e end o f 1 94 3 , t h e USA

e s t a b l i s h e d a nd m a i n t a i n e d b a s e s on many i s l a n d s i n t h e

S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c r e g i o n . Most o f t h e s e w e r e on i s l a n d s

w h i c h w e r e a t t h a t t i m e t h e t e r r i t o r y o f member s o f t h e

B r i t i s h Commonweal th o r F r a n c e . As t h e w a r drew t o a c l o s e

a nd t h e " r o l l i n g b a c k " o f t h e J a p a n e s e p r o v e d so c o s t l y i n

human l i v e s c o n c e r n o v e r t h e p o s t - w a r f a t e o f t h e s e b a s e s

a n d o f t h o s e e s t a b l i s h e d en r o u t e t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s or

J a p a n grew b o t h i n t h e US and i n t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th .

I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e i s s u e o f s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e i s l a n d s

upon w h i c h b a s e s h ad b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d was i n q u e s t i o n n o t

o n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e p r o l o n g e d " o c c u p a t i o n " by t h e A m e r i c a n

t r o o p s b u t a l s o b e c a u s e t h e US had i n A u g u s t , 193 9 , l a i d

c l a i m t o a number o f P a c i f i c i s l a n d s " i n c l u d i n g some

p r e v i o u s l y a s s u me d t o be u n d e r B r i t i s h s o v e r e i g n t y and somep

l y i n g w i t h i n t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f New Z e a l a n d " . M o r e o v e r ,

p r e s s u r e d e v e l o p e d f r o m 1943 on w i t h i n t h e US C o n g r e s s and

i n t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s s f o r t h e US t o be r e c o m p e n s e d f o r t h e

s p e n t " b l o o d o f A me r i c a n b o y s " by t h e g i f t o f s o v e r e i g n t y .

6

The more aggressive of these went so far as suggesting not

giving them back. While the British considered briefly at

the end of 1943 the notion of handing over a particular

island, either Betio or Tarawa, (a suggestion which the

Australains strongly disapproved of as setting a bad example

for the cession of British territory)^ the surrender of all

those islands upon which the US had built bases was never a

possibility.

Australians followed these developments with some

concern not only because of anxiety over the possible

diminution of Commonwealth power in the Pacific but also

because from early 1944 she had a more direct interest in

the issues at stake. For in Feburary 1944, as part of

General MacArthur's thrust north to retake the Philippines,

Manus Island, one of the Admiralty group to the north-east

of Papua-New Guinea, had been recaptured from the Japanese.

A huge naval base was subsequently established in the

island’s vast natural harbour. Most importantly, Manus lay

within the limits of Australia's PNG mandate. The post-war

fate of mandated territory was yet to be determined but the

island was still considered to be under Australian control

(although this entailed only a token administrative presence

on the island during the war) and any bid for its

sovereignty by the US would have to be carefully considered.

Thus the Australian Department of External Affairs monitored

closely the attitudes towards Pacific bases developing in

the US.

7

I t was e v i d e n t f r om q u i t e e a r l y on i n t h e P a c i f i c

War t h a t t h e b a s e s w ou l d be a m a t t e r o f c o n t e n t i o n .

N e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n March 1943 b e t w e e n t h e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t s o f t h e UK, t h e US and

f r e e F r a n c e i n t h e New H e b r i d e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r p o s t - w a r s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e New H e b r i d e s o f t h e b a s e

c o n s t r u c t e d t h e r e by t h e US Navy. The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f

a l l t h o s e g o v e r n m e n t s a r r i v e d a t a d r a f t a g r e e m e n t w h i c h

l a i d down t h e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t " t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f b a s e s by

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e New

H e b r i d e s " and t h a t " t h e o w n e r s h i p o f any i mmo va b l e

i n s t a l l a t i o n s made w i l l be r e l i n q u i s h e d by t h e e x p i r a t i o n o f

t h i s a g r e e m e n t " . ^ The a g r e e m e n t was n e v e r f o r m a l l y e n t e r e d

i n t o , h o w e v e r , and t h i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e US S t a t e

D e p a r t m e n t was r e a l l y u n w i l l i n g t o c o n c e d e any s u c h

p r i n c i p l e and a n x i o u s t o a v o i d e s t a b l i s h i n g any p r e c e d e n t s

w h i c h m i g h t p r e j u d i c e t h e i r c l a i m s a t t h e end o f t h e w a r .

The UK a t t i t u d e on t h e s u b j e c t was one o f e m p h a t i c

o p p o s i t i o n t o US ’ e x p a n s i o n * i n t h e P a c i f i c , a s t h e

f o l l o w i n g e x t r a c t f r om a UK A i r M i n i s t r y Memorandum o f

S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 4 3 , i n d i c a t e s :

1. C e r t a i n c i r c l e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n s i d e r t h a t U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p e n d i t u r e on t h e p r o v i s i o n o f war f a c i l i t e s o r a i r f i e l d s i n t e r r i t o r y u n d e r U n i t e d Kingdom a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r c o n t r o l c o n f e r s on t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t p r e s c r i p t i v e r i g h t t o p o s t - w a r u s e r . The S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t h a s t e n t a t i v e l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t a i r f i e l d s j o i n t l y p r o v i d e d s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t s f o r p o s t - w a r c i v i l a i r t r a n s p o r t p u r p o s e s .

2 . H i s M a j e s t y ’ s G o v e r n m e n t i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom c a n n o t a c c e p t t h e s e c l a i m s a s v a l i d . T h e i r p o l i c y a s s t a t e d by t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y U n d e r - S e c r e t a r y f o r A i r i n t h e House o f Commons ( H a n s a r d 1 7 t h

8

De c e mb e r , 1 9^ 2 , c o l u mn 2153) i s t h a t " a l l b e t s a r e o f f a t t h e end o f t h e w a r " 5

By t h e end o f t h e w a r , t h o u g h , a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s o f

s o m e t h i n g l i k e o c c u p a t i o n t h e A m e r i c a n s we r e n o t g o i n g t o be

so e a s y t o s h i f t .

At t h e same t i m e a s A m e r i c a n e x p a n s i o n i s t

a s p i r a t i o n s we r e b e i n g a i r e d i n t h e US, A u s t r a l i a n o f f i c i a l s

we r e n o t i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power

c e r t a i n t o f o l l o w t h e wa r m i g h t p r o v i d e f o r A u s t r a l i a t o

e x p a n d i t s r o l e i n t h e P a c i f i c . W . D . F o r s y t h , t h e A u s t r a l i a n

o f f i c i a l who m o n i t o r e d t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a n d e b a t e on

c o l o n i a l i s m and t r u s t e e s h i p d u r i n g t h e w a r , p u t b e f o r e

E v a t t , i n J u l y , 1 9 ^ 3 , a p a p e r e n t i t l e d " P a c i f i c I s l a n d s -

C u r r e n t P o s i t i o n a n d F u t u r e P o s s i b i l i t i e s " . T h i s p a p e r ,

b a s e d on d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h s e n i o r US s e r v i c e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

i n Me l b o u r n e i n d i c a t e d t h a t c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f t h e US

s e r v i c e s f a v o u r e d an A u s t r a l i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a7

B r i t i s h one i n t h e So l omon I s l a n d s a f t e r t h e w a r . A l s o , a t

t h e n e x t P a c i f i c War C o u n c i l m e e t i n g h e l d a f t e r t h e C a i r o

C o n f e r e n c e , a t w h i c h R o o s e v e l t wa s no d o u b t a t t e m p t i n g t o

a s s u a g e h i s A l l i e s ’ a n n o y a n c e o v e r t h e i r e x c l u s i o n f r o m t h a t

c o n f e r e n c e , t h e A m e r i c a n P r e s i d e n t i n f o r m e d Owen Di x o n ,

A u s t r a l i a ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on t h e C o u n c i l , o f h i s i n t e r e s t

i n h a v i n g A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d r e p l a c e F r a n c e a s t h eo

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f New C a l e d o n i a . Thus when E v a t t c o n v e n e d

h i s ’ a n t i p o d e a n C a i r o ’ f r o m t h e 1 7 t h t o t h e 2 1 s t o f J a n u a r y ,Q

1 9 4 4 , i n C a n b e r r a t o d i s c u s s P a c i f i c p o s t - w a r i s s u e s , t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y of a n i n c r e a s e d A u s t r a l i a n r o l e i n t h e P a c i f i c

9

was no d o u b t u p p e r m o s t i n h i s mi n d . I n d e e d New Z e a l a n d w e r e

h a r d p u t t o i t t o p r e v e n t h i m f r om i n c l u d i n g i n t h e Anzac

P a c t a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e p o s s i b l e t r a n s f e r t o A u s t r a l i a

and New Z e a l a n d o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e S o l o mo n s and

t h e B r i t i s h s h a r e o f t h e New H e b r i d e s . ^

I t s ee ms s t r a n g e t h e n , t h a t , g i v e n e v i d e n c e o f t h e

U S ' s s u p p o r t f o r an i n c r e a s e d A u s t r a l i a n r o l e i n t h e

P a c i f i c , E v a t t s h o u l d p u s h t h r o u g h a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r e a t y ,

t h e " i n n e r s i g n i f i c a n c e " o f w h i c h was t o k e e p US e x p a n s i o n

N o r t h of t h e E q u a t o r . ^ The t r e a t y a s s e r t e d t h e n e c e s s i t y

o f c o n s u l t i n g A u s t r a l i a a nd New Z e a l a n d o v e r any t e r r i t o r i a l

r e a d j u s t m e n t s i n t h e P a c i f i c [ A r t i c l e 2 6 ] a nd t h e i n t e n t i o n

o f t h e two g o v e r n m e n t s t o e s t a b l i s h a " r e g i o n a l z o n e o f

d e f e n c e i n t h e S o u t h Wes t and S o u t h P a c i f i c a r e a s " [ A r t i c l e

1 3 ] . More o v e r t l y , t h e d o c u me n t s o u g h t t o l i m i t US

i n f l u e n c e i n t h e a r e a by s t a t i n g t h a t b a s e s wo u l d n o t

" a f f o r d any b a s i s f o r t e r r i t o r i a l c l a i m s o r r i g h t s o f

s o v e r e i g n t y o r c o n t r o l a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f h o s t i l i t i e s "

[ A r t i c l e 1 6 ] . E v a t t ' s c o n c e r n h e r e was t o p r e s e r v e B r i t i s h

s o v e r e i g n t y and power i n t h e S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c a n d h a d no

s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o Manus w h i c h was s t i l l i n J a p a n e s e

h a n d s . The q u e s t i o n a r i s e s a s t o why E v a t t d i d n o t l e t t h e

B r i t i s h f i g h t t h e i r own b a t t l e s o v e r s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e

P a c i f i c a n d a v o i d a f f r o n t i n g t h e A m e r i c a n s who a t t h a t t i m e

s eemed w e l l d i s p o s e d t o w a r d s a i d i n g A u s t r a l i a n a i m s f o r

g r e a t e r i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e P a c i f i c .

As we s h a l l s e e , a t t h i s t i m e E v a t t s t i l l v e r y much

i d e n t i f i e d A u s t r a l i a ' s p o s t - w a r p r o s p e c t s o f power w i t h

10

t h o s e o f t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th a s a w h o l e .

T h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t d i d n o t

t a k e k i n d l y t o Dr . E v a t t ' s d e c l a r a t i o n , ^ y e t t h e o f f i c i a l

r e s p o n s e was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s h a r p . The S e c r e t a r y o f

S t a t e , C o r d e l l H u l l , c o n f i n e d h i m s e l f t o r e j e c t i n g

A u s t r a l i a ' s c a l l f o r a c o n f e r e n c e o f a l l i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s

on t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e P a c i f i c i n t h e p o s t - w a r e n v i r o n m e n t

[ A r t i c l e 34 ] on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t i t was t o o e a r l y t o

c o n s i d e r t h e i s s u e s . He d i d , h o w e v e r , i n v i t e C u r t i n t o t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s t o d i s c u s s t h e i s s u e s on a b i l a t e r a l b a s i s

w i t h he and t h e P r e s i d e n t . E v a t t ' s r e p l y , w h i l e a c c e p t i n g

t h e o f f e r (on C u r t i n ' s b e h a l f ) , made i t c l e a r t h a t A u s t r a l i a

f e l t i t s h o u l d h a v e some say i n w h e t h e r or n o t s h e i n c r e a s e d

h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e P a c i f i c a nd t h a t t h e m o s t

e f f e c t i v e way f o r h e r t o be h e a r d w o u l d be a t s u c h a

c o n f e r e n c e o f a l l p a r t i e s w i t h t e r r i t o r y i n t h e S o u t h - W e s t

P a c i f i c . E v a t t , a l i t t l e t a c t l e s s l y , p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s uc h

a c o n f e r e n c e w o u l d n o t be p r e m a t u r e b e c a u s e i t was e v i d e n t

f r om t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s b e i n g made by t h e US a b o u t t h e

P a c i f i c ' s f u t u r e , t h a t d e c i s i o n s w e r e b e i n g t a k e n i n w h i c h

1 3A u s t r a l i a s h o u l d be i n v o l v e d .

The a n s w e r t o why E v a t t s h o u l d c h o o s e t o t r y and

c h a s e t h e US o u t o f t h e S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c j u s t a t a p o i n t

when c u l t i v a t i o n o f US s u p p o r t m i g h t h a v e seemed t o be more

i n A u s t r a l i a ' s i n t e r e s t l i e s i n E v a t t ' s d e v e l o p i n g

c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e new r o l e he p e r c e i v e d f o r t h e D o m i n i o n s i n

t h e p o s t - w a r w o r l d . I n M ar ch , 1 94 6 , i n t h e House o f

11

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , E v a t t w o u l d o u t l i n e t h e f u n c t i o n w h i c h he

c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e D o m i n i o n s s h o u l d p e r f o r m i n t h e mo d er n

B r i t i s h Commonwea l t h :

. . . a n e n t i r e l y new c o n c e p t i n B r i t i s h Commonweal th c o o p e r a t i o n i s now e m e r g i n g . T h i s c o n c e p t t e n d s t o r e c o n c i l e f u l l D o mi n i o n a u t o n o m y w i t h f u l l B r i t i s h Commonweal th c o - o p e r a t i o n . The same p r i n c i p l e i n v o l v e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a D o m i n i o n ’ s a c t i n g i n c e r t a i n p u r p o s e s on b e h a l f o f t h e o t h e r member s o f t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th , i n c l u d i n g t h e U n i t e d Kingdom i t s e l f . T h i s i s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e m a c h i n e r y o f c o - o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n n a t i o n s o f t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th h a s now r e a c h e d a s t a g e w h e re a common p o l i c y c a n be c a r r i e d o u t t h r o u g h a c h o s e n D o m i n i o n i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y i n an a r e a o r r e l a t i o n t o a s u b j e c t m a t t e r , w h i c h i s o f p r i m a r y c o n c e r n t o t h a t D o m i n i o n . 14

A l t h o u g h t h i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e m a t u r e e n u n c i a t i o n o f

E v a t t ’ s v i e w s on t h e r o l e A u s t r a l i a c o u l d p l a y i n t h e

B r i t i s h Commonwea l t h , E v a t t was s t r e s s i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e war

t h e e q u a l s t a t u s o f a l l members o f t h e Commonweal th and a s

e a r l y a s May, 1 9 4 3 , was p o i n t i n g t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a ’’new

r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e n e e d o f c o m p l e t e c o o p e r a t i o n among t h e

B r i t i s h Commonweal th o f N a t i o n s , w i t h f l e x i b l e m a c h i n e r y t o

e n s u r e s u c h c o - o p e r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n m a t t e r s o f 1 5d e f e n c e ” . E v a t t ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f ’’f l e x i b l e m a c h i n e r y ” i n

1944 and 1945 may e v e n h a v e s t r e t c h e d t o A u s t r a l i a n

l e a d e r s h i p o f a S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c r e g i o n a l d e f e n c e

a r r a n g e m e n t r e l y i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y on B r i t i s h f o r c e s ,

a l t h o u g h i t wa s u n l i k e l y t h a t B r i t i s h n o t i o n s w o u l d e v e r

h av e p r o v e d s o e l a s t i c . C e r t a i n l y i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o

c o n c e i v e o f how A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d c o u l d h a v e

d e f e n d e d t h e S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c r e g i o n p r o p o s e d a s t h e b a s i s

o f a d e f e n c e p a c t i n A r t i c l e 13 o f t h e Anzac P a c t r e l y i n g

12

1s o l e l y upon t h e i r own f o r c e s . 0 The a s p i r a t i o n s so b r a z e n l y

a n n o u n c e d i n t h e Anzac P a c t w e r e , t h e n , a s much s t a t e m e n t s

o f w h a t A u s t r a l i a h o p e d t o be a b l e t o do on b e h a l f o f t h e

B r i t i s h Commonweal th a s w h a t s h e w o u l d do on h e r own.

I t i s t h u s i r o n i c t h a t E v a t t , so o f t e n l a b e l l e d w i t h

an a n t i - B r i t i s h t a g b e c a u s e o f h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a t

A u s t r a l i a s h o u l d be p r o m i n e n t i n h e r own r i g h t , was

n e v e r t h e l e s s p o w e r f u l l y a w a r e , d u r i n g t h e w a r , o f t h e

o p p o r t u n i t i e s w h i c h m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th

p r o v i d e d f o r t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f A u s t r a l i a ’ s i n t e r e s t s . Wi t h

r e g a r d t o t h e US b a s e s i n t h e P a c i f i c i t was i n A u s t r a l i a ’ s

i n t e r e s t s t o g u a r d j e a l o u s l y B r i t i s h s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h o s e

i s l a n d s w h i c h E v a t t p l a n n e d t o u se a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e

p o s t - w a r d e f e n c e a g r e e m e n t he h o p e d t o n e g o t i a t e .

R e s t r i c t i n g A m e r i c a n i n f l u e n c e S o u t h o f t h e E q u a t o r was a

c o r o l l a r y o f t h i s p l a n i n t h a t t o o s t r o n g a US p r e s e n c e

w o u l d s p o i l t h e l o g i c o f A u s t r a l i a n l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e

S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c .

T h r o u g h o u t 1 9 4 4 , h o w e v e r , E v a t t s o f t e n e d h i s t o n e

w i t h t h e US, e n c o u r a g i n g c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s1 7i n t h e P a c i f i c . I t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t E v a t t a s w e l l a s

P e t e r F r a s e r , P r i me M i n i s t e r o f New Z e a l a n d , w e r e more

c o m p l a c e n t a b o u t t h e US p r e s e n c e i n t h e P a c i f i c a s t h e y

c o n s i d e r e d t h e ANZAC P a c t t o h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l i n c h a s i n g

t h e US o u t o f t h e S o u t h - W e s t P a c i f i c . They a g r e e d a t t h e

No v emb er , 1944 , m i n i s t e r i a l t a l k s i n W e l l i n g t o n t h a t

’’C o r d e l l H u l l had d i s m i s s e d any n o t i o n o f c h a n g e s i n t h e

13

s o v e r e i g n t y o r s y s t e m o f c o n t r o l i n t h e P a c i f i c I s l a n d s1 8w i t h o u t g e n e r a l c o n s u l t a t i o n " . M o r e o v e r , a t t h e San

F r a n c i s c o c o n f e r e n c e o f A p r i l , 1 9 45 , E v a t t ha d w o r k e d t o

e n s u r e t h a t h i s c o n c e p t o f an A u s t r a l i a n - b a s e d S o u t h - W e s t

P a c i f i c p a c t wo u l d be c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y o r g a n i s a t i o n t o be e s t a b l i s h e d a f t e r t h e w a r .

Th u s , i n m i d - 1 9 4 5 , E v a t t was a m e n a b l e t o t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n

o f US powe r i n t h e N o r t h e r n P a c i f i c a s t h e US a d v a n c e d

t o w a r d J a p a n a s he d i d n o t s e e i t a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h

c o n t i n u e d B r i t i s h and p a r t i c u l a r l y A u s t r a l i a n power s o u t h of

t h e e q u a t o r . He d i d n o t f o r e s e e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h

A me r i c a n n a t i o n a l i s m w o u l d r e v e a l i t s e l f i n c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s

o f t h e US a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1 9 45 .

1 4

Chapter 2: The Manus Neeotiations. Phase 1

August, 1945, marked the beginning of a new phase in

the enunciation of US aspirations for control of the

post-war Pacific. President Truman announced that although

the U.S. wants no territory ... out of this war, we are going to maintain the military bases necessary for the complete protection of our interests and of world peace. Bases which our military experts deem to be essential for our protection, and which are not now in our possession, we will acquire. 1

Prior to this announcement it had been unclear whether the

more vocal and acquisitive elements of the US

administration, particularly the services, would find

official recognition of their sentiments.

The suggestion that bases built on territory of

countries other than the defeated Japan might not be handed

back gained substance in the next few months. In August a

sub-committee of the US House of Representatives Naval

Affairs Committee toured the Pacific in order to assess the

extent of US expenditure and the importance of the various

bases to US strategic requirements. Its findings were that

acquisition to "full title" to a number of bases, including2Manus, was essential. Perhaps the most sinister

development as far as Australia was concerned came to light

at the end of August when General MacArthur dissolved the

Southwest Pacific Command which he had been in charge of.

When MacArthur conveyed to Chifley his intention to hand

over to the British and Australian Command on 2nd September,

1945, he indicated that the Admiralty Islands would be

excluded from the transfer of power. This was the first

15

notice that the Australian Government had received of the US

intention to retain military control in the area. Moreover,

Chifley had expressly stated in letters of June and July

that control of Australian Mandated Territories should

revert to the Government upon the dissolution of the

Southwest Pacific Command. It suddenly appeared that far

from being prepared to negotiate over any transfer of

sovereignty which might be under consideration (about which

Evatt had been so confident in Wellington the year before)

the US might be prepared to resort to the tactics advocated

by the most strident of her nationalists in order to achieve

her aims.

Further official support for the US’s annexation of

Manus Island along with various islands in the Northern

Pacific came shortly after with a cable from F.W. Eggleston,

then Australian Minister to the U.S.A. in Washington. He

gave details of a speech made on September 5, by Assistant

Secretary of the Navy, Mr. H. Struve Hensel, whose

statements had been supported by Navy Secretary James

Forrestal. The Navy wanted a minimum of nine major bases in

the Pacific: Hawaii; Kodiak and Adak in the Aleutians;

Balboa on the Pacific side of the Canal Zone; Guam, Saipan

and Tinian in the Marianas; Iwo Jima in the former Japanese

Volcano Islands; Okinawa in the Ryukus; a base in the4Phillipines; and only Manus in the Southern Hemisphere.

These were the bases which the Navy regarded as essential,

although Forrestal acknowledged that more bases might be

added later. Thus at this stage of the proceedings, Manus

16

had been s i n g l e d o u t by th e US Navy as th e o n l y base b e lo w

th e E q u a to r w h ich th e y c o n s id e r e d v i t a l t o US s e c u r i t y .

The f i r s t week o f S e p te m b e r , 1946, saw E v a t t d e p a r t

f o r t h e F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r s ’ M e e t in g i n London . He w o u ld be

away u n t i l J a n u a ry , o n l y r e t u r n i n g a f t e r s p e n d in g November

and December i n t h e US and Canada. W h i le i n W a s h in g to n

E v a t t gave a speech a t th e N a t i o n a l P ress C lub i n w h ic h he

o u t l i n e d c o n d i t i o n s unde r w h ic h A u s t r a l i a w o u ld be p re p a re d

t o g r a n t th e use o f th e Manus base t o a n o t h e r c o u n t r y . The

A u s t r a l i a n M i n i s t e r f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s ’ speech e s t a b l i s h e d

t h e l i n e w h ic h he was t o f o l l o w t h r o u g h o u t th e co u rs e o f th e

n e g o t i a t i o n s , namely t h a t d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g P a c i f i c

i s l a n d bases sh o u ld be made w i t h i n th e f ra m e w o rk o f a

r e g i o n a l d e fe n ce a r ra n g e m e n t w i t h r e c i p r o c a l u n d e r t a k i n g s

f o r j o i n t use o f b a s e s . ^ He had a l s o d i s c u s s e d t h e

s i t u a t i o n w i t h US S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , James F. B y rn e s , w h i l e

a t t h e F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r s ’ M e e t in g i n London . There he had

c o m p la in e d o f th e US a m b i t i o n s t o m o n o p o l i s e a l l m a jo r

P a c i f i c bases and p u t f o r w a r d A u s t r a l i a ’ s d e s i r e t o a c q u i r eß

bases i n , a t l e a s t , New C a le d o n ia and t h e New H e b r i d e s .

Thus i t i s c l e a r t h a t a t t h i s s t a g e E v a t t s t i l l c h e r i s h e d

hopes t h a t A u s t r a l i a w o u ld be a b le t o expand h e r i n f l u e n c e

i n t h e S o u th -W e s t P a c i f i c a l t h o u g h i t i s f a r f ro m c l e a r whom

he m i g h t have e x p e c te d t o pay f o r i t . A r e p o r t p r e p a r e d i n

th e D e fence D e p a r t m e n t ’ s P o s t - H o s t i l i t i e s P la n n in g Commit tee

O f f i c e e x p re s s e d d o u b ts a b o u t t h e v i a b i l i t y o f A u s t r a l i a ’ s

m a i n t a i n i n g the Manus I s l a n d base, l e t a lo n e two o r more7

o t h e r s . E v a t t was l i v i n g beyond h i s means i n s u g g e s t i n g

17

t h a t A u s t r a l i a c o u l d m a i n t a i n b a s e s i n New C a l e d o n i a and t h e

New H e b r i d e s a s w e l l a s Manus i n New G u i n e a u n l e s s he

e n v i s a g e d B r i t a i n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e u p k e e p o f b a s e s t h a t

A u s t r a l i a w o u l d a d m i n i s t e r . To g e t B r i t a i n i n v o l v e d i n any

n e g o t i a t i o n s t h a t d e v e l o p e d on t h e m a t t e r o f P a c i f i c b a s e s

w ou ld t h e r e f o r e be a p o l i c y i m p e r a t i v e f o r E v a t t . At t h i s

s t a g e , no o f f i c i a l a p p r o a c h had b e e n made on t h e i s s u e by

t h e US, h o w e v e r .

The v e r y f i r s t a p p r o a c h e s by t h e US on t h e m a t t e r of

t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c i s l a n d b a s e s w e r e i n f a c t h a n d l e d by

o f f i c e r s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s i n E v a t t * s

a b s e n c e . The f i r s t o f f i c i a l a p p r o a c h was made by t h e

A m e r i c a n s i n m i d - N o v e m b e r b u t n o t d i r e c t l y t o A u s t r a l i a a s

m i g h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d i f Manus had b e e n a s i m p o r t a n t t o

t h e US a s i t s s i n g l i n g o u t (by S t r u v e H e n s e l and F o r r e s t a l )

h ad a p p e a r e d t o i n d i c a t e . On November 2 2 n d , t h e S e c r e t a r y

o f S t a t e f o r D o mi n i o n A f f a i r s , L o r d A d d i s o n , had c a b l e d t h e

P r i me M i n i s t e r , C h i f l e y , t o n o t i f y him o f an a p p r o a c h made

by t h e US S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e t o t h e UK w i t h a v i e w t o

s e c u r i n g ’' L o n g - T e r m M i l i t a r y B a s e R i g h t s i n t e r r i t o r i e s

( m a i n l y i n t h e P a c i f i c ) a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e U n i t e do

Ki ngdom" . A d d i s o n a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t B y r n e s was

a n t i c i p a t i n g m a k i n g s e p a r a t e a p p r o a c h e s t o A u s t r a l i a a nd New

Z e a l a n d b u t t h a t t h e UK h ad made i t c l e a r t o h im t h a t t h e y

w ou l d be c o n t a c t i n g t h e D o m i n i o n s o v e r t h e m a t t e r . He

s t r e s s e d t o t h e A u s t r a l i a n s t h a t t h e UK was a n x i o u s " t o k e e pQ

i n c l o s e s t t o u c h on t h i s " .

18

W h i l e E v a t t was o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y a s e r i e s o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s p a s s e d b a c k and f o r t h b e t w e e n B r i t a i n ,

A u s t r a l i a and New Z e a l a n d i n an a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h

p r e l i m i n a r y v i e w s on t h e m a t t e r . T h e s e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n t e r e s t i n g a s t h e y r e p r e s e n t d e p a r t m e n t a l v i e w s on t h ei n

s i t u a t i o n b e f o r e E v a t t had any i n p u t . I t t u r n e d o u t t h a t

t h e e x t e n t o f US i n t e r e s t i n t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c was

c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s p e e c h e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e had

i n d i c a t e d . I t c e r t a i n l y was n o t t h e c a s e t h a t Manus was t h e

o n l y p a c i f i c b a s e s o u t h o f t h e E q u a t o r t o w h i c h t h e US

w a n t e d a c c e s s . On t h e 1 1 t h D ece mb e r L o r d A d d i s o n s e n t t o

C h i f l e y a l i s t o f t h e b a s e s w h i c h t h e US had e x p r e s s e d

i n t e r e s t i n a s w e l l a s t h e UK’ s p r e l i m i n a r y v i e w s on t h e

m a t t e r . ^ T h e r e w e r e two t y p e s o f demands b e i n g made .

F i r s t l y , t h e 1939 c l a i m s r e l a t i n g t o s o v e r e i g n t y o f a s e r i e s

o f i s l a n d s i n t h e L i n e , P h o e n i x a n d E l l i c e I s l a n d s ( a s w e l l

a s some b e t w e e n W e s t e r n Samoa a n d t h e P h o e n i x g r o u p

a d m i n i s t e r e d by New Z e a l a n d ) w e r e r e v i v e d . S e c o n d l y , a l i s t

o f e l e v e n b a s e s was s u b m i t t e d w h i c h o u t l i n e d t h e n a t u r e o f

t h e r i g h t s b e i n g s o u g h t i n e a c h c a s e . The b a s e s c o n c e r n e d

w e r e : A s c e n s i o n I s l a n d ( i n t h e A t l a n t i c ) , C a n t o n I s l a n d

( o n e o f t h e P h o e n i x G r o u p ) , C h r i s t m a s I s l a n d ( i n t h e L i n e

I s l a n d s ) , F u n a f u t i ( i n t h e E l l i c e I s l a n d s ) , G u a d a l c a n a l and

T u l a g i ( i n t h e S o l o m o n s ) , Manus, T a ra wa ( i n t h e G i l b e r t

I s l a n d s ) , Up o l u a n d V i t i Levu ( on e o f t h e F i j i a n I s l a n d s ) .

Of t h e s e , o n l y Manus and Up ol u ( a d m i n i s t e r e d by New Z e a l a n d

i n W e s t e r n Samoa) w e r e o f d i r e c t i n t e r e s t t o t h e D o m i n i o n s .

S t r a n g e l y , C a n t o n , C h r i s t m a s a nd F u n a f u t i a p p e a r e d on b o t h

l i s t s . A l s o t h e US s o u g h t e x c l u s i v e b a s e r i g h t s on t h e s e

19

i s l a n d s w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y g a i n e d s o v e r e i g n t y . On t h e

o t h e r s e v e n P a c i f i c i s l a n d s t h e y s o u g h t o n l y j o i n t r i g h t s t o

u s e t h e b a s e s b u i l t t h e r e . What " j o i n t r i g h t s " w o u l d e n t a i l

was n o t e x p l a i n e d a nd t h e n a t u r e o f t h e US o f f e r w o u l d n o t

be a p p a r e n t u n t i l t h i s had been c l a r i f i e d , some t i m e l a t e r .

The i n i t i a l UK r e a c t i o n t o t h e A m e r i c a n a p p r o a c h

b o r e a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d by E v a t t

w h i l e i n W a s h i n g t o n i n November . W h i l e t h e p r o s p e c t o f

g e t t i n g t h e USA i n v o l v e d i n B r i t i s h Commonweal th d e f e n c e i n

t h e P a c i f i c was v e r y a t t r a c t i v e , i t was f e l t t h a t t h e UK

s h o u l d " t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e c u r e r e c i p r o c a l s u p p o r t

f rom t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r ou r own r e q u i r e m e n t s i n c l u d i n g

t h e r i g h t o f j o i n t u s e r o f s u c h U n i t e d S t a t e s b a s e s a s m i g h t

be t h o u g h t d e s i r a b l e " . ^ 2 I n 1 9 6 6 , J o h n Dedman was t o d e f e n d

E v a t t ’ s a t t e m p t s t o b a r g a i n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o v e r

Manus on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f r e c i p r o c i t y was

f i r s t s u g g e s t e d by t h e UK a n d t h e s e p r e l i m i n a r y v i e w s w e re1 3o b v i o u s l y t h e b a s i s o f t h a t c l a i m . I t i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r ,

t h a t E v a t t ’ s v i e w s on r e c i p r o c i t y f o r t h e u s e o f Manus a s

t h e y we r e e x p r e s s e d i n W a s h i n g t o n on 16 November p r e - d a t e d

t h e UK a t t i t u d e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e UK

was i n f l u e n c e d by E v a t t i n t h i s m a t t e r a t t h i s s t a g e and so

E v a t t w o u l d h ave b e e n e n c o u r a g e d by t h i s a p p a r e n t s i m i l a r i t y

o f v i e w s .

The UK w a s , h o w e v e r , a n x i o u s a b o u t t h e l i k e l y e f f e c t

t h a t s u c h n e g o t i a t i o n s m i g h t h av e on t h e f l e d g l i n g UN. The

s e c u r i t y o r g a n i s a t i o n ’ s e f f i c a c y was v i t a l t o t h e i r m i l i t a r y

20

p l a n s . T h e i r s was a m i l i t a r y c o mm i t m e n t a s w e l l a s a

p o l i t i c a l one and any a c t i o n w h i c h m i g h t p r e j u d i c e t h e

l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e UN a c h i e v i n g s u c c e s s , s u c h a s b i l a t e r a l

m i l i t a r y n e g o t i a t i o n s i n a d v a n c e o f t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l ’ s

m i l i t a r y a r r a n g e m e n t s u n d e r A r t i c l e 43 , was r e g a r d e d w i t h

a p p r e h e n s i o n . Thus t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s c o n d u c t e d o v e r t h e n e x t

few m o n t h s w er e k e p t u n d e r t h e s t r i c t e s t s e c r e c y a s , i n d e e d ,

t h e US had r e q u e s t e d t h e y be .

The New Z e a l a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r , P e t e r F r a s e r , a l s o

e x p r e s s e d a n x i e t y o v e r t h e US a p p r o a c h , o f w h i c h he had be en

i n f o r m e d a t t h e same t i m e a s C h i f l e y . W he r ea s C h i f l e y l e f t

t h e m a t t e r f o r Dr E v a t t t o d e a l w i t h on h i s r e t u r n f r o m

N o r t h A m e r i c a , F r a s e r who was a l s o New Z e a l a n d M i n i s t e r f o r

E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s s e n t o f f a r e p l y t o t h e D o m i n i o n s O f f i c e i n

m i d - D e c e m b e r , and s e n t a copy t o C a n b e r r a s e e k i n g comme nt s .

F r a s e r ’ s v i e w s w e r e v e r y s t r o n g l y e x p r e s s e d and ( w h i l e t h e y

w e r e g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t i v e o f a c o n t i n u e d US p r e s e n c e i n t h e

P a c i f i c ) i n d i c a t e d h i s p e r t u r b a t i o n a t t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e

US t o w a r d s t h e B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i o n s t h e y d e s i r e d t o o b t a i n .

I n h i s v i ew " i s l a n d s u n d e r t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e B r i t i s h1 4Commonweal th a n y w h e r e s h o u l d n o t be g i v e n up l i g h t l y " . At

a l l c o s t s , t h o u g h , no a c t i o n was t o be t a k e n on t h e m a t t e r

u n l e s s New Z e a l a n d h ad t h e f u l l e s t p a r t i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s ,

and F r a s e r f e l t s u r e t h a t A u s t r a l i a s h a r e d h i s v i e w s on t h e

m a t t e r .

The D e p a r t m e n t o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s r e p l i e d t o

F r a s e r ’ s c a b l e on t h e 2 6 t h D e ce mb e r , d e s p i t e a l a s t m i n u t e

21

i n j u n c t i o n f r om E v a t t t o h o l d e v e r y t h i n g u n t i l he g o t 1 Eb a c k . B e f o r e d o i n g s o , h o w e v e r , t h e D e f e n c e C o m m i t t e e ,

c o m p r i s i n g t h e C h i e f s o f S t a f f and F r e d e r i c k S h e d d e n , o r h i s

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , t h e S e c r e t a r y f o r D e f e n c e , was c o n s u l t e d .

T h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e v i e w s t h e two

d e p a r t m e n t s h e l d on t h e m a t t e r . The E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s v i e w s

d i d n o t t o u c h upon t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e c i p r o c i t y . They

s t r e s s e d a g r e e m e n t w i t h New Z e a l a n d on t h e q u e s t i o n o f

Domi n i on p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n any d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e m a t t e r and

t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f A m e r i c a n i n v o l v e m e n t ( a l t h o u g h b e a r i n g

i n mind t h e B r i t i s h c a v e a t a b o u t p r e - e m p t i n g t h e s e c u r i t y

c o u n c i l ) . ^ The D e f e n c e C o mm i t t e e c o n v e n e d e s p e c i a l l y t o

c o n s i d e r t h e m a t t e r on t h e 2 4 t h D e c e m b e r . ^ T h e i r v i e w s ,

w h i c h w e re u l t i m a t e l y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e r e p l y s e n t o f f t o t h e

New Z e a l a n d P r i m e M i n i s t e r on t h e 2 7 t h , ^ s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d

t h e UK’ s t h a t any a g r e e m e n t s o f t h e k i n d e n v i s a g e d by t h e US

w ou ld e n d a n g e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y s y s t e m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , " t h e c o n t i n u e d c o - o p e r a t i o n

o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s so i m p o r t a n t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v iew

o f I m p e r i a l D e f e n c e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e s h o u l d be done1 Qt o a c h i e v e i t ” . Thus t h e A u s t r a l i a n S e r v i c e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a d v o c a t e d p r e l i m i n a r y a nd n o n - c o m m i t a l t a l k s

t a k i n g p l a c e t o e s t a b l i s h an o v e r a l l p l a n f o r t h e P a c i f i c

w h i c h m i g h t l e a d t o a m o r e f o r m a l m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e . The

a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e B r i t i s h C om m o n w e a l t h ’ s b a r g a i n i n g p o s i t i o n

was t h a t t h e E m p i r e had ’’s t r o n g b a r g a i n i n g c o u n t e r s i n t h e

20i s l a n d s d e s i r e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . ”

When E v a t t r e t u r n e d f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h e r e f o r e ,

22

he f o u n d s u b s t a n t i a l a g r e e m e n t i n h i s own d e p a r t m e n t ’ s2 1t r a d i t i o n a l r i v a l , D e f e n c e , w i t h h i s v i e w s on t h e a p p r o a c h

A u s t r a l i a s h o u l d t a k e i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e A m e r i c a n s . F o r

E v a t t h a d s u p p o r t f o r t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e i s l a n d s i n t h e

S o u t h P a c i f i c p r e s e n t e d an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r n e g o t i a t i n g a

b r o a d r e g i o n a l a g r e e m e n t w h i c h w o u l d g u a r a n t e e s e c u r i t y i n

t h e P a c i f i c . No - o n e q u e s t i o n e d t h e g e n u i n e n a t u r e o f

A m e r i c a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e r e g i o n . E v a t t , h o w e v e r , had d o u b t s

a b o u t t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r a p p r o a c h made by

B y r n e s i n L o n d on . The f i r s t d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n

t h e B r i t i s h a nd A u s t r a l i a n g o v e r n m e n t s on t h e m a t t e r , i n

e a r l y J a n u a r y 1 9 4 6 , c o n v e y e d E v a t t ’ s f e e l i n g s t h a t t h e USp p

a p p r o a c h was s u b s t a n t i a l l y a " t r y - o n ” . By t h i s h e m e a n t

t h a t t h e US was l o o k i n g t o s e e w h a t t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th

w o u l d be p r e p a r e d t o c o n c e d e i n t h e P a c i f i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y

w i t h r e g a r d t o s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e i s l a n d s w h i c h had b e e n

u n d e r d i s p u t e s i n c e b e f o r e t h e w a r . E v a t t had a l s o g a t h e r e d

f r om d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h B y r n e s i n London i n O c t o b e r t h a t t h e

US a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was s t i l l v e r y much s p l i t o v e r t h e i s s u e

o f P a c i f i c I s l a n d s . The m o s t v i t a l i s s u e , o f c o u r s e , was

t h e f a t e o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y J a p a n e s e M an d a t e d i s l a n d s i n t h e

N o r t h e r n P a c i f i c , w h i c h t h e Navy w a n t e d t o s e e a n n e x e d

o u t r i g h t b u t w h i c h t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t w a n t e d t o s e e h a n d e d

o v e r a s a t r u s t e e s h i p t o t h e UN. The m a t t e r had b e e n one o f

c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s p u t e w i t h i n t h e US a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h e

p r e v i o u s A p r i l when t h e San F r a n c i s c o c o n f e r e n c e t o

f o r m u l a t e t h e C h a r t e r o f t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y

o r g a n i s a t i o n had b e e n h e l d . T h e r e a c o m p r o m i s e had b e e n

r e a c h e d w i t h t h e i n c l u s i o n o f p r o v i s i o n f o r a t r u s t e e s h i p t o

23

be n o m i n a t e d a s a ’’s t r a t e g i c a r e a " . T h i s w o u l d e n t a i l i t s

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b e i n g m o n i t o r e d by t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l

r a t h e r t h a n t h e T r u s t e e s h i p C o u n c i l , t h u s e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e

US s t i l l had t h e power t o v e t o any a t t e m p t s t o w r e s t c o n t r o l

o f t h e t e r r i t o r y f r om h e r h a n d s . D e s p i t e t h i s c o m p r o m i s e

t h e r e was s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e f r i c t i o n o v e r t h e i s s u e and

p e r h a p s t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t f e l t t h a t by g i v i n g t h e Navy

s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r some o f t h e P a c i f i c I s l a n d s ( i f i t c o u l d be

a c q u i r e d f r o m B r i t a i n ) t h e y m i g h t be p r e p a r e d t o go a l o n g

w i t h S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t p l a n s f o r t h e N o r t h e r n P a c i f i c . Thus

E v a t t c o n v e y e d t o B r i t a i n h i s i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e US c l a i m s

t o s o v e r e i g n t y w er e n o t s e r i o u s . T h i s v i ew was c o n s i d e r e d

t o h ave some s u b s t a n c e s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s a t t h e f i r s t

m e e t i n g o f Commonweal th h e a d s o f m i s s i o n i n London t o

c o n s i d e r t h e m a t t e r . ^

The u n a n i m i t y o f o p i n i o n w h i c h had c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e

i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n s o f t h e UK, New Z e a l a n d a nd A u s t r a l i a was

v e r y s h o r t l y t o f r a y a t t h e e d g e s , h o w e v e r . W h e r e a s t h e UK

h ad i n d e e d s u g g e s t e d t h a t r e c i p r o c i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o US

b a s e s be t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r a l l o w i n g t h e US t o o b t a i n j o i n t

r i g h t s t o b a s e s i n t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c , i t had n o t become a

h a r d a nd f a s t p l a n k o f t h e i r n e g o t i a t i n g s t a n c e a s h a d b e e n

t h e c a s e i n A u s t r a l i a ( f o r C a b i n e t h ad e n d o r s e d on J a n u a r y

1 9 t h E v a t t ’ s l i n e t h a t B r i t i s h S o u t h P a c i f i c b a s e s s h o u l d

o n l y be made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e US on a s t r i c t l y r e c i p r o c a l

b a s i s ) . The US had b e e n e v a s i v e and n o n - c o m m i t a l when t h e

B r i t i s h had f i r s t b r o u g h t up t h e n o t i o n i n d i s c u s s i o n w i t h

B y r n e s i n D e c e mb e r , s a y i n g o n l y t h a t t h e r e w o u l d be no

24

o b j e c t i o n t o B r i t a i n i n i t i a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s o v e r use o f A m e r i c a n b a s e s i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y .

T h e r e a f t e r t h e B r i t i s h l i n e s o f t e n e d so mewh a t a nd t h e y

s i m p l y s o u g h t an i n f o r m a l a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h e US w h e r e b y

t h e y w o u l d p r e s e r v e t h e s t a t u s quo on a n i n f o r m a l b a s i s

u n t i l s u c h t i m e a s s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n s c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d

f o r an a r r a n g e m e n t u n d e r A r t i c l e 43 t o make t h e b a s e s

a v a i l a b l e t o t h e UN S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l . ^ I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e y

h o p e d t h a t t h e US wo u ld be s a t i s f i e d w i t h c i v i l a v i a t i o n

b a s e s on some i s l a n d s r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y b a s e s .

I t was u n f o r t u n a t e f o r A u s t r a l i a t h a t E v a t t s h o u l d

n o t h a v e b e e n i n London a t t h i s t i m e t o r e p r e s e n t A u s t r a l i a

on t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l a s h e h ad h o p e d . ° F o r , i n t h a t

c a s e a u n i t e d Commonweal th v i e w p o i n t m i g h t h a v e b e e n

e s t a b l i s h e d a nd A u s t r a l i a w o u l d h a v e p e r h a p s b e e n a b l e t o

u s e t h e g r e a t e r d i p l o m a t i c m u s c l e o f t h e Commonweal th t o

a c h i e v e some of h e r g o a l s i n t h e P a c i f i c . I n f a c t , Norman

Mak i n , was r e p r e s e n t i n g A u s t r a l i a , b o t h on t h e S e c u r i t y

C o u n c i l and i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s w h i c h w e r e c o n d u c t e d w i t h US

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n J a n u a r y u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e m o n t h when

D e f e n c e M i n i s t e r , J a c k B e a s l e y , r e p l a c e d B r u c e a s A u s t r a l i a n

Hi gh C o m m i s s i o n e r i n London a n d r e p r e s e n t e d A u s t r a l i a

t h e r e a f t e r . P e t e r F r a s e r , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , was i n London

a t t h e t i m e and a b l e t o s p e a k w i t h a u t h o r i t y f o r New

Z e a l a n d . The r e s u l t o f E v a t t ' s a b s e n c e was r a t h e r

e m b a r r a s s i n g f o r A u s t r a l i a i n t h a t Makin had a g r e e d t o

p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a j o i n t c o m m i s s i o n c o m p r i s i n g A u s t r a l i a ,

New Z e a l a n d , t h e UK a nd t h e US t o c o n s i d e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f

25

t he b a s e s i n a cc o rd a n c e w i t h t he f o l l o w i n g t e rms of

r e f e r e n c e :

1) The f u t u r e s t a t u s and use of t h e ba s e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t he Uni t ed S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e war in t e r r i t o r y a d m i n i s t e r e d whol ly or p a r t l y by t he Governments of t he B r i t i s h Commonwealth. The c o n s i d e r a t i o n of f u t u r e s t a t u s and use shou ld cover i n a p p r o p r i a t e c a se s t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t of j o i n t c i v i l a v i a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s i n l i e u of m i l i t a r y b a s e s .2) The e x a m in a t i o n of American s u g g e s t i o n s a f f e c t i n g p o s s i b l e t r a n s f e r of s o v e r e i g n t y i n t he case of c e r t a i n P a c i f i c I s l a n d s . 27

These t e rms of r e f e r e n c e were no t s a t i s f a c t o r y t o E v a t t ,

however . His r e p l y made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e t e rms of

r e f e r e n c e of t h e j o i n t commission would have t o empower i t

t o c o n s i d e r and f o r m u l a t e "a s e c u r i t y a r r an gem en t i n t h e

P a c i f i c i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the C h a r t e r of t he Un i t ed N a t i on s

which would cover t h e p r i n c i p l e of r e c i p r o c i t y and j o i n t use

of b a s e s . When t h e UK and New Zea land made i t c l e a r t h a t

they f e l t t h a t t h i s was t oo b road a b a s i s f o r d i s c u s s i o n s

and t h a t t hey i n t e n d e d t o c a r r y on w i t h what t hey r eg a r d ed

a s f a i r l y l o w - l e v e l p r e l i m i n a r y t a l k s C h i f l e y , p resumably

a c t i n g on bo th E v a t t * s and Shedden*s a d v i c e , r a t h e r

p e t u l a n t l y had B e as l e y w i thdraw A u s t r a l i a ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

t a l k s t o which Makin had commit ted h e r . He made i t c l e a r

t h a t A u s t r a l i a would only be p r e p a r e d t o d i s c u s s t he i s s u e

in t h e c o n t e x t of an o v e r a l l p l a n . F u r t h e r m o r e , he

e x p r e s s e d a d e s i r e t o see t he m a t t e r t h r a s h e d o u t a t t h e

Commonwealth Prime M i n i s t e r s ' Meet ing i n London which was by29then only a m a t t e r of f i v e weeks away. Thus, a f t e r

i n i t i a l l y demanding t h a t A u s t r a l i a be i n c l u d e d i n any

d i s c u s s i o n s abou t t h e q u e s t i o n of b a s e s A u s t r a l i a ended by

s a y i ng only a few weeks l a t e r t h a t she would n o t a t t e n d

d i s c u s s i o n s which were o r g a n i s e d e x p r e s s l y fo r t h a t purpose

26

unless they were held on her terms. Consequently Australia

received only second hand accounts of vital sets of talks

held in Washington at the end of February and in the second

week of March, 1946.

On his way back to New Zealand at the end of

February, Peter Fraser stopped over in Washington and held

bilateral discussions with representatives of the US State

Department over three days. From these discussions there

emerged a more detailed picture of what sort of arrangements

were envisaged by the Americans. Firstly, it was frankly

admitted that they were trying to "hedge" against the

failure of the Security Council to establish satisfactory

arrangements in the Pacific by having an agreement between

themselves and New Zealand already established. Secondly,

that the US wanted to see New Zealand’s mandate in Western

Samoa, or at least that part of it on which their base was

established, Upolu Island, declared a strategic area. This

would increase the influence of the United States over the

area as New Zealand’s administration of it would then be

accountable to the Security Council over which New Zealand

would have little sway rather than the Trusteeship Council,

which New Zealand, having had a strong influence on theSOformation of the Trusteeship system, was anxious to

support. Thirdly, the Americans were not prepared to

comment on any question of reciprocal provision of base

rights in return for New Zealand’s agreement to grant them

rights. Fourthly, the US was anxious to keep other

countries out of the agreement although they admitted

27

r e l u c t a n t l y t h a t A u s t r a l i a and t h e UK might be a l l owed t o

use t he f a c i l i t i e s a t Upolu. F i n a l l y , and most i m p o r t a n t l y ,

t he S t a t e Depar tment handed over a d r a f t ag reemen t which

they s a i d t hey wanted t o s e r v e as a model f o r a g r e em en t s

w i t h A u s t r a l i a and t he UK, and which bore a c l o s e

r es emb lance t o t he d r a f t ag r eemen t which A u s t r a l i a f i n a l l y

r e c e i v e d some t h r e e weeks l a t e r . ^ C e r t a i n l y t h e r e was no

d i f f e r e n c e i n t he e s s e n t i a l s which proved t o be u n a c c e p t a b l e

t o both New Zea land and A u s t r a l i a . Va r ious c l a u s e s made i t

c l e a r t h a t t he Uni ted S t a t e s was l o o k i n g f o r t he r i g h t s t h a t

s o v e r e i g n t y would endow w i t h o u t any of t he r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

(or expense ) t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y would b r i n g .

The t e x t of t h e p roposed New Zea land ag reemen t was

n o t r e c e i v e d i n Canber ra u n t i l 12 March and so i t i s l i k e l y

t h a t i t s c o n t e n t a f f e c t e d Dr E v a t t ’ s s t a t e m e n t on

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s which he d e l i v e r e d t he nex t day i n t he7 2House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . E v a t t was s t i l l working on t h e

a s sum pt ion t h a t t he US was s e r i o u s abo u t c o - o p e r a t i o n i n t he

South P a c i f i c and so made an empha t i c s t a t e m e n t of

A u s t r a l i a ’ s p o l i c y on t he need t o c o - o p e r a t e w i t h both t he

Un i ted S t a t e s and B r i t a i n t o e n s u r e s e c u r i t y in t h e P a c i f i c .

He a l s o summarised A u s t r a l i a ’ s p o s i t i o n on the b a se s a s i t

had deve loped ove r t he p r e v i o u s few months:

The government w i l l e n t e r i n t o no commitments which w i l l l e s s e n t h e c o n t r o l of t he A u s t r a l i a n peopl e over t h e i r own t e r r i t o r i e s . Any c o n s i d e r a t i o n of p l a n s f o r t h e j o i n t use of any b a se s i n A u s t r a l i a ’ s dependen t t e r r i t o r i e s shou ld be p r eceded by an o v e r - a l l de f en ce a r r an gem en t f o r t he r e g i o n of t he Western P a c i f i c , i n c l u d i n g t he i s l a n d s f o r m e r l y mandated t o J a p an . As an i n c i d e n t of any such a r r a n g e m e n t , A u s t r a l i a should be e n t i t l e d t o r e c i p r o c a l use of f o r e i g n b a se s i n

28

t h e r e g i o n t h u s p r o v i d i n g f o r an o v e r - a l l i n c r e a s e i n t h e s e c u r i t y b o t h o f A u s t r a l i a and o f a l l o t h e r U n i t e d N a t i o n s w i t h i n t e r e s t s i n t h e r e g i o n .

The d e t a i l e d m e a n s o f i m p l e m e n t i n g a s e c u r i t y p o l i c y f o r t h e P a c i f i c h a v e y e t t o be d e c i d e d , b u t t h i s much i s a l r e a d y a p p a r e n t :A u s t r a l i a n s e c u r i t y i s v e r y l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on o u r c l o s e s t c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th a nd t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a .Any h i n d r a n c e t o t h e maximum d e g r e e o f c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h e i t h e r i s c o n t r a r y t o t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a l l t h e s e c o u n t r i e s . 33

H a v i n g made i t c l e a r t h a t A u s t r a l i a w o u l d n o t e n t e r i n t o a ny

a g r e e m e n t s w h i c h w o u l d d i m i n i s h h e r s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r h e r own

t e r r i t o r i e s y e t h a v i n g p l e d g e d c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s i n t h e P a c i f i c was g o i n g t o be a t a l l o r d e r t o f i l l

a s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e US p r o p o s a l e v e n t u a l l y made c l e a r .

The p r o p o s a l , wh i c h i n c l u d e d a d r a f t a g r e e m e n t and

s e v e r a l p r o p o s e d c l a u s e s w h i c h t h e US f e l t s h o u l d be

i n c l u d e d i n any t r u s t e e s h i p a g r e e m e n t A u s t r a l i a made w i t h

t h e UN, was h a n d e d t o t h e A u s t r a l i a n M i n i s t e r i n W a s h i n g t o n

who s e n t i t on t o C a n b e r r a w h e r e i t was r e c e i v e d on 2 0 t h •2 4

Mar ch , 1 9 4 6 . I t was a c c o m p a n i e d by a memorandum f rom t h e

US S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t , d a t e d 1 4 t h M ar ch . T h i s was t h e s o u r c e

o f t h e c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e d a t e on w h i c h t h e o f f e r was made

w h i c h C a s e y , i n t h e d e b a t e i n t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

i n F e b r u a r y , 1 9 5 2 , u s e d a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o e x o n e r a t e

S p e n d e r , o r a t l e a s t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s ,

o v e r t h e r e l e a s e o f t h e Top S e c r e t d o c u m e n t s c o n n e c t e d w i t h35t h e Manus c o n t r o v e r s y .

The memorandum a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e US p r o p o s a l made i t

c l e a r t h a t t h e d r a f t a g r e e m e n t a n d t h e p r o p o s e d c l a u s e s t o

be i n c l u d e d i n t h e t r u s t e e s h i p a g r e e m e n t w e r e i n f o r m a l

29

working p a p e r s and "n o t t o be c o n s i d e r e d a s e x p r e s s i n g a t

t h i s t ime t h e f i n a l views of t he Un i t ed S t a t e s

G o v e r n m e n t " . ^ The S t a t e Depar tmen t soug h t t o e n t e r i n t o

i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t he

A u s t r a l i a n Government a t an " e a r l y c o n v e n i e n t o p p o r t u n i t y " .

The preamble t o t he d r a f t ag reemen t s p e c i f i e d t h a t " t h e

Government of t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s shou ld s h a r e j o i n t l y wi th

A u s t r a l i a t he r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s s p e c i f i e d i n Annex A of

t h i s a g r e e m e n t " . I t was r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t , however , t h a t t he

r i g h t s r e f e r r e d t o were t hose of t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s and t he

o b l i g a t i o n s s o l e l y A u s t r a l i a ’ s. Under t h e t e rms of t he

ag reemen t A u s t r a l i a ( d e s p i t e b e in g t he a d m i n i s t e r i n g

a u t h o r i t y of t he t r u s t e e s h i p ) co u ld n o t make t h e f a c i l i t i e s

a t Manus a v a i l a b l e t o t h e S e c u r i t y Co un c i l , nor t o any o t h e r

c o u n t r y , w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s . Annex A

c o n t a i n e d t he c r u c i a l c l a u s e s :

5. With r e s p e c t t o t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t he Admi ra l t y I s l a n d s , a l l of which have been b u i l t by t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s w i th t he a p p r o v a l of t he A u s t r a l i a n Government a t t he expense of t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s , t h e A u s t r a l i a n Government u n d e r t a k e s t o m a i n t a i n a t i t s own expense such of t h e s e e x i s t i n g m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s a s a r e n e c e s s a r y i n t he o p i n i o n of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s of t h e two c o u n t r i e s .6. The Government of t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s s h a l l have t he r i g h t , i f i n i t s j udgement c o n d i t i o n s a t t he t ime make such a c t i o n n e c e s s a r y , t o assume c o n t r o l upon due n o t i f i c a t i o n t o t he A u s t r a l i a n a u t h o r i t i e s , of any or a l l of t h e m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s and f a c i l i t i e s i n t he Admi ra l t y I s l a n d s , such c o n t r o l t o c o n t i n u e f o r such t ime as t he Un i t ed S t a t e s c o n s i d e r s n e c e s s a r y .7. The Un i t ed S t a t e s i s n o t he reby commit ted t o m a i n t a i n m i l i t a r y f o r c e s or f a c i l i t i e s i n t he A d m i r a l t i e s I s l a n d s when i n i t s j udgement such m i l i t a r y f o r c e s or f a c i l i t i e s a r e no t n e c e s s a r y .

Moreover , i n t h e c l a u s e s which t h e US had s u g g e s t e d f o r

i n c l u s i o n i n any t r u s t e e s h i p a g re em e n t , t he US had r e q u e s t e d

30

t h a t they be drawn up t o make i t c l e a r t h a t " t h e Uni ted

S t a t e s p o s s e s s e s no r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , r i g h t s , or powers w i th

r e s p e c t t o t he a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t he t e r r i t o r y and i t s

i n h a b i t a n t s . " John Dedman, who was M i n i s t e r f o r Post -War

R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and f o r Defence from J a n u a r y 1946 on,

c h a r a c t e r i s e d t h e US p r o p o s a l s a t t he t ime , as s a v o u r i n g "of

t he kind o f ’ s u g g e s t i o n s ’ t h a t one might e x p e c t t he USSR t o

make t o one of i t s s a t e l l i t e s ’’ . ^ C e r t a i n l y t h i s i s

o v e r s t a t i n g t h e c a s e , as he h i m s e l f l a t e r a cknowledged ,^^

bu t t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t t h e r e was some dismay a t t he

a r r o g a n c e of t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s i n e x p e c t i n g A u s t r a l i a t o pay

o u t a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n of he r e n t i r e de fence budge t i n

o r d e r to m a i n t a i n a base which t he US migh t or m igh t not

r e t u r n t o i n t ime of need .

The p r o p o s a l t o New Zea land had been of t h e same

n a t u r e and so, i t soon became a p p a r e n t , would be t he

p r o p o s a l s t o t h e UK. A mee t i ng was h e l d i n Washington

between r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t he US and t he UK on March 13,

and t h e m in u t e s of t h i s me e t i n g were pa s sed on t o Canber r a a

s h o r t t ime a f t e r w a r d s . When t h e q u e s t i o n of m a in t en an ce

a ro s e i t became c l e a r t h a t t he US was hop ing t h a t t he

Commonwealth would assume f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r

m a i n t a i n i n g some of t h e b a s e s . "A l o t of American money had

been spe n t on e x i s t i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s and t he b a s i c i d e a was

to a r r a n g e f o r t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s t o be m a i n t a i n e d so t h a t a l l3 Qt h e s e ba s e s cou ld be a c t i v a t e d i f t h e need a r o s e " . At

l a s t the c a r d s were on t he t a b l e - t h e B r i t i s h Commonwealth

would have t o b a l a n c e i t s d e s i r e t o i n v o l v e t h e US in t h e

31

de fence of t he South P a c i f i c ( f o r t h i s was never i n doubt )

a g a i n s t t h e e x p e n d i t u r e which t h a t would i n v o l v e and which ,

i t now was c l e a r , would be c o n s i d e r a b l e . A g a i n s t t h i s

backdrop t h e B r i t i s h r e q u e s t t h a t t he p r o p o s a l s be

c o n s i d e r e d i n t e rms of r e c i p r o c a l r i g h t s i n American

c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y h a r d l y seems u n r e a s o n a b l e and y e t t he

US was never p r e p a r e d t o e n t e r t a i n t he n o t i o n . When t h e UK

r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n t h e US begged them no t t o pur sue i t

" s a y i n g t h a t t he i s s u e does n o t a r i s e i n view of t h e f a c t

t h a t we e s t a b l i s h e d no wa r t ime b a se s i n American c o n t r o l l e d

t e r r i t o r y " . 40

Both t h e s e t s of t a l k s , be tween t h e US and New

Zea l and and between t h e US and UK, had been i n f o r m a l

e x p l o r a t o r y t a l k s which had n o t i n v o l v e d any commitment on

the p a r t of e i t h e r t he US or t he Commonwealth c o u n t r i e s .

D e s p i t e A u s t r a l i a ' s n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n she had been kept

c l o s e l y i n fo rmed of the s u b s t a n c e of t he d i a l o g u e . What had

been exchanged had s imply s e r v e d t o c l a r i f y t h a t t he n a t u r e

of t he US p r o p o s a l was, p e r h a p s , even more of a " t r y - o n "

t han Dr E v a t t had f i r s t su rm i se d . Both t he UK and New

Zea land had emphas i s ed t o t he US in t he cou r se of t h e i r

d i s c u s s i o n s i n Washing ton t h a t they were unhappy wi th US

a t t e m p t s to c o nd u c t t he n e g o t i a t i o n s a s a s e r i e s of

b i l a t e r a l a p p r o a c h e s and would p r e f e r an a r r an gem en t whereby

t he Commonwealth a s a whole cou ld n e g o t i a t e w i t h t he US.

Al though E v a t t had c o n t r i b u t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e ' b i l a t e r a l '

n a t u r e of t he d i s c u s s i o n s up t o t h i s p o i n t he , t o o , was

a nx iou s t h a t t h e Commonwealth shou ld e s t a b l i s h a v i e w p o i n t

32

on t h e m a t t e r . I n d e e d C h i f l e y h ad u r g e d t h a t t h e

d i s c u s s i o n s i n W a s h i n g t o n be p u t o f f u n t i l a f t e r t h e P r im e

M i n i s t e r s ’ C o n f e r e n c e i n London i n A p r i l so t h a t a

41Commonweal th v i e w p o i n t c o u l d be a g r e e d u po n .

E v a t t a nd C h i f l e y t h e r e f o r e s e t a b o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g

t h e l i n e t h e y would m a i n t a i n when d i s c u s s i n g t h e i s s u e i n

London t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h . The US d r a f t a g r e e m e n t was

s u b m i t t e d t o t h e D e f e n c e C o m m i t t e e f o r i t s v i e w s i n t h e

f i r s t week i n A p r i l a n d t h e r e was g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e

d i r e c t i o n w h i c h E v a t t h ad g i v e n t o A u s t r a l i a n p o l i c y up

u n t i l t h a t p o i n t . The C o m m i t t e e r e c o g n i s e d t h a t a l t h o u g h

t h e A m e r i c a n d r a f t p u r p o r t e d t o r e c o g n i s e A u s t r a l i a n

s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e A d m i r a l t i e s , t h e r e w e r e s e r i o u s

l i m i t a t i o n s p l a c e d upon t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y . I t c o n c l u d e d t h a t

" t h e q u e s t i o n of b a s e s i n t h e P a c i f i c m u s t be r e l a t e d t o an

o v e r a l l p l a n f o r t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e B r i t i s h Commonweal th a s 42a w h o l e ” and t h a t t h e r e f o r e A u s t r a l i a s h o u l d d e c l i n e t o

c o n d u c t any n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f Ame r i ca

i n r e g a r d t o t h e A d m i r a l t y I s l a n d s , u n t i l an a g r e e d p l a n o f43E m p i r e D e f e n c e h ad b e e n d e t e r m i n e d . The D e f e n c e C o m m i t t e e

l a i d o u t t h e b o n e s o f a t h r e e - t i e r e d d e f e n c e - p l a n w h i c h t h e y

p u t f o r w a r d a s t h e b a s i s f o r d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t r e c i p r o c a l

a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r b a s e s . T h i s i n v o l v e d h a v i n g :

i ) A d v a n ce d b a s e s on t h e l i n e S h a n g h a i - O k i n a w a - I w o J i ma -Wa ke -Mi dw ay

i i ) I n t e r m e d i a t e b a s e s on t h e l i n e F o r m o s a - P h i l i p p i n e s - C a r o l i n e s - M a r s h a l l s -Mi dway- D u t c h H a r b o u r

i i i ) R e a r b a s e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e l i n e H a i n a n - N o r t h B o r n e o - A d m i r a l t i e s - S o l o m o n s - F i j i - P e a r l H a r b o u r . ^

T h i s p l a n was i n f a c t e n d o r s e d by C a b i n e t on 8 t h A p r i l , a s

33

w e l l a s t h e C o u n c i l o f D e f e n c e ( t h e a p e x o f t h e d e f e n c e

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s t r u c t u r e ) t h e n e x t d a y .

Thus t h e i s s u e s w h i c h h ad e m e r g e d i n t h e f i r s t f ew

m o n t h s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s and w h i c h w o u l d be d i s c u s s e d a t t h e

P r i me M i n i s t e r s ’ C o n f e r e n c e i n London w er e c l e a r . The

B r i t i s h Commonweal th w o u l d h a v e t o w e i g h up t h e i m m e d i a t e

c o s t o f f i n a n c i n g t h e b a s e s a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l l y much g r e a t e r

c o s t o f u n d e r m i n i n g c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s

s e c u r i t y o r g a n i s a t i o n (by e m b a r k i n g on b i l a t e r a l m i l i t a r y

a r r a n g e m e n t s c o u n t e r t o t h e s p i r i t o f t h e C h a r t e r ) a g a i n s t

i t s d e s i r e t o r e t a i n a US p r e s e n c e i n t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c .

A u s t r a l i a w o u l d be p u s h i n g f o r a r e g i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t

c o v e r i n g t h e e n t i r e P a c i f i c a s a s o l u t i o n f i r s t l y b e c a u s e

t h i s w o u l d be e n t i r e l y i n a c c o r d w i t h C h a p t e r V I I I o f t h e UN

d e a l i n g w i t h r e g i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ( w h i c h E v a t t h a d h a d a

l a r g e p a r t i n f r a m i n g a t San F r a n c i s c o ) a nd s e c o n d l y b e c a u s e

t h e e n h a n c e d s e c u r i t y t h a t s u c h an a r r a n g e m e n t w o u l d p r o v i d e

f o r A u s t r a l i a w o u l d be w e l l w o r t h t h e f i n a n c i a l o u t l a y .

34

Chapter 3: The Manus Negotiations, Phase 2

The 1946 PMs' Conference opened in London on 23

April 1946 and Evatt and Chifley attended for Australia. It

quickly became apparent that there was in fact still

substantial agreement between Britain and the Dominions on

the subject of the Pacific bases. At the conference a UK

Chiefs of Staff report on the matter was presented which

examined in detail the request for exclusive rights to the

bases on Christmas Island, Canton Island and Funafuti

(islands to which the Americans had also claimed right of

sovereignty) as well as the seven islands on which joint

rights were sought by the US. Firstly it did not advocate

bargaining with the sovereignty of the three islands for

advantages in the Northern Hemisphere as an initial Chiefs

of Staff report of the previous November had. This removed

one possible source of contention as Australia and New

Zealand had consistently opposed the cession of British

territory in the South Pacific as a matter of principle.

Secondly, the report advocated adopting "the Australian

Government’s proposal that base requirements should be2considered on a regional basis” as the logical method of

dealing with the problem. Moreover, the UK Chiefs of Staff

still considered that the Commonwealth should press for

reciprocal rights in US territory despite the cold reception

the notion had received from the Americans. Nevertheless

they were careful to point out that the negotiations should

not be allowed to break down on that point. Most

importantly, the UK view provided an opportunity for Evatt

35

t o f u l f i l l h i s a m b i t i o n s f o r A u s t r a l i a ’ s i n c r e a s e d r o l e i n

t h e P a c i f i c . As t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a u s e s make c l e a r , however,

i t would only be i f A u s t r a l i a was p r ep a r ed t o f o o t the b i l l

as w e l l :

a) . . . f r o m the Commonwealth p o i n t of view we do no t r e q u i r e t o m a i n t a i n f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e s e i s l a n d s w i t h t he p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n of Manus.b) From a m i l i t a r y p o i n t of view we do n o t wi sh t o pay fo r f a c i l i t i e s which a r e no t of d i r e c t impor tance t o our d e f e n c e .c) Un les s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e Dominion Governments a re p r e p a r e d t o pay f o r t he ma in t ena nce of c e r t a i n of t h e s e b a s e s . . . w e c o n s i d e r t h a t we shou ld make c l e a r t o t he Americans t h a t i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y fo r them to m a i n t a i n such f a c i l i t i e s a s t hey r e q u i r e . 3

With t he Americans u n w i l l i n g t o c o n t i n u e t o pay fo r t he

upkeep of t he i s l a n d b a s e s which t hey had b u i l t and t he

B r i t i s h e q u a l l y r e l u c t a n t t o assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f or doing

so, t he A u s t r a l i a n s were sudde n ly t h r u s t f o rwa rd i n t o t he

l i m e l i g h t . At c o n s i d e r a b l e expense , an o p p o r t u n i t y l ay open

f o r A u s t r a l i a t o t ake t he i n i t i a t i v e i n t he South P a c i f i c .

C e r t a i n l y t he r h e t o r i c c o n t i n u e d t o r e f l e c t

A u s t r a l i a n d e s i r e s t o have a g r e a t e r r o l e i n t he a r e a .

C h i f l e y , (on t h e 19th J u n e ) , when r e p o r t i n g t o P a r l i a m e n t on

t he c o n fe r en c e p r o c e e d i n g s , conveyed r a t h e r sombre ly

( c o n s i d e r i n g i t had been one of t h e g o a l s of A u s t r a l i a ’ s

f o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r some y e a r s ) t he news t h a t B r i t a i n sough t

a g r e a t e r c o n t r i b u t i o n from A u s t r a l i a t owards e n s u r i n g t h e

s e c u r i t y of t he P a c i f i c :

As a p r i n c i p a l Power and member of t h e B r i t i s h Commonwealth i n t he P a c i f i c , we must a l s o be p r e p a r e d t o s h o u l d e r g r e a t e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r t he de fence of t h a t a r e a , i n c l u d i n g the upkeep of our b a se s which a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s t r a t e g i c p l a n . 4

36

T h i s w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f E v a t t ' s m o s t

a m b i t i o u s a s p i r a t i o n s f o r A u s t r a l i a i n t h e p o s t - w a r w o r l d .

C o m p l e m e n t i n g p e r f e c t l y W.McMahon B a l l ' s r o l e a s B r i t i s h

Commonweal th r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on t h e F a r E a s t e r n Co mmi ss i on

A u s t r a l i a w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e f o c u s o f B r i t i s h s t r e n g t h i n

t h e P a c i f i c . Y e t , a s T .B. M i l l a r p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e was

c o n s i d e r a b l e h e s i t a n c y i n C h i f l e y ' s a t t e m p t t o e l a b o r a t e on

how A u s t r a l i a m i g h t f u l f i l l t h i s r o l e : " h e was n o t p r e p a r e d

t o s h i f t o n t o A u s t r a l i a n s h o u l d e r s much of ' t h e b u r d e n o f

a r m a m e n t s ' r e s t i n g on B r i t a i n . A u s t r a l i a m i g h t h a v e b e e n

a b l e t o make c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e o r d e r m o o t e d a t t h e

c o n f e r e n c e had h e r c i t i z e n s b e e n p r e p a r e d t o c o n t i n u e t o

make t h e s o r t s o f s a c r i f i c e s w h i c h had n o t p r o v e d e a s y t o

e x t r a c t f r o m them e v e n i n w a r t i m e . ^ I n p e a c e t i m e w i t h J a p a n

w e l l s u b d u e d i t was u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e ' g u n s v s b u t t e r '

e q u a t i o n was g o i n g t o a l l o w C h i f l e y and E v a t t t o b a c k t h e i r

p r o m i s e s w i t h p o u n d s . Thus i t was t h a t t h e o n l y g e n u i n e

f o r m o f r e g i o n a l d e f e n c e c o o p e r a t i o n w h i c h came a b o u t was

t h r o u g h t h e ' b a c k d o o r ' o f t h e B r i t i s h s u g g e s t i o n t h a t

B r i t i s h and D o m i n i o n l i a i s o n o f f i c e r s be c r e a t e d i n e a c h

o t h e r ' s c a p i t a l s t o c o n s i d e r r e g i o n a l s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m s .

T h i s u l t i m a t e l y l e d , i n May 1 9 4 8 , t o t h e f o r m a l b e g i n n i n g o f

w h a t came t o be known a s ANZAM, an a r r a n g e m e n t f o r j o i n t7

p l a n n i n g and o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e P a c i f i c a n d M a l a y a n a r e a s .

Even t h i s , t h o u g h , w o u l d t u r n o u t t o be a c a s e o f B r i t a i n

w a n t i n g A u s t r a l i a t o t a k e a g r e a t e r r o l e and A u s t r a l i a b e i n gg

r e l u c t a n t t o do s o .

A l t h o u g h i t w o u l d be u n j u s t t o c o n c l u d e t h a t C h i f l e y

37

was n e c e s s a r i l y i n s i n c e r e i n h i s s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t

A u s t r a l i a ’ s w i l l i n g n e s s t o t a k e up t h e s l a c k i n t h e P a c i f i c

( e s p e c i a l l y a s i t c o i n c i d e d w i t h a c h e r i s h e d f o r e i g n p o l i c y

g o a l ) t h e l a c k o f a c t i o n i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t f ew y e a r s

c e r t a i n l y i n v i t e s one t o d r aw a p a r a l l e l w i t h E v a t t ’ s

s w a g g e r i n g s t a n c e on New C a l e d o n i a and t h e New H e b r i d e s i n

d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h B y r n e s t h e p r e v i o u s O c t o b e r . ^ I n b o t h

c a s e s A u s t r a l i a s o u g h t ’ power by a s s o c i a t i o n ’ , a t t e m p t i n g t o

i n v o l v e h e r s e l f i n r e g i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s i n t h e P a c i f i c

w h i c h m i g h t l e n d g r e a t e r a u t h o r i t y t o h e r by v i r t u e o f h e r

r o l e a s ’ t h e P r i n c i p a l P o w e r ’ ( w h i c h me a n t l i t t l e mor e t h a n

t h a t s h e was ’ t h e l o c a l p o w e r ' ) i n t h e r e g i o n . E v a t t ' s

a t t e m p t s t o g a i n ’ r e c i p r o c i t y ' we r e o f t h e same i l k :

a t t e m p t s t o buy a d d e d p r e s t i g e a t b a r g a i n r a t e s . I n e s s e n c e

t h e move was a p o l i t i c a l m a n o e u v r e d e s i g n e d t o e n h a n c e

A u s t r a l i a ' s a nd E v a t t ’ s s t a n d i n g i n t h e w o r l d . F o r i t i s

n o wh e r e e v i d e n t t h a t E v a t t s o u g h t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e u t i l i t y

f o r A u s t r a l i a o f h a v i n g a c c e s s t o US b a s e s i n t h e N o r t h e r n

P a c i f i c . T. R. Rees e ma k e s t h e good p o i n t t h a t i t i s n o t

c l e a r wh a t A u s t r a l i a w o u l d h a v e do n e w i t h s u c h a c c e s s ha d1 0t h e A u s t r a l i a n t e r m s b e e n a g r e e d t o . I t w a s , i n e v i t a b l e ,

g i v e n B r i t a i n ’ s e c o n o m i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s a f t e r t h e w a r , t h a t

B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y power i n t h e P a c i f i c s h o u l d r e c e d e i n t h e

l a t e f o r t i e s b u t i t was n o t a n e c e s s a r y c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t

A u s t r a l i a n power s h o u l d e x p a n d t o f i l l t h e vacuum d e s p i t e

11A u s t r a l i a ’ s c o m p a r a t i v e l y h e a l t h y e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n . The

e x p a n s i o n o f a c o u n t r y ’ s s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e p r o b a b l y h a s a s

much t o do w i t h ( f o r w a n t o f a b e t t e r p h r a s e ) ' n a t i o n a l

p s y c h o l o g y ’ a s a n y t h i n g e l s e a n d a l t h o u g h E v a t t p e r h a p s had

38

e n o u g h a m b i t i o n f o r a t h o u s a n d men e ve n a m b i t i o n on t h a t

s c a l e c o u l d n o t c a r r y a n a t i o n t o g r e a t n e s s s i n g l e h a n d e d l y .

T h a t a m b i t i o n w a s , h o w e v e r , s u f f i c i e n t t o wi n t h e

day f o r A u s t r a l i a a t t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ’ s C o n f e r e n c e . F o r ,

a l t h o u g h t h e UK and t h e A n t i p o d e s had commenced t h e

d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h b r o a d l y s i m i l a r p o i n t s o f v i ew t h e UK

r e s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n s s h o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d t o

b r e a k down o v e r t h e i s s u e o f r e c i p r o c i t y u l t i m a t e l y c a u s e d

d i s s e n s i o n . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e t h e UK

F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , E r n e s t B e v i n , had c o n d u c t e d t a l k s w i t h h i s

US c o u n t e r p a r t , B y r n e s , i n P a r i s on t h e m a t t e r o f t h e b a s e s

and B y r n e s h a d e x p r e s s e d t h e U S ' s i m p l a c a b l e o p p o s i t i o n t o

t h e n o t i o n o f r e c i p r o c i t y . ' ^ A t l e e , a n x i o u s t o a v o i d

s c a r i n g o f f US i n t e r e s t i n t h e S o u t h P a c i f i c , w h i c h t h e UK

C h i e f s o f S t a f f had a s s e s s e d a s b e i n g i n t h e w i d e r p o l i t i c a l

i n t e r e s t s o f t h e UK, a d v o c a t e d a b a n d o n i n g t h e r e q u e s t f o r

r e c i p r o c a l r i g h t s t o US b a s e s a nd i n t h i s he was s u p p o r t e d

by t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n P r i me M i n i s t e r , J a n S mu t s . E v a t t , now

on h i s own a s C h i f l e y had r e t u r n e d t o A u s t r a l i a two weeks

a f t e r t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e c a b l e d C h i f l e y t h a t he

h ad f o u g h t h a r d t o r e t a i n t h e " u n a n i m o u s d e c i s i o n a g r e e d1 3upon when y o u w e r e h e r e " . The f i n a l r e s u l t was t h a t t h e

m a t t e r was t o be f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d by E v a t t a n d Nash , t h e

New Z e a l a n d D e f e n c e M i n i s t e r , w i t h B y r n e s i n W a s h i n g t o n t h e

f o l l o w i n g m o n t h . T h i s r a t h e r a n t i - c l i m a c t i c c o n c l u s i o n i s ,

n e v e r t h e l e s s , o f i n t e r e s t i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t E v a t t

m a nag e d t o c a r r y h i s p o i n t o f v i e w i n t h e f a c e o f

c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e UK P r i m e M i n i s t e r and t h a t

39

the Confe rence was p r ep a r ed t o d e l e g a t e E v a t t and Nash as

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t he Commonwealth as a whole i n t he

c o n t i n u i n g d i a l o g u e w i t h Byrnes over t he m a t t e r of

r e c i p r o c i t y . I t i s p e rha ps i n d i c a t i v e of t h e s t r e n g t h of

B r i t a i n ' s d e s i r e t h a t A u s t r a l i a shou ld t r u l y t ak e up a more

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r o l e i n t h e South P a c i f i c t h a t t h i s shou ld

have been t he c a s e .

E v a t t , however , would a p p e a r t o have been a t t e m p t i n g

t o p lay r a t h e r a deep game a t t h i s s t a g e of t he

n e g o t i a t i o n s . As w e l l as push i ng t h e need f o r B r i t i s h

Commonwealth s o l i d a r i t y he was s e c r e t l y c o n d u c t i n g b i l a t e r a l

t a l k s . Roger B e l l , in h i s a cc o u n t of t he Manus n e g o t i a t i o n s

based p r i m a r i l y on US s o u r c e s , ha s shown t h a t a t t he same

t ime as t h e B r i t i s h Commonwealth v i e w p o i n t was be ing honed

i n o r de r t o n e g o t i a t e from a s t r o n g e r u n i t e d p o s i t i o n , E v a t t

was a l s o b r o a c h i n g t h e s u b j e c t of a t r i p a r t i t e r e g i o n a l

a r r an gem en t i n t h e South-Wes t P a c i f i c i n v o l v i n g on ly

A u s t r a l i a , New Zea land and t h e US:

The t r i p a r t i t e a r r a n g em e n t was t o be mode l l ed on t he Canadian-US permanent j o i n t board o f de f e nc e , which a f t e r i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1940 had deve loped a system of c l o s e v o l u n t a r y c o - o p e r a t i o n i n r e g i o n a l de fence p l a n n i n g f o r t he n o r t h e r n h a l f of t he w e s t e r n he m i s ph e re , but d id n o t i n c l u d e a s p e c i f i c a s s u r a n c e of armed m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t i n t he even t of e i t h e r power becoming i n v o l v e d i n a war w i t h a t h i r d power . 1 ^

B e l l ’ s ev ide nce i s drawn from a s e r i e s of c a b l e s between

Byrnes and t he US ambassador i n A u s t r a l i a a t t he t ime , John

Min t e r , and between Denni son , a l e s s s e n i o r o f f i c i a l a t t he

US embassy i n C a nbe r r a , and John H i c k e r so n , t h e S t a t e

Depar tment o f f i c i a l in Washing ton h a n d l i n g P a c i f i c a f f a i r s

40

(including Australia and New Zealand). These cables refer

to approaches Evatt had made in the month before he left

Australia for the Prime Ministers* Conference but there were

also several others sent on 25 April 1946 (two days after

the conference opening) by the US charge d’affaires in

London, Gallman, to Byrnes in Paris.^ Perhaps Anzac Day

stirred anti-British sentiments in Evatt*s heart and moved

him to undermine secretly a position which he was pubicly

advocating at the conference yet it would appear to have

been, in fact, a policy which Evatt had been developing for

some time. Minter had informed Byrnes that it was "Evatt*s

pet plan for keeping the US and Australia in closest

association. He has mentioned it to me many times." ° Itwas a plan which he kept very much to himself, however.

There is no mention on the Australian records dealing with

the Manus negotiations of the discussions which the US

officials documented. Indeed it is unlikely that Chifley

would have approved of such an approach himself and was

probably unaware of it. Later on when Evatt was discussing

the matter in Washington and appeared to be veering towards

a more bilateral role than the one representing the

Commonwealth as a whole which he was supposed to be playing,

Chifley pulled him into line and instructed him to make

clear to the US that any reciprocal rights offered to

Australia would have to be offered to the UK and New Zealand 1 7as well. Thus, it would appear that Chifley not only did

not endorse Evatt’s private approaches to the US on the

subject of an ANZUS-like agreement but also was possibly

completely unaware of them. More interestingly, in view of

41

E v a t t ’ s r e p u t a t i o n a s s o m e t h i n g o f a d i p l o m a t i c i n g e n u , t h e

B r i t i s h do n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n any t h e w i s e r .

P a u l H a s l u c k h a s commented on t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t

h i s t o r i a n s o f t h i s p e r i o d o f A u s t r a l i a ’ s f o r e i g n p o l i c y we r e

l i k e l y t o f a c e b e c a u s e o f E v a t t ’ s t e n d e n c y t o d i s t o r t t h e

o f f i c i a l r e c o r d b o t h by w h a t he d i d a n d d i d n o t r e p o r t of

h i s a c t i v i t i e s a s M i n i s t e r f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s . °

C e r t a i n l y t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d w o u l d a p p e a r t o be an e x a m p l e

o f t h e l a t t e r t y p e o f d i s t o r t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y one m u s t

w o n d e r w h e t h e r h i s r e p o r t i n g o f h i s d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h US

o f f i c i a l s w h i l e i n t h e US i n J u n e and J u l y t o c h a i r t h e UN

C o mm i t t e e on S p a i n d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e an e x a m p l e o f t h e

f o r m e r s o r t o f d i s t o r t i o n . Fo r t h e a t t i t u d e s o f US o f f i c i a l s

b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e s e t a l k s w o u l d n o t a p p e a r t o

s u p p o r t E v a t t ' s v e r s i o n o f t h e s t o r y . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r ,

mor e j u n i o r o f f i c i a l s ' s u p p o r t i n g a c c o u n t s o f some o f t h e

d i s c u s s i o n s w h i c h l e n d some w e i g h t t o E v a t t ' s c l a i m s t h a t he

made g r e a t s t e p s t o w a r d s a c h i e v i n g h i s h o p e s i n t h e c o u r s e

o f t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s .

E v a t t a r r i v e d i n t h e US t o w a r d s t h e end o f May and

he h ad h i s f i r s t d i s c u s s i o n w i t h B y r n e s some two w eek s

l a t e r . He t o l d C h i f l e y t h a t B y r n e s h a d b e e n s y m p a t h e t i c a nd

had come t o a p p r e c i a t e A u s t r a l i a ' s p o s i t i o n on t h e m a t t e r .

The u p s h o t was ’’B y r n e s ’ s u g g e s t i o n t h a t C h i e f s o f S t a f f and

an O f f i c e r o f S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t s h o u l d e x p l o r e t h e 1 9p o s i t i o n " w i t h E v a t t . Over t h e n e x t s i x w e ek s E v a t t had

m e e t i n g s w i t h P r e s i d e n t Truman a s w e l l a s s e v e r a l S t a t e

42

Depar tmen t o f f i c i a l s and s e r v i c e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . In h i s

d i s c u s s i o n wi th t he P r e s i d e n t , E v a t t was a s s u r e d t h a t an

i n s u p e r a b l e o b s t a c l e t o a s t r i c t t r e a t y o u t l i n i n g any US

de fence o b l i g a t i o n s i n exchange f o r a c c e s s t o South P a c i f i c

b a se s would be t he e x t e n s i o n of Amer i ca ’ s o b l i g a t i o n s ”t o an

a r e a f a r o u t s i d e t h e i r p r e s e n t h e m i s p h e r i c a l sp h e re of

i n f l u e n c e , meaning North and L a t i n Amer i ca . " E v a t t , o f t e n

a cc us ed l a t e r of be ing i n f l e x i b l e over t he i s s u e of

r e c i p r o c i t y , t hen a rgued t h a t an i n f o r m a l s t a t e m e n t of

p o l i c y making i t c l e a r t h a t t he de fence of A u s t r a l i a and New

Zea land was i n v o l v e d i n t h e American use of Manus would be

s u f f i c i e n t . ^ This , in f a c t , p roved t o be f u r t h e r t han

C h i f l e y was p r e p a r e d t o go i n s a c r i f i c i n g the goa l of a

r e g i o n a l de fence agreement and t h e p r i n c i p l e of r e c i p r o c i t y .

A week l a t e r he i n s t r u c t e d E v a t t t h a t "an i n f o r m a l s t a t e m e n t

of p o l i c y would need t o be supp l emen ted a t l e a s t by s t a f f22c o n v e r s a t i o n s and t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a p l a n " .

In t he meant ime, however , E v a t t had h e l d i n f o r m a l

d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h H ic ke r son of t h e S t a t e Depar tment and

v a r i o u s Navy and Army r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a t which W.D. F o r s y t h ,22t h e E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s D e p a r t m e n t ’ s t r u s t e e s h i p e x p e r t , was

p r e s e n t . The d i f f e r e n c e s between t he M i n i s t e r ’ s a cc ou n t and

t h e r e p o r t from the Washington L e g a t i o n i s i l l u m i n a t i n g :

A f u r t h e r s u g g e s t i o n , however , came ou t d u r i n g t he d i s c u s s i o n s , namely t h a t w i t h o u t any formal t r e a t y i t migh t be a r r a n g e d f o r t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s t o use no t only Manus but f a c i l i t i e s i n o t h e r A u s t r a l i a n p o r t s , p r o v i d i n g t he A u s t r a l i a n s e r v i c e s i n t u r n were g i v en t h e r i g h t t o use Un i t ed S t a t e s f a c i l i t i e s i n Uni t ed S t a t e s and a l l i e d b a s e s n o r t h of t h e E q ua to r , which might i n c l u d e , f o r example,Truk, Guam and M a n i l a .

43

M i n i s t e r ..........t u r n e d t he t a l k i n t he d i r e c t i o n of ar e g i o n a l scheme b r i n g i n g ou t t h e f a c t t h a t t he s i g n i f i c a n c e of a base l i k e Manus depended on i t s p o s i t i o n i n a ne twork of b a s e s andf a c i l i t i e s . . . . M i n i s t e r was a b l e t o l e a d d i s c u s s i o n in t h e d i r e c t i o n of a p o s s i b l e s e r i e s of a r r a n g e m e n t s by which a l l t h e i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s would be a b l e to make use i n peac e t ime of a wide s e l e c t i o n of ba se s c o v e r i n g South and South-Wes t P a c i f i c and i s l a n d s n o r t h of t h e eq u a t o r such as Truk, Guam and o t h e r Un i t ed S t a t e s p o s s e s s i o n s . 25

F o r s y t h d id i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t a l k had succeeded i n p u t t i n g

the problem i n a new l i g h t and t h a t t he US might be i n c l i n e d

as a r e s u l t t o c o n s i d e r t h e q u e s t i o n i n a new p e r s p e c t i v e

bu t i t would seem from the d i f f e r e n c e s i n t he two a c c o u n t s

t h a t E v a t t was doing much of t h e s u g g e s t i n g w h i l e p o r t r a y i n g

the s i t u a t i o n as be ing f a r more one of g e n e r a l ag reemen t

th an i t was.

The nex t f o u r weeks saw E v a t t h o l d i n g f u r t h e r t a l k s

w i t h f i r s t l y Admiral N imi t z , US S e c r e t a r y of Navy a t t he

t ime , s e n i o r S t a t e Depar tment o f f i c i a l s and f i n a l l y wi th

Byrnes whose abs enc e i n P a r i s f o r some weeks had meant t h a t

E v a t t ’ s t a l k s had been a l i t t l e i n c o n c l u s i v e d e s p i t e t h e i r

be ing w i t h men of we i gh t such a s Nimitz and Dean Acheson,

who was t h e n Ac t i n g S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e . E v a t t r e p o r t e d

ha v in g made g r e a t headway i n a d v an c in g h i s ’ a l t e r n a t i v e

p l a n ’ ( t o a f o rma l de fence a r r a n g e m e n t ) which t h e US

o f f i c i a l s had s a i d was ou t of t h e q u e s t i o n f o r domes t i c

p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s . Nimitz was supposed t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y

e n t h u s i a s t i c and i t was i n d i s c u s s i o n w i t h him t h a t t he

’ a l t e r n a t i v e p l a n ’ a t t a i n e d i t s most p r e c i s e f o r m u l a t i o n .

The Uni t ed S t a t e s and A u s t r a l i a would i n f o r m a l l y a g r e e t h a t

use of Manus and o t h e r b a s e s ( t o be s p e c i f i e d ) would e n t i t l e

44

A u s t r a l i a t o a c c e s s t o v a r i o u s US base s ( a l s o t o be

s p e c i f i e d ) . Which b a s e s were t o be i n v o lv e d would be a

m a t t e r f o r t he S e r v i c e A u t h o r i t i e s of each cou n t ry t o work

out t o g e t h e r . E v a t t saw t h i s as h a v in g g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r

f u t u r e c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n t he P a c i f i c , a s we l l a s a v o id i n g

"any s u g g e s t i o n w ha t ev e r of i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h A u s t r a l i a n

s o v e r e i g n t y " , D which i n d i c a t e s t h e conce rn which he f e l t

over t he t e rms of the o r i g i n a l US p r o p o s a l on Manus.

F u r t h e r m o r e , he t r i u m p h a n t l y r e p o r t e d , on t h e 19th J u l y ,

t h a t " t h e S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e now f a v o u r s an a c c e p t a n c e of

t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e r e shou ld be r e c i p r o c a l use of

f a c i l i t i e s .

E v a t t a l s o c l a imed t o have overcome a n o t h e r

p o t e n t i a l problem in t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s . F o r s y t h had e a r l i e r

r e p o r t e d t h a t i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h S t a t e Depar tment

o f f i c i a l s i t had emerged t h a t t he d i f f i c u l t y abo u t

r e c i p r o c i t y was no t i n r e l a t i o n t o A u s t r a l i a and Newp Q

Zea l and , but t o t h e UK. The US cou ld n o t commit h e r s e l f

t o such a r r a n g e m e n t s as a l a r g e s e c t i o n of American o p i n i o n

would f e e l bound by t he s i t u a t i o n t o come t o B r i t a i n ' s a i d

i f t r o u b l e a r o s e and c o n s e q u e n t l y would no t s u p p o r t i t .

Al though E v a t t m igh t have been happy t o exc lude t h e UK as we

have seen above t h i s c e r t a i n l y was no t t he case back i n

A u s t r a l i a . C h i f l e y had q u e r i e d E v a t t * s use of t he

e x p r e s s i o n " A u s t r a l i a n S e r v i c e s " i n n e g o t i a t i n g p o s s i b l e

t e rms i n Washing ton w h i l e r emind ing him of t h e common

v i e w p o in t on t he m a t t e r which had been e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h New2 9Zea land and t h e UK a t t h e Conference i n London. The

45

Defence Committee had given its endorsement to the new plan

(which they, along with Evatt now considered to be

sufficiently like a regional arrangement not to endanger the

UN Security Council’s prospects of success) only on the

basis that Evatt was keeping the UK informed and that he had

made it clear to the US that there would have to be UK

participation in any such arrangement. Now it is not at all

certain from the accounts of his activities in Washington

that Evatt had in fact conformed with these requirements.

He did, however, bring up the subject in his final talk with

Byrnes who, according to Evatt, did not appear to be at all

non-plussed:

I pointed out to Byrnes, quite frankly, our arrangement with Britain and New Zealand, and he was quite understanding of the position. He will communicate with Bevin on the general principle in the expectation that at Paris the three of us will be able to carry the proposal forward to a further point of practical compietion.30

It was on this basis that Evatt’s apparent tour de force innegotiating what appeared to be a great deal for Australia

and the rest of the British Commonwealth was approved in

principle by Cabinet and that the approach he had been

taking in the course of these discussions was endorsed.

From here on the negotiations spiralled downwards

towards the conclusion which the history books have all

recorded. Unfortunately, at this crucial point in the

official account of the Manus negotiations there is a

virtual hiatus in the record of communications received.

Evatt returned to Paris via London for the opening of the

Peace Conference (to decide the fate of the lesser Axis

46

a l l i e s ) on 29 J u l y and t hen was summoned back t o A u s t r a l i a

on t h e 24 th August t o a s s i s t i n w inn ing t h e e l e c t i o n s of 28

Se p t e m b e r . ^^ Dur ing t h a t p e r i o d he d id no t send a s i n g l e

communicat ion on the s u b j e c t of t he t a l k s w i t h Bevin and

Byrnes which had been e n v i s a g e d . Nor do t h e months of

Sept ember , Oc tober and November prove any more r e v e a l i n g as

t o t h e co u r s e of t he n e g o t i a t i o n s ( i f i ndeed any were s t i l l

b e ing conduc t ed ) i n t h i s p e r i o d . E i t h e r we must conc lude

t h a t t he h e c t i c pace of d i p l o m a t i c a c t i v i t y a t P a r i s

p r e c l u d e d E v a t t ’ s push i ng t h rough t he n e g o t i a t i o n s t o a

c o n c l u s i o n and t h a t t he demands of e l e c t i o n e e r i n g on h i s

r e t u r n proved e q u a l l y t ime consuming o r we must conc lude

t h a t E v a t t d e l i b e r a t e l y avo ided n o t i f y i n g t h e Depar tment and

C a b i n e t ^ of what had been d i s c u s s e d i n P a r i s . Has luck ha s

a s s e r t e d t h a t E v a t t "d id no t s c r u p l e t o d e s t r o y o r w i t h h o l d

pa p e r s which migh t c o n t r a d i c t h i s own s t o r y " 3 3 and we may

we l l a sk whe the r something of the s o r t d id no t go on i n t h i s

c a s e . C e r t a i n l y some th ing t h a t had o c c u r r e d i n P a r i s had

i nduced him to change t a c t i c s i n d e a l i n g w i th t h e US on t h i s

i s s u e .

Indeed , they were now th e t a c t i c s of a somewhat

d e s p e r a t e man. Has luck r e p o r t s ( a l t h o u g h a g a i n t h e r e i s no

r e c o r d o f such a c t i v i t y on f i l e ) how E v a t t would r i n g him in

New York d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d and i n s t r u c t him t o m a i n t a i n

o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e US a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a s t r a t e g i c t r u s t e e s h i p

over t he C a r o l i n e and Ma r sh a l l I s l a n d s . Thi s was p r i m a r i l y

w i th a view to b a r g a i n i n g w i t h t h e US on t h i s i s s u e i n o r d e r

t o g e t them t o make a commitment t o m a i n t a i n i n g de f ence

47

7 4i n s t a l l a t i o n s on Manus. No doubt some of t h e a n x i e t y

which caused him t o f a i l t o r e c o g n i s e A u s t r a l i a ’ s h o p e l e s s

b a r g a i n i n g p o s i t i o n h e r e d e r i v e d from the p r e s s u r e of

e l e c t i o n s and p o s s i b l y from a d e s i r e t o be a b l e t o make a

s t a t e m e n t abou t Manus’ f a t e b e f o r e t he popu l ace went t o t he

p o l l s . For t h e r e had been a s u b s t a n t i a l amount of p r e s s u r e

b u i l d i n g up i n t he p r e s s t h r o u g h o u t 1946 a d v o c a t i n g t h a t t he

Americans be kep t i n t he South P a c i f i c a t a l l c o s t s and a

s t a t e m e n t i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e Manus i s s u e had been r e s o l v e d

f a v o u r a b l y f o r A u s t r a l i a would c e r t a i n l y have been of g r e a t

va lue i n t h e e l e c t i o n campaign. E v a t t was more p robab ly

a n x i o u s f o r a more o bv io us r e a s o n , however , and was angry

over a r e b u f f h e ’ d r e c e i v e d i n P a r i s . In t h i s c ase he

p o s s i b l y f e a r e d t he l o n g - t e r m e l e c t o r a l e f f e c t s of a f a i l u r e

t o s e c u r e some k ind o f American i n v o l ve m en t i n Manus and, as

i t t u r n e d o u t , w i t h good r e a s o n .

Whatever t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e t b a c k which E v a t t ’ s

a s p i r a t i o n s f o r Manus r e c e i v e d i n P a r i s , i t s r e s u l t was no t

a comple t e c l o s i n g of t h e door t o d i s c u s s i o n on t h e i s s u e

d e s p i t e r e p o r t s t owards t he end of t h e y e a r t h a t t he

Americans were pack ing up and g e t t i n g ou t of t h e Admi ra l ty

I s l a n d s . For A u s t r a l i a r e c e i v e d a no t e from the US

Ambassador on 12 December 1946 ( p u r s u a n t t o a c o n v e r s a t i o n

w i th E v a t t on 12 November) t o t he e f f e c t t h a t E v a t t ’ s

p r o p o sa l i n r e l a t i o n t o r e c i p r o c a l r i g h t s i n US base s n o r t h

o f t he e q u a t o r ’’was and i s u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e Uni t ed S t a t e s

Government” . The no t e d id , however , s u g g e s t t h a t r i g h t s

could be a f f o r d e d t o t he A u s t r a l i a n government a t Canton

48

I s l a n d and American Samoa, p r o v i de d t h a t t he US government

was no t f i n a n c i a l l y o b l i g a t e d a t Manus. ' While t h i s

r e p r e s e n t e d a r e t u r n t o a b i l a t e r a l a pp roa ch ( s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t i t was i ndeed t h e i n c l u s i o n of t h e UK in t h e p roposed

p l an of t he p r e v i o u s J u l y which had caused the p r o j e c t t o

f o u n d e r ) E v a t t had suc ceeded i n w inn ing some c o n c e s s i o n s

from the US government .

Why then d i d n ’ t an ag reemen t go ahead? There was

one no t e s e n t i n r e p l y t o t h e US a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ’ s o f f e r t o

d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r i n Washington which announced A u s t r a l i a ’ s

d e s i r e t o have r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a p p o i n t e d from each c o u n t r y

t o examine p o s s i b l e a r r a n g e m e n t s y e t t h i s was never f o l l o w ed

u p . The l a c k of i n t e r e s t would seem r em ar kab l e a f t e r t he

energy which E v a t t had p u t i n t o t he e a r l i e r n e g o t i a t i o n s .

The answer a lmos t c e r t a i n l y l i e s i n t h e f i n a n c i a l r ea lm.

The M i n i s t e r f o r Defence , John Dedman, a l e r t e d E v a t t i n

December 1946 to t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l Defence

Committee e s t i m a t e s o f J u l y 1946, of t he c o s t t o A u s t r a l i a

o f keep ing Manus a s a going co n ce rn (h igh a t an i n i t i a l

o u t l a y o f / 7 3 0 ,000 w i t h an annua l n e t m a in t en an ce c o s t o f

151,000) had been made on t h e a s sum pt ion t h a t most US

equipment would r ema in . By t he end o f 1946, much of t h i s

equipment had been removed and t h o s e o r i g i n a l e s t i m a t e s40would have had t o have been r e v i s e d upwards s u b s t a n t i a l l y .

No doubt E v a t t c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e l e s s e r p r i z e s of Canton

and Pago Pago as q u id p ro quo were no t wor th t he p r i c e t h a t

A u s t r a l i a would have t o pay. Pe rhaps he would have t ho u g h t

a g a i n i f he had r e a l i s e d t h e p o l i t i c a l c a p i t a l which t he

49

o p p o s i t i o n would be a b l e t o make o u t of h i s f a i l u r e t o

s e c u r e American i nv o lv em en t a t Manus both w h i l e s t i l l on t he

o p p o s i t i o n benches i n t he n e x t t h r e e y e a r s and i n su b s e q u e n t

y e a r s when t hey were i n gove rnment .

50

Chapter 4: The Significance of Manus for Evatt andAustralia

The final episode in the Manus negotiations followed some months after Evatt had sent off his aide-memoire to the US State Department requesting that service representatives from the two countries get together to discuss the US proposal of December 1946. Evatt sent his note in February 1947 but the US were dilatory in replying. In May Evatt spoke to the US ambassador in an attempt to expedite matters"' and perhaps this had some effect (though certainly not the desired one). For in the first week of June,Admiral John Denfeld, who succeeded Chester Nimitz as Commander-in-Charge, US Pacific Fleet, after the war, visited Australia and held talks ostensibly on the subject of Australia-US naval co-operation but in fact on the subject of non-cooperation. Denfeld delivered a memorandum from the State Department which made clear that the US government had decided to act on advice from the US Joint Chiefs of Staff to the effect that US forces should withdraw completely from Manus and no agreement according post-war military rights to the US at Manus be concluded.

Four reasons were given for this announcement. Firstly, and obviously, Manus was now considered of slight strategic interest in view of base facilities available to the US in the northern hemisphere. Secondly, the US feared establishing an undesirable precedent to "other countries" which might offset Manus’s slight strategic value for the

51

US: t h e y w e r e a n x i o u s t o a v o i d g i v i n g any e x c u s e t o t h e

R u s s i a n s t o s e t up b i l a t e r a l p a c t s o u t s i d e t h e UN. The

t h i r d a n d f o u r t h r e a s o n s w e r e t h a t t h e US’ a nd A u s t r a l i a ’ s

common m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e UN a s w e l l a s t h e i r " i d e n t i t y o f

i n t e r e s t s " and " e x c e l l e n t r e l a t i o n s " o b v i a t e d t h e n e e d f o r a

f o r m a l a r r a n g e m e n t a s i t w o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o make a s p e c i a l2a r r a n g e m e n t i n an e m e r g e n c y a t any t i m e i n t h e f u t u r e .

J o h n Dedman, M i n i s t e r f o r D e f e n c e f r o m November 1946

on h a s a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e r e a l r e a s o n f o r t h e US d e c i s i o n was

an e c o n o m i c o n e ^ . Navy f u n d s h a d b e e n c u t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f t h e ' 4 6 — * 47 f i s c a l y e a r so s e v e r e l y t h a t t h e r e s i m p l y

w a s n ’ t t h e c a s h t o s u p p o r t b a s e s i n b o t h h a l v e s o f t h e

P a c i f i c ( u n l e s s t h e y w e r e on US t e r r i t o r y a s we s h a l l s e e ) .

E v a t t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , was n o t p r e p a r e d t o a b a n d o n h i s

h op e o f i n v o l v i n g t h e US i n a r e g i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e

S o u t h P a c i f i c . W h i l e New Z e a l a n d h a d q u a s h e d any s u g g e s t i o n

o f b i l a t e r a l m i l i t a r y a g r e e m e n t s o v e r b a s e r i g h t s i n Samoa

( U p o l u ) u n t i l a f t e r t h e T r u s t e e s h i p s y s t e m had b e e n p r o p e r l y

e s t a b l i s h e d , ^ t h e q u e s t i o n o f US r i g h t s i n B r i t i s h P a c i f i c

I s l a n d s was s t i l l a l i v e , t h o u g h i n l i m b o s i n c e t h e P r ime

M i n i s t e r s ' C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r . Even t h o u g h

E v a t t and Nash had b e e n n o m i n a t e d s p o k e s m e n f o r t h e

Commonwea l t h , E v a t t h a d e n d e d up n e g o t i a t i n g on h i s own and

a l m o s t on a b i l a t e r a l b a s i s . The f a c t t h a t t h e US had

t r e a t e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e p r e v i o u s J u l y a s i f t h e y had

be en b i l a t e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s t e n d s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e p o i n t t h a t

w h a t e v e r d i s c u s s i o n s m i g h t h a v e t a k e n p l a c e s u b s e q u e n t l y

52

between Evatt, Bevin and Byrnes in Paris may have fallen

down over the inclusion of other Commonwealth countries in

the reciprocal deal that Evatt had been trying to negotiate.

For no sooner had Australia been notified of the US’ lack of

interest in Manus than bilateral negotiations with the UK

were begun over Canton, Christmas and Enderbury (all of

which had been on the list of 25 islands over which the US

had requested they be granted sovereignty in November 1945).

The US were now prepared to drop all other previous claims

to sovereignty and to shared base rights if they could be

granted sovereignty in the case of these islands. Also,

they’d throw into the bargain clear title to all immovable

installations in the United Kingdom territories in the rest of the South Pacific.^

Lord Addison, the Secretary of State for Dominion

Affairs, had cabled Canberra and Wellington immediately on

the matter and the US again found themselves negotiating

with the Commonwealth as a whole. The UK advocated denying

the Americans any sovereignty over British territory in the

Pacific but to go as far as possible to accommodate their

needs there by giving them exclusive control over the

territory on which the bases were established, a 99-year

lease in the case of Christmas Island and an extension of

the already existing 50-year condominium on Canton and

Enderbury to 99 years. It is interesting to note, however,

that the UK again sought some sort of reciprocity, as they

wanted to ask for rights to base facilities, for al1 members

of the British Commonwealth in American Samoa. Also, an

53

a t t e m p t would be made t o have t h e US acknowledge some s o r t

of commitment t o t h e de f ence of t h e a r e a i n any formal

ag reemen t which might be s i g n e d .

E v a t t saw he re h i s l a s t chance t o s a lv ag e a r e g i o n a l

de f en ce agreement f o r t h e South P a c i f i c and s t i l l pu r sued

t h e m a t t e r i n a h a l f - h e a r t e d way in communica t i ons w i t h t he

UK on t h i s s u b j e c t f o r t he r em a inde r of t he y e a r . For

d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e m a t t e r amongst t h e UK, New Zea land and

A u s t r a l i a were p r o t r a c t e d and i t was n o t t i l l December 1947

t h a t E v a t t ag r eed t o t h e B r i t i s h p r o p o s a l s on how to r espond

on t he m a t t e r w i t h t he added demand t h a t t he US shou ld

a f f o r d r e c i p r o c a l r i g h t s i n Guam and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . US

i n t e r e s t i n t he r e g i o n was r a p i d l y d e c l i n i n g , however , and

over t h e nex t two y e a r s l i t t l e o c c u r r e d . The US f i n a l l y

wound down i t s base on Chr i s t ma s I s l a n d on Oc tober 18,

1948^, and i n d i c a t e d t h a t they were q u i t e happy wi th t h e i r

5 0 - y e a r condominium on Canton.

Thus, t he n e g o t i a t i o n s , which had gone on f o r t h r e e

y e a r s s i n c e t h e US’ i n i t i a l a pp roa ch i n November 1945 were

a lmos t c o m p l e t e ly abandoned. H i ck e r s on , t h e S t a t e

Depar tment o f f i c i a l who had o v e r s ee n the p r o g r e s s of t he

n e g o t i a t i o n s , s a i d l a t e r , in 1950, t h a t t he i s s u e of South

P a c i f i c I s l a n d s was "a m a t t e r we b r i n g up when we h a v e n ’ t7

got a n y t h i n g e l s e t o t a l k a b o u t ” . Dr E v a t t ’ s a m b i t i o n s t o

see the e x t e n s i v e sys tem of w a r - t im e b a s e s i n t he

S o u t h - P a c i f i c c o n v e r t e d i n t o a p o s t - w a r de f ence sys tem to be

used by A u s t r a l i a , New Zea l and , B r i t a i n and t h e Uni t ed

54

States had come to nought.

Evatt tried various other means to bring about this

Australian-American involvement in a Pacific Pact. He had

blamed the start of the war in the Pacific on the lack ofosuch an agreement and the establishment of a post-war

arrangement was of prime importance in his foreign policy.

With the base negotiations having failed to provide the

appropriate key Evatt began pushing for an early Japanese

Peace treaty and at the conference held in Canberra in

August 1947, for members of the Commonwealth, againemphasised the need for a Pacific regional securityarrangement.9 However, the US adamantly opposed any such

arrangements being formalised in the tense post-war

international political environment. Certainly they did not

see the need in the Pacific when international attention was

focussed on events in central Europe and the Middle East in

1946 and 1947. It is ironic that throughout the period that

Evatt was attempting to negotiate an arrangement

incorporating the bases the US should consider regional

security arrangements as "unnecessary duplication of United

Nations machinery" and also as possibly leading to the

intensification of disagreements already existing in the1 0Security Council. The irony lies in the fact that the US

should have such qualms about a regional arrangement which

the British Commonwealth had determined was the preferable

way to come to an agreement on the issue of bases within

"The Purposes and Principles of the United Nations". To do

so by means of clandestine bilateral arrangements was

55

someth ing they c o n s i d e r e d much more l i k e l y t o undermine

c o n f i d e n c e i n t he i n s t i t u t i o n of t h e Un i t ed N a t i o n s .

In June 1948, however , t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s came round

t o e n d o r s i n g nt h e p r o g r e s s i v e development of r e g i o n a l and

o t h e r a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e 1 1s e l f - d e f e n c e " . E v a t t a g a i n p r e s s e d f o r a P a c i f i c Pac t

f o l l o w i n g t h i s change of h e a r t i n t he US, a g a i n

u n s u c c e s s f u l l y . The r e a l i t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n was t h a t t he

US was p r eo c cu p i e d w i t h t he co n ce rn s of Europe and w i t h t he

i n t r a c t a b i l i t y of i t s e r s t w h i l e a l l y , t h e S o v i e t Union.

Nothing A u s t r a l i a could do i n t he l a t t e r h a l f of the decade

was going t o a t t r a c t a d d i t i o n a l commitments , money or

f o r c e s i n t o t he P a c i f i c Ocean which t he Americans cou ld

r i g h t l y f e e l was w e l l under c o n t r o l .

E v a t t , no doub t , t r i e d e v e r y t h i n g he cou ld t o a l t e r

t h a t s i t u a t i o n and p r ob ab ly b e l i e v e d t h a t he had succeeded

f o r a b r i e f space (and i ndee d he would appea r t o have won

some s o r t of c o n c e s s i o n s from th e US in t h e cou r se of t he

n e g o t i a t i o n s ) y e t t h e l o g i c of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s was

working a g a i n s t him and he was a l i t t l e slow to p e r c e i v e

t h a t , a s h i s dogged p e r s i s t e n c e i n a t t e m p t i n g t o i nduce t he

US to e n t e r i n t o a s e c u r i t y a r r a ng em en t i n t h e South P a c i f i c

t e s t i f i e s t o .

E v a t t ’ s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o admi t d e f e a t i n t h e s e

n e g o t i a t i o n s was to c o s t him d e a r l y in p a r l i a m e n t a r y deba t e

and w i t h t he p r e s s a lm o s t from the moment t h e i s s u e came t o

56

the a t t e n t i o n of t he A u s t r a l i a n p u b l i c s h o r t l y a f t e r t he end

of t he war . Alan D a l z i e l , E v a t t ' s e l e c t o r a l s e c r e t a r y for

twenty y e a r s , c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t he i s s u e of t he Manus I s l a n d

n e g o t i a t i o n s was one of t h r e e i s s u e s which t he O p p o s i t i o n

was a b l e t o p i l l o r y him w i t h t h r o u g h o u t h i s p a r l i a m e n t a r y

c a r e e r . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e were many o c c a s i o n s both when

Labor was i n o f f i c e and ou t of i t when members of t he

L i b e r a l and Count ry P a r t i e s were a b l e t o s c o r e p o i n t s on t h e

Manus i s s u e . The a s s e r t i o n s r e p e a t e d l y cover t he same

ground and become more s t r i d e n t i n t h e i r tone u n t i l in

F e b r u a r y 1949 H.L. Anthony, member f o r Richmond, cou ld

a s s e r t w i t h o u t c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h a t E v a t t threw the Americans

out of M a n u s . ^ In 1946, i t had begun w i t h t he a s sumpt ion

t h a t t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s had r e q u e s t e d s o v e r e i g n t y over Manus

I s l a n d and a t t h e very l e a s t was p r e p a r e d t o m a i n t a i n t he

base t h e r e f o r h e r own p u r p o s e s . Thus E v a t t ' s s t a t e m e n t i n

t h e House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s on 13 March 1946, which

i n d i c a t e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a would n o t s u r r e n d e r s o v e r e i g n t y

over any p a r t of her t e r r i t o r y was c o n t i n u a l l y thrown back

a t him a s hav ing been a s l a p i n t h e f a c e f o r Am e r i c a ' s

d e s i g n s f o r Manus. That t h e s e a l l e g a t i o n s were wide of t he

mark i s p a t e n t l y obv ious now y e t a t t he t ime E v a t t d e c l i n e d

to r e f u t e them. I t i s no t t h a t E v a t t d id no t f e e l t h e s t i n g

of the b a rb s thrown h i s way in p a r l i a m e n t , f o r P e t e r Edwards

has documented t h e e f f e c t t h a t t a u n t s about E v a t t ’ s

' a r r o g a n t 1 h a n d l i n g of t h e US app roach on Manus had upon 1 Mhim. John B ur to n , E v a t t ' s p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y fo r some

y e a r s and S e c r e t a r y of t he Depar tment of E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s

from 1947 t o 1949, c o n s i d e r e d Manus and t h e way i t was

57

han d l ed by the p r e s s a s one of t he i s s u e s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o1 5L a b o r ’ s l o s i n g t h e e l e c t i o n i n 1949.

The most damning media r e p o r t of t he m a t t e r came,

however , some two y e a r s a f t e r Labor had l o s t o f f i c e . The

Sunday H e r a l d , p u b l i s h e d on 21 J anuary 1951, a r e p o r t on

" A u s t r a l i a ’ s Worst Defence B l u n d e r " . Thi s a r t i c l e i t can

now e a s i l y be seen was based on c o n f i d e n t i a l documents .

V a r i o us d e s c r i p t i o n s t a l l y e x a c t l y wi th t he documents : t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e form of t he a c t u a l p r o p o s a l made by t he

US in March 1 946, as w e l l as t h e sequence of e v e n t s from the

f i r s t app roach by t h e US i n November 1945, t o t he Prime

M i n i s t e r s Conference i n London t h e f o l l o w i n g A p r i l a r e too

a c c u r a t e t o be i n s p i r e d guesswork . Perhaps t he only s e r i o u s

e r r o r of d e t a i l ( a p a r t from t h e w i l f u l ones which w i l l be

c o n s i d e r e d i n a moment) i s t he a s s e r t i o n t h a t t he Un i t ed

S t a t e s app roa che d France a t t h e same t ime as B r i t a i n t o

c o n s i d e r t he f a t e of b a se s b u i l t on French P a c i f i c t e r r i t o r y

as w e l l . In f a c t , e a r l y on i n t h e exchange of c a b l e s

B r i t a i n sough t c l a r i f i c a t i o n of t h i s p o i n t and was t o l d by

t h e US t h a t an approach t o Fr ance depended on t h e outcome of

US-UK n e g o t i a t i o n s .

There was, however , a c o n s i s t e n t e r r o r of f a c t which

r an r i g h t t h rou gh t he a r t i c l e and t h a t was t he a s s e r t i o n

t h a t t he Un i t ed S t a t e s was p r e p a r e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e base a t

Manus. I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t h a t anyone who had been a b l e t o

see t he a c t u a l d r a f t ag reemen t ( a s e i t h e r t he j o u r n a l i s t who

wro t e t he a r t i c l e or h i s sou rc e o b v i o u s l y had) could be

58

unaware t h a t a p r i n c i p a l aim of t he Un i t ed S t a t e s i n

a t t e m p t i n g t o n e g o t i a t e base r i g h t s was t o avo id any s o r t of

f i n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n w h a t s o e v e r . The j o u r n a l i s t or h i s

Depar tmen t of E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s sou rce was t h u s g u i l t y of

w i l f u l m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .

I t i s a l l t h e more s u r p r i s i n g t h e n t h a t E v a t t d id

no t t a k e t he o p p o r t u n i t y t o c l e a r up t he m a t t e r . His r e p l y

t o t h e Sunday Hera ld d id n o t make c l e a r t h a t t h e r e had never

been any q u e s t i o n of t h e US m a i n t a i n i n g t he b a s e s . Nor, i n

t h e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e amount of t ime s p e n t d e b a t i n g Manus i n

March 1982 when the b i l l r a t i f y i n g t he ANZUS T rea ty was

be in g d i s c u s s e d d id E v a t t e f f e c t i v e l y de fend h i s p a r t i n t he

a f f a i r . ^ By r e v e a l i n g t h e s o r t s of r e s t r i c t i o n s which t he

US ag re eme n t would have p l ac ed on s o v e r e i g n t y and t he c o s t

t o A u s t r a l i a of e n t e r i n g i n t o such an ag reemen t (w i t h o u t

a d e q u a t e r e t u r n i n t h e form of a r e g i o n a l de fence p a c t )

E v a t t could have de mo l i shed C a se y ’ s a rgumen t s t h a t A u s t r a l i a

had mi s sed a golden o p p o r t u n i t y i n 1946.

Casey, on t h e o t h e r hand, was very e f f e c t i v e i n

c o n t i n u i n g t o m a n i p u l a t e t he Manus i s s u e t o y i e l d p o l i t i c a l

g a i n . A few months l a t e r a l a r g e h e a d l i n e p roc l a ime d "Manus17I s l a n d t o be R e s t o r ed a s Major U.S. Base" , though i n

p a r l i a m e n t i t e v e n t u a l l y emerged t h a t i t was only a q u e s t i o n

o f i t s be ing " q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t more American naval1 8v e s s e l s would be u s i n g Manus I s l a n d t h a n i n t h e p a s t " .

I t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t up u n t i l the end o f 1948

59

E v a t t f e l t bound by US a nd UK i n j u n c t i o n s on s e c r e c y w i t h

r e g a r d t o t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s on t h e P a c i f i c B a s e s a s he a l s o

f e a r e d t h a t t h e i r b e i n g r e v e a l e d m i g h t p l a c e e ve n g r e a t e r

s t r a i n on t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a n i t was

a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c i n g a t t h a t p e r i o d . Why he s h o u l d r e m a i n

s i l e n t on t h e t e r m s o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n

o f NATO i n 1949 a nd ANZUS some two y e a r s l a t e r c a n n o t e a s i l y

be e x p l a i n e d . I t i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t he s u f f e r e d

p o l i t i c a l l y b e c a u s e o f t h i s s i l e n c e when a few w o r d s o f

e x p l a n a t i o n c o u l d h a v e s a v e d t h e s i t u a t i o n .

Any a t t e m p t t o a s s e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f Manus a s an

e p i s o d e i n p o s t - w a r A u s t r a l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s bound t o

c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e s t a l l e d n e g o t i a t i o n s h a d on

A u s t r a l i a - U S r e l a t i o n s . P e r h a p s i t w o u l d be b e t t e r t o

c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t t h a t i t m i g h t h a v e had on A m e r i c a n ALP

r e l a t i o n s f o r i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t i f t h e r e had b e e n any

d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s i n t h e l a t t e r

h a l f o f t h e ’ 4 0 ’ s d e c a d e t h e y w e r e c e r t a i n l y b a c k on a good

f o o t i n g by t h e t i m e o f t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e ANZUS t r e a t y i n

1951 .

To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e w h o l e a f f a i r i s t i e d up i n

t h e q u e s t i o n o f E v a t t ’ s d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i n g t e c h n i q u e .

E v a t t h a s o f t e n b e e n a c c u s e d o f c a r r y i n g t o o much o f t h e

w e i g h t o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n h i m s e l f and n o t

a l l o c a t i n g t h e r e g u l a r p r o c e s s e s o f d i p l o m a t i c

1 9r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o c a r r y on p o l i c y when he w a s n ’ t t h e r e .

C e r t a i n l y t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e i n t h i s c a s e o f h i s r u n n i n g h o t

60

and co ld on t he i s s u e and of the n e g o t i a t i o n s a t t imes

l a n g u i s h i n g as a r e s u l t . E v a t t ' s methods d id e x t r a c t some

c o n c e s s i o n s from the US on t he i s s u e , however , and had an

ag reemen t been n e g o t i a t e d ( t h a t i s , had t h e US c o n t i n u e d t o

c o n s i d e r i t n e c e s s a r y t o have some s o r t of i nv o lv e m en t in

t h e South-Wes t P a c i f i c ) t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t r e c i p r o c a l

a c c e s s t o US bases would have been i n v o l v e d .

From the ev idence of t he o f f i c i a l r e c o r d ,

n e g o t i a t i o n s would a p pea r t o have been conduc t ed on a

c o r d i a l f o o t i n g t h r o u g h o u t and t h e i n c i d e n t t o have c r e a t e d

f a r l e s s r an c o u r t owards E v a t t i n t h e USA than h i s l a t e r

h a n d l i n g o f t he B e r l i n c r i s i s when P r e s i d e n t of t h e UN

Genera l Assembly. The Americans never saw the s i t u a t i o n as

E v a t t ’ s p a r l i a m e n t a r y o p p o s i t i o n t en de d t o d e p i c t i t , namely

as t he e v i c t i o n of an unwanted i n t e r f e r e n c e i n A u s t r a l i a ’ s

dom es t i c a f f a i r s . E v a t t would have been only t oo g l a d t o

have t he Americans s t a y had they been p r e p a r e d t o m a i n t a i n

t h e base and g e t i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e f en ce of A u s t r a l i a , as ,

i n d e e d , the o p p o s i t i o n b e l i e v e d t he Americans t o have been.

Pe rhaps t h e more p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n t o ask i s

whe the r r e l a t i o n s between A u s t r a l i a and B r i t a i n were damaged

by E v a t t ’ s a t t e m p t t o ’’c u t o u t ” t h e UK i n n e g o t i a t i o n s over

Manus i n Ca nbe r r a , London and Wash ing ton . The answer must

s u r e l y be a n e g a t i v e one h e r e , as B r i t a i n a p p e a r s t o have

been unaware of such a t t e m p t s . Moreover , t he UK was

p r e p a r e d t o go t o b a t w i t h t he US ove r r e c i p r o c a l r i g h t s a t

American Samoa f o r a l l B r i t i s h Commonwealth c o u n t r i e s when

61

US i n t e r e s t i n Manus and Upolu had l a p s e d and only t he

B r i t i s h Canton, Ch r i s tm a s and Enderbe ry were be ing

c o n s i d e r e d . I nd eed , one of t he most i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s t o

emerge from a s tudy of t h e r e c o r d on t h e s e n e g o t i a t i o n s i s

t he e x t e n t t o which A u s t r a l i a , New Zea l and and B r i t a i n kep t

i n t ouch on t h e m a t t e r and f o r m u l a t e d a common p o l i c y on

de f en ce i n t he P a c i f i c . I t c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t he

view of t h e Commonwealth which E v a t t put f o r wa rd i n h i s

March 1946 survey of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s , was

s u b s t a n t i a l l y a c c u r a t e . For t he A u s t r a l i a n v i e w p o i n t

p r e v a i l e d a t t h e 1946 Prime M i n i s t e r s Con fe rence and had US

i n t e r e s t been m a i n t a i n e d E v a t t ’ s p o l i c y would undo ub t ed ly

have borne f r u i t .

The most i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , however , i s whe the r

E v a t t cou ld have r e t a i n e d a US p r e s en c e on Manus or more

g e n e r a l l y i n t h e South P a c i f i c ( g iv en t h a t t h i s was an

i m p o r t a n t goa l f o r bo th p a r t i e s a t t he t ime) by means of a22d i f f e r e n t app roach t o t h e one of " d i p l o m a t i c chu t zpah"

which he chose t o p u r s u e . With t he US a t t i t u d e be ing one of

wan t i ng t o see t h e i r b a s e s m a i n t a i n e d a t someone e l s e ' s

e x pe ns e , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t any government , e i t h e r Labor or

L i b e r a l , would have been a b l e t o p r e v e n t t h e USA from

w i t h d r aw i n g from the Sou th P a c i f i c a f t e r t h e war . As i t

was, E v a t t t r i e d and p e r h a p s came c l o s e r t o s u c c e s s t h an ha s

ever been acknowledged . What i s now c l e a r , t hough , i s t h a t

i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t anyone e l s e would have succeeded .

62

A Note on Sources

The following archival series were consulted:

A46 1 Correspondence files of the Prime Minister’s Department, series range 1934-50

A81 6 Correspondence files of the Department of Defence 1935-39, Department of Defence Co-ordination 1939-42, and Department of Defence 1942-57

A1 067 Correspondence files of the Department of External Affairs, 1945-46

A2031 Agenda items for meetings of the Defence Committee 1945-1950

A6494/T1 South Pacific Top Secret (SPTS) Series dealing specifically with the Pacific Bases issue, 1943-1952

When reference to archival sources is made the document, its date, the file it comes from and the series no. which that file comes from will be identified.

CPD and DEA have been used in the notes as abbreviations for Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates and Department of External Affairs respectively.

63

B i b i i o e r aphv

Books

B e l l , Roge r J . , Un e q u a l A l l i e s : A u s t r a l i a n - A m e r i c anR e l a t i o n s a n d t h e P a c i f i c W a r . M e l b o u r n e , 1 9 7 7 .

B e l l , C o r a l , D e p e n d e n t A l l y , ANU, C a n b e r r a , 1984

B u r t o n , J o h n , The A l t e r n a t i v e . S y d n e y , 1954

D a l z i e l , A l l a n , E v a t t t h e E n i g m a . M e l b o u r n e , 1967

E d wa r d s , P e t e r G. , P r i me M i n i s t e r s and D i p l o m a t s . OUP, 1983

E v a t t , H . V . , F o r e i g n P o l i c y o f A u s t r a l i a , S y d n e y , 1945______________ , A u s t r a l i a i n Wo r l d A f f a i r s . S y d n e y , 1946

G r a t t a n , C . H . , The U n i t e d S t a t e s a nd t h e S o u t h - We s t P a c i f i c . C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , 1961

H a s l u c k , P a u l , D i p l o m a t i c W i t n e s s : A u s t r a l i a n F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 7 . M e l b o u r n e , 1980

Hudson , W. J . , A u s t r a l i a n D i p l o ma c y , Sy d n e y , 1970

M i l l a r , T. B. , A u s t r a l i a ' s D e f e n c e P o l i c i e s . 1 945-1 9 6 5 . ANU, Canbe r r a , 1967

_______________ , A u s t r a l i a i n Pe a c e and W a r : E x t e r n a l R e l a t i o n s1788- 1 977 . C a n b e r r a , 1978

R e e s e , T . R . , A u s t r a l i a . New Z e a l a n d a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , OUP, 1969

R o s e c r a n c e , R . N . , A u s t r a l i a n Di p l o ma c y and J a p a n 1 9 4 5 - 5 1 . M e l b o u r n e , 1 962

S t a r k e , J . G . , The ANZUS T r e a t y A l l i a n c e , M e l b o u r n e , 1965

T e n n a n t , K y l i e , E v a t t : P o l i t i c s a n d J u s t i c e . S y d n e y , 1970

W a t t , A . S . , A u s t r a l i a n D e f e n c e P o l i c y . 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 6 3 . ANU, C a n b e r r a , 1964

____________ , A u s t r a l i a n D i p l o m a t . Sy d n e y , 1972_____________, The E v o l u t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a n F o r e i g n P o l i c y

1 93 8-1 965 . C a m b r i d g e , 1968

64

Articles

Edwards, Peter G., "Australian Foreign Policy in the 1930’s and 1940's:Probiems of Documentation" Australian Outlook, xxix, 1975, pp 335-40

__________________ , "Evatt and the Americans", HistoricalStudies, xviii, No.73, PP 546-560

Dedman, John, "Encounter Over Manus", Australian Outlook, xx, 1966, pp 135-153

T.B. Millar, "Anglo-Australian Partnership in Defence ofthe Malaysian Area", in Australia and Britain:Studies in a Changing Relationship, London, 1980, pp 72-86

65

Notes

Introduction

1. Manus, as an index heading, has a string of references after it in CPD volumes 180-220 covering the years 1945-1952.

2. R.N. Rosecrance, pp.57-66; T.R. Reese, pp.50-60, 144-5,291; J.G. Starke, pp.15—19-

3. John J. Dedman, "Encounter over Manus", Australian Outlook, xx,1966,pp.135-53

4. R.J. Bell, pp.159-172

5. A.S. Watt, Australian Diplomat, p. 1 85

6. R.J. Bell, p.145

7. See "A Note on Sources"

8. See Peter Edwards, "Australian Foreign Policy in the 1930’s and 1940’s:Probiems of Documentation",Australian Outlook, xxix,1975,pp.335-40

9. Hasluck,p.31

Chapter 1

1. The phrase is C.H. Grattan’s, p. 1 6 8.

2. A summary of the US 1 939 claims to islands in the Phoenix, Line and Ellice groups as well as those under New Zealand administration in the Samoa region was included as a note for the Minister for the January 1944 Australia-New Zealand Conference, SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1 .

3. Filenote, 25/1/44, SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1.

4. The course of the negotiations is described in a "Summary of Recent Information on Pacific Islands", a file note dated 18/11/43, SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1.

5. A copy of the memo, sent to all overseas R.A.F. commanders, on file, SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1.

6. P.G. Edwards, Prime Ministers and Diplomats, p.153•

7. SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1 .

66

8. Cable from Dixon to Evatt, 13/1/44, SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1. (Curiously R.J. Bell’s account of this, based on US archival material, attributes the suggestion to Australian initiative, in direct opposition to Dixon's reporting of the meeting, p.147.)

9. T.B. Millar, Australia in Peace and War, p.444.

10. A.S. Watt, The Evolution of Australian Foreign Policy, p. 7 4 .

11. Cable from Evatt to Curtin (in London for the Prime Ministers' Conference of 1944), 5/5/44, SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1 .

12. P.G.Edwards recounts Cordell Hull's real reaction as he conveyed it to Curtin in Washington in April, 1944, "Evatt and the Americans", pp.556-7.

13. Copies of Cordell Hull's formal response to the ANZAC Treaty and of Evatt's response to it are on file,3/2/44 and 24/3/44, SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1.

14. Evatt, Australia in World Affairs, p.157•

15. Evatt, Foreign Policy in Australia, p.173-

16. T.B. Millar asserts that Australia sought "a status in post-war security arrangements for the South-West Pacific out of proportion not only to her absolute (as distinct from per capita) wartime military contribution but also to her peacetime military capacity", Australia's Defence Policies, 1 945-65. p. 1 .

17. P.G. Edwards, op.cit. , p.557.

18. "Notes on Points Which Emerged in Australian-New Zealand Ministerial Talks in Wellington, November, 1944", SPTS/1/2, A6494/T1.

Chanter 2

1 . R.J. Bell, p.159

2. ibid, p.159

3. Cable from Chifley SPTS/1/3, A6494/T1

to General MacArthur, 31/8/45,

4. Cable from Eggleston, at the Australian Legation, Washington, to DEA, 6/9/45, SPTS/1/3, A6494/T1

5. File note, 23/3/46, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1

6 . R.J. Bell, P.160

67

7. File note, 27/8/45, 7/301/71, A816

8. Cable from Addison to Chifley, 22/11/45, SPTS/1/3, A6494/T1

9. ibid10. A departmental briefing bringing Evatt up-to-date on

the communications between Canberra and Wellington and London was only given to him on 11/1/46, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1

11. Cable from Addison to Chifley, 11/12/45, SPTS/1/3, A6494/T1. A copy of the cable is at Annex A.

12. Cable from Addison to Chifley, 11/12/45, SPTS/1/3, A6494/T1

13. Dedman, p. 1 41

14. Cable from Peter Fraser to Chifley, 17/12/45, SPTS/1/3, A6494/T1

15. Cable from DEA to Addison, 26/12/45, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1 and Cable from Eggleston to DEA, 27/12/45, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1

16. Cable from Dunk, Secretary, DEA, to Shedden, Department of Defence, 20/12/45, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1

17. Defence Committee Agendum Item No.504/1945, 24/12/45, Volume 16, A2031

18. Cable from DEA to Fraser, 27/12/45, SPTS/1/3, A6494/T1

19. Defence Committee Agendum Item No. 504/1945, Volume 16, A2031

20. ibid

21. See P.G. Edwards, Prime Ministers and Diplomats, p.176

22. Evatt*s actual phrase: he had formed the impression after discussions with Byrnes the previous October. Cable from Evatt to Addison, 12/1/46, SPTS/1/4,A6494/T1

23. Cable from Makin, in London, to Evatt, 19/1/46, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1

24. Memo on file, 19/1/46, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1

25. Cable from Makin to Evatt, 4/4/46, SPTS/1/4, A6494/T1

26. See Hasluck, p.235

68

2 7 . Q uo t e d i n a c a b l e f r om Makin t o E v a t t , 2 8 / 1 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 4 , A6494/T1

2 8 . C a b l e f rom E v a t t t o Makin , 2 9 / 1 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 4 , A6494/T1

2 9 . C a b l e f r o m C h i f l e y t o B e a s l e y , 2 1 / 2 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 4 , A6494/T1

30 . H a s l u c k , p .211

31 . A copy o f t h e m i n u t e s o f t h i s m e e t i n g w e r e r e c e i v e d i n C a n b e r r a , 1 2 / 3 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 4 , A6494/T1

3 2 . Dedman c l a i m s t h a t i t d i d s o , p . 1 4 6

3 3 . E v a t t , A u s t r a l i a n Wo r l d A f f a i r s , p p . 1 7 2 - 3

3 4 . A copy o f t h e d r a f t a g r e e m e n t and a t t a c h m e n t s i s a t Annex B.

3 5 . Sydney M or n i n g H e r a l d , 1 / 3 / 5 2

3 6 . Memo on f i l e , 2 0 / 3 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 4 , A6494/T1

3 7 . Dedman, p . 144

3 8 . i b i d

3 9 . A copy o f t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e m e e t i n g i s on f i l e , S P T S / 1 / 5 , A6494/T1

40 . i b i d

41. C a b l e f r o m C h i f l e y t o B e a s l e y , 2 1 / 2 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 4 , A6494/T1

42 . D e f e n c e C o m m i t t e e Agendum No. 1 3 2 / 1 9 4 6 , Volume 17 , A2031

43 . i b i d

4 4 . i b i d

C h a p t e r 3

1. A u s t r a l i a ’ s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e c e s s i o n o f B r i t i s h t e r r i t o r y i n t h e P a c i f i c may be t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f G r a t t a n ’ s a s s e r t i o n t h a t A u s t r a l i a p r e v e n t e d t h e US f r o m g a i n i n g s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r C h r i s t m a s I s l a n d . O t h e r w i s e t h e r e m a r k h a s no f o u n d a t i o n , G r a t t a n , p . 2 0 1

2 . UK C h i e f s o f S t a f f r e p o r t . Copy on S P T S / 1 / 1 , A6494/T1

3 . i b i d

4 . CPD, p . 1 5 5 9 , Volume 18 3 , J u l y , 1946

69

5. See T.B. Millar, Australia’s Defence Policies 1Q4S-1Q6S . ANU, Canberra, 1 967, p.9.

6. Dedman describes how difficult it was to get Australians to make sacrifices for the defence effort, p.135

7. T.B. Millar, op.cit. , pp.9-10

8. T.B. Millar, nAnglo-Australian Partnership in Defence of the Malaysian Area", p.78

9. See Chapter 2, pp.16-17.

10. T.R. Reese, p.57

11. See Grattan, p. 1 97

12. Cable from Evatt to Chifley, 8/5/46 SPTS/1/5, A6494/T1

13. ibid14. R.J. Bell, p.165

15. ibid, pp.164-5

16 . ibid, p.16517. Cable from Chifley to Evatt, 28/6/46, SPTS/1/5,

A6494/T1

18. Hasluck, pp.31-32

19. Cable from Evatt to Chifley, 12/6/46, SPTS/1/5,A6494/T1

20. Cable from Evatt to Chifley, 21/6/46, SPTS/1/5,A6494/T1

21. ibid

22. Cable from Chifley to Evatt, 28/6/46, SPTS/1/5,A6494/T1

23. Edwards, Prime Ministers and Diplomats, p.158

24. Cable from Evatt to Chifley, 21/6/46, SPTS/1/5,A6494/T1

25. Cable from Washington Legation to DEA, 22/6/46, SPTS/1/5, A6494/T1

26. Cable from Evatt to Chifley, 1/7/46, SPTS/1/5, A6494/T1

27. Cable from Evatt to Chifley, 19/7/46, SPTS/1/5,A6494/T1

70

2 8 . Memo t o E v a t t f rom F o r s y t h , 2 6 / 6 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 5 , A6494/T1

2 9 . C a b l e f r om C h i f l e y t o E v a t t , 2 8 / 6 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 5 ,A6494/T1

30 . C a b l e f r om E v a t t t o C h i f l e y , 1 9 / 7 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 5 ,A6494/T1

3 1 . T e n n a n t , p p . 2 0 2 - 2 0 4

3 2 . Dedman s e n t a n o t e t o E v a t t on 1 7 / 1 2 / 4 6 q u e r y i n g w h a t d e v e l o p m e n t s t h e r e had be en on t h e Manus i s s u e s i n c e he had i n f o r m e d C a b i n e t o f h i s t a l k s w i t h B y r n e s i n W a s h i n g t o n i n J u l y , S P T S / 1 / 5 , A6494/T1

3 3 . H a s l u c k , p . 3 2

3 4 . H a s l u c k , p p . 2 8 1 - 2

3 5 . Sydney M o r n i n g H e r a l d , 4 / 1 1 / 4 6

3 6 . Copy o f n o t e on f i l e , 1 2 / 1 2 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 5 , A6494/T1

3 7 . i b i d

3 8 . Note on f i l e , 1 7 / 2 / 4 7 , S P T S / 1 / 6 , A6494/T1

3 9 . D e f e n c e C o mm i t t e e Agendum N o . 2 7 0 / 1 9 4 6 , Volume 1 8 , A2031

4 0 . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was i n c l u d e d i n t h e Dedman n o t e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , 1 7 / 1 2 / 4 6 , S P T S / 1 / 5 , A6494/T1

C h a p t e r 4

1 . CPD, Vol 1 9 0 , p. 1 996 .

2 . Note l e f t by A d m i r a l D e n f i e l d , Ju n e 1 9 4 7 , S P T S / 1 / 6 , A6494/T1 .

3 . Dedman, p . 1 5 1 .

4 . C a b l e f r o m F r a s e r t o E v a t t , 1 3 / 7 / 4 7 , S P T S / 1 / 6 ,A 6 4 9 4 / T 1 .

5 . C a b l e f r om A d d i s o n t o E v a t t , 1 1 / 6 / 4 7 , S P T S / 1 / 6 ,A 6 4 9 4 / T 1 .

6 . F i l e n o t e , 1 5 / 2 / 4 9 , S P T S / 1 / 7 , A 6 4 9 4 / T 1 .

7 . F i l e n o t e , 1 8 / 6 / 5 0 , S P T S / 1 / 8 , A 6 4 9 4 / T 1 .

8 . S t a r k e , p. 1 1.

9 . i b i d , p . 2 0 .

i b i d , p . 21 .1 0 .

71

11 . i b i d , p. 2 1 .

12 . D a l z i e l , p . 4 0 .

13 . CPD, Vol 2 0 0 , 1 5 / 2 / 4 9 , p . 2 9 1 .

14 . E d wa r d s , " E v a t t and t h e A m e r i c a n s n , p p . 5 5 8 - 5 9 .

15 . B u r t o n , p . 9 7 .

16. Wa t t , A u s t r a l i a n D e f e n c e P o l i c y . 1 Q5 1 - 1 Q6 3 . p p . 1 3 - 1 4 .

17 . The C a n b e r r a T i me s , 1 1 / 8 / 5 2 .

18 . The Sydney Mo r n i n g H e r a l d , 2 2 / 8 / 5 2 .

19 . H a s l u c k , p . 2 1 .

2 0 . The p h r a s e i s C o r a l B e l l ’ s , p . 5 1 .

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lie foil low ing in o l i s t o f i r l r n d n in regere! to which th e U n i ted Ct a t e n ' U-oVermont ran i r e t h a t F r i t i r l i r r u j on Sen!! and :..a,‘',e?x>Trcritf-7 sh o u ld n igu on a g re e - ’.ant w i th the United. S ir t e e r / i t h - 5 r r r i n g t h e i r r e r p e c t i v o clr. i - o and reeo /nn lr j ng the r e v e r e i g n t y o f •t-lic. o n i te d . . t u bea. ' u r n f u t i . C aro l ine , I i u r a h i t u , u l;h

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,15th December, .946

AUSTRALIAN ARCHIVES /9 C L CRS < ITEM 6 P i s / , / ,

m

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An/meX ßD e s ooiclv

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Sir,With reference to my telegram Ko. 514, 1 hnre

the honour to enclose herewith the foil crying documente :(1) Kcnaornndum frort. the Department of Stete, express­

ing n derIre for informal eorrrorsationr. with representatives of the Australian (knrernmont with reepeet to bases right© in the Adrdmlty Islands;

(S) A preliriimry draft, of a proponed baser agreement between Australia and the United States;

(5) Draft cf certain clcuaes which the United Sts toe fools should be included in any Trusteeship agroeTwmt covering the Adnimlty Islrnds.The iwmorandum end attachments have not been

<31 sen seed in euy way with the United Stater authorities*

t oPiOVoa

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£Su

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I hare the honour to be,Uith the highest cone id erst ion,

Sir,Tour obedient servant,

The Right Honourable n.T. yvntt, Kiniotor for External Affaire, Canberra, A.C.T.,Australia*

Seorcty r n i b \ m w . r

The Department of State would be happy to enter intoinformal comrersstions with reprerentativee of the AustralianGorornment at an early convenient opportunity with respect to thedesire of the United states to obtain in the Admiralty Inlandslong-term base rights to bo shared Jointly with Australia*^ ---- :----------- ----- --- ■ ' ------ —-

The United states has taken note of Australia** expressed intention of placing the mandated territory of Der Guinea within the Trusteeship SyCtwn of the united Kations* The United States assumes that it is th© intention of the Australian Government that Australia shall b© designated th© n drd.nlstoring authority over th© whole mandated territory of Brw Guinea in any trunteeshlp arrsnwamentf) worked out in ©eoar^anoe with the United Nations Charter* The United States regards Itself an n state directly concerned in the negotiation of any trusteeship agrcairrnt or agree©!©nt» ocverlxxß the mandated territory of Hew Guinea*

In lit» with the foregoing, there ©re attached two documents which erpress certain views td th reference to long-term bee© rights in the Admiralty Islands, both of which documents are informal vcmkingpapera and arc not to be considered as ©rpreesing at this tirTo the final viewr of the United States Gowumneni*

The first such document is a preliminary draft of a proposed base agreement between Australia end the United State«relative to base rights in the Admiralty Ir,lands.

Th* «eoood eoeuRmt I«s « dm f t o f e e r tr in eleu**» which the Italted r to te r f r e if should be laclorüei ir e rrr truetoofiMT fifri-eonont e*7ceriof; th e A te l m3, t y I d e n ie# There ©Xrur.er f I t r i l l hr r o t e l , r e ln te y r lm r i ly to ee eo r ity » e tte r r * The UrdtM f t o t e r , .of ecmrn«, rooorrro the r ls h t to exprese i t r rltvr* with. roferrrmf,

^to enr n sp e e is c f nny prafoeefl,trar>t«eiship e*aree»ent or errrewsur&s for th e fmnfated te r r ito r y o f Kow Cultton*

The D epertR eet e f C te tc t r i l l w elecre « ft «ejrly e rp re s s Io n cf th e rJ.ewß o f th # A ustra liern OwetraeiJfc cooeo rrd rr, th e fo re e e in g qtteetSem u 1 t w i l l he to d ieeoen th e re m t t e r c in fo rc sn liyr i t h repreoerffcstiw es e f A u s t r a l i a whonoTor ec irren le n t*

A t t a e h m e t r :

Two ir r fo x n d deeor»??tr> n s d e s c r i b e d e b e r e #

DeprLrtnvorit e f s t e t e , trsh iro tem , JSareh 314 9 Xt4d

AUSTRALIAN ARCHIVES /? C f ’ CRS /9 T ITEM V/

In ore1 f r th a t ih r Unite*? S te te r an?. /.vr-trr.l.Vn r.ey phrrr r e s p o n s ib i l i t y fo r the a p frn w o f the d n lm liy i f lm d ? end fo r

- th e e r te b llr h r ^ n t* r t i l i n n l i o n and irn irten n m f ©' r i l l U>rr be ear thereon* I t l r r u t u r lly rrreeG. b eteeen ihr t*» OoTsrwnentf th a t

V)

S

topc:uVoto62£o5g5Mta<

1* Th© A drdrclty 7 Fiends are to be declared a rtratepj.©©roß I the lyryprephle U n it e <*? mch e m err t

latitude 1* ST* South end ?C 10» South ©nd longitude 14$l 50» Fart nn* Idn 1 0 » F art.

£ . lireept pa provided ln pnvrrrnph ? o f t h is agr©«*ant* / /the ©ree defined in pare graph 1 o f Anar? a end the fnc H i t l e r thereon rhe.ll not be mode evn lln b le to th e errsed. forr»r r f another government w ithout / the eonront r f /u e tr a l la end th e United r, toter,* - / /

S« The United S ta to r , J o in tly r l th An f t r o l l» , poo se m e s r ig h ts

(e ) t© ©©«ropy, m ln t r in , Irtnrore, operate end ©orstrol the m v o l bone p resen tly ertn b llrh ed on Haxms. * m ilita r y a ir be re (borate) on Less Baryon* m ilita r y a ir fo o l 11 t in e r t P ity l.o i* JPonnni, end I.raibmn* and m ilita r y b*ses a t roch other n itr e ©n Ksnoa In lan d , r«*ndl«r Hnrbor, and the fidjnornt land aresn «« ray fron tlr»o to tim e be MTtnnlly arm ed upon;

(b) to in s ta l l* meinte In, operate and con tro l a t lo e r t lo n s w ith in the Admiralty Inlands t o be emt n e l ly ©greed or©©, fan i l l t i e r fo r defense* in* eluding wirrilnc erntetna, r e n t ie r rep ortin g , © nrm oientlon and a Id n to » « f j ^ t lo n t

(e ) to opera te m ilita ry © reft, inoludinr: a ircra ft*verm in* rod v e h ic le s In to , through, ©vr>r and ©ray fran. the Admiralty Ielanda without r o n tr le t lm irreert e s rsrtunlly e greed nronj end

(&) to n t l l l r e the p ort, tran sportation and e<rersml-e s t ie n fp c il.lt le i? In th e Admiralty Islan d s rronlred In th e r re rc le e of th© r ig h ts accorded, end to Inet« 11 and improve m»h a a ray bn m utually agreed upon*

4* The United r to to s porposate r ich te

(©) to Impart, s ta t io n , rt.rre In ©r remora from theAdmiralty I rl • rr'; r., jr r r m n e l, »a te r If 1 and w ipplle» required In th e ©Terelse ©T the r lfh tr eecordod, fr e e crT cnrtcrrte, d n tle c , taten* and ir.roe tc c f anykind;

(b) to bar© er© l»«!re Jryr In d ic t Ion ever United s ta te s r l l i t a r y j ^ t n m ^ r X preornt In the Admiralty laland« In the «7 ere ir e ©f the r lr h tr aecerded. (In th e United rtet.es v ier* th in p-olnt vcnsld. b© eofared by United S ta tes r lr h te under in tern a tio n a l lira* but the in©Inn Ion o f t^Ia rpeclfl© prorla lon n leh t be d esirab le*}

r». rlth reeeeot t o the a lread y er la tin#» m ilita ry In e tn l- le t lo n r in th e /d r lr a l t y lr len d e, e l l o f rh lch have been b u ilt by the United r tn tac w ith the approve! o f the

MiThe 0©rernj»errtf cf *ht V>vS f-tstes er/ the Cerwronweeltl

©f A u n tm iis , trk inr p«t{ ct thr rrr^^ftee-j intrntJ ©i c f thr ftcrem« r^rt c f A©rstrt.lSß te tr Ks cyproprirtr r tc jr for y lreln" ihr m n - dated te r r ito r y o f Kee Guinea m ithin the trwfiteerhlp ereterr. ir eeeortirmer trllix A rtic le TT c f the United lo t io n s C hertrr, end ÄaerJLnp: l t d esirab le ln the in te r e s tn of 1 nt.crns11 err 1 pence k &&eectrrity t h a t . t h e Gcrrcrr^cnt c f the U nitcd ft* te r . »hotilr share__jointly elth /urtrallg the rirhtr er* ©Mifrtionn fpecif IrdT in enner. A cf ihiß rgrenzest erith reftpeet t© Rillt*ry barer erd fRCilit3.es in the /dnirnlty Ißlnn’r, «pr? :

1« That tmder ih« to m r of the Tr»?teer.hip agreerent to benefXJtfntrd by the r t e t e s d ir e c t ly «©neeroed ln ecoorflanee r l th / r t i c l o r TT emd 81 of th e Charter* /n r tr a l i* » h e ll be derirn^ted es edrslnleteriiv; «mtherrlty ©f the trw *t t e r r ito r y end th et A n rtrr lie ß h o ll her© Rwthorlty to ©rtnbllnh en5 e r e c t euch m ilita ry inrt.n ll e t 5one in the Admiralty IcIAndß er* r*y be e greed upon by the Oefeernemto o f A u stra lia end th e United, S te te s , to rrhe pro- r ie io n fo r the se c u r ity o f etteh in s t a l l ot lorn , end to eonclude such Rgr©*rerte a lth the United S te ter re may be neeesecry fo r the ex er - e l s e by the United Sinter, of the r ig h ts end © hllrytione c r e e lf ie d in Annex a ©f th ie figroonent.

8* That order the terms o f such Traoteoehlp nrreerent th eerees ©ortotning tbeer toner end f r e i l i t l e p e h n ll be declared © t t r v t ^ S c nrer ; tho be res end f a c i l i t i e s th ere in may be »ode

"rye 1.1 n h le tc T T h e Security Council by A w etralic « p edrvird stor in g en th o r ity , v ith tho rprroTAl_.cf the United r io te r In eoch Inrtenor, in r or orf!«nc'o elfTT^rtf.f r prrmer>t or rrrpr-^nt n j'U rim lj;' rsoy srihe order / / r t ie l e 43 o f the U nited Rations Charter,

S, Thet the Aostrellen Gorrrrrwnt rill expedite thenoertlntion of each Trusteeship ofrreerent*

4, That the Ueyernennt of the United Ptetes, In Tier ofits direct concern, r ill tn)re *t»eh steps es ry b° eppre.prirt* t© further the prorrt ooncltir ion. of root Trusteeship ©ffreenmt.

5« That- tho two Goycrrrmmtn r i l l reech agreement on thet.err.e of foieh Trnrbeerhlp erreerrert, end , bay!nr. done no, t r i l l «'rr**r net to concent to the t c m im t lo n , © Iteration , or nraondrent c f eoch Tm rtoerhip efpreewerrt rith«r?t prior oereererrt bet-roon th<wr»«^clrea ,

6, Ttot the present eprem ent elm.ll enter in to force eponr o t i f i e o t ic n by the United S ta ter end the Corrwmenlth o f /e r t r e j in , in eeorrdnnce n ith th e ir ren p eetlre r o n s t itn t io r a l yrooeneer, cm rh n ll contirrpe in fc r e c f o r PT yeorr oral for r>*eb frrrthrr t in e or rrr be vm tnally e r r e e i upon, tm leer proTlemaly f iltered , erm ded, or terrains ted by jrrt’in l con sen t.

IAUSTRALIAN ARCHIVES /? CT" CRS T < ITEM

, A ttfrtra llrn O fT crn am t e t th f «r^pcnre r f tb e Thalte3 f t o t e s , / / th e AnrtrrJd r-.r C-nrcrnrrrd ttr? cr t-h r^ tc? «re t nt r-ln r t I t */ / frri ernennf Euch c f there «•?.* » t lr f rdJ It^ry Inet* I I» t l err

I fts fir? p+cffttn ry in the pp l ip o n c f th e f>rrrg»^rl^tf r i l l t •I r r r er th o rl 11 f f c f ~Tfrc t.y- eotmfrrS> c ; r i th rcapcct tc

cny m i t i e n a l r l l i t a r y in e t* lle tjo n p end f a c i l i t i e s in the AörJLrrilty Ielnndfc, the tr*?o f-w fr w ',r)tf undertake tc e r te i lI c h end Er-.lntnin. ery rr.ch ln ? t o l l s t loan rrtö f * e i l - i t l r n In aeeorfltmc© r l th plcne rnjtu*lly arrrcd upon, the c o r ts c f cstakliehTscnt «nfl je''Interim ne to he home by the Ocnreriwer't: prtrpoeluy the con n tm etlon o f the in* o tn lln t io n er f a c i l i t y concern,«*!, ercep t ett o th erriee cßTecA tzpon.

f# The Gorernraent -cf th e Unitcd fitste» »h a ll hr. re th e r ie h t , [j l f In I t s JurtrTnent ecnU tlon e e t the i ir .e mir? rrueh a ctio n reeacanry, to aeetzro con tro l npon dee n o tS fle - c t io n to the /.«*» t r o l le n n n tb o r it le r , c f nrnr <or a l l o t th e r d lito r y iR r te llo t io n s end f a c i l i t i e s ln the ACrJralty Ir lrn d n , rmeh co n tro l to continue fo r euch tlr*n or the United Utatee considers neceermryi the United ftntefs flwclertnlref» to pny the expense c f the r*» ln i et**» ne* cf ench ! j 1 nein l l n t Ions nw5 f a c i l i t i e s dnrlnr etteh period o f tersper- ' cry con tro l »57 the Unit©! ft* to e* //

? . The United ftn teft 1» not toerehr ccn r lttcd to w iin ta ln r d lltn r y force« or f n c l l l t i c e In th e /« i-d m lty I e le n ls ■nhon in I tc Judsrseni such m ilita ry force« or f a c i l i t i e s ere not necceeerp*

AUSTRALIAN ARCHIVES /) C T CRS A b C f C^ / j <ITEM

1» Definition e f AAjrfrrlty lelenAr r .r r ©trrt*r.If r r© vlti her erlest

o c1 Z0i enÄ P 10♦ f w ih la t itu d e ,

ldf> PO* and ld£C 10* w eh lo n g itu d e .

£, tVerlfjwtlon of Austir-li© * 0 ednlnl© taring outhnrd %y r f th© trart. territory.

S . A eines© or ele«©e© plrlnr: Aattrali© fü ll lef-inlrtlTe end edrrJLnl«trot!.To control ln tb© trust territory ©abject only be thr yrmriBlon© of the Charter of the United Ußtlono «ni the terete of the Trorteenhip ©«roersent. The clear1© or eletme» should b© iso ärem ©8 to siebe i t «leer Ihnt the United btote* por.sennee ne respcrnnlbilltier. rlohte, or jxrrerr rit.h rorpeot to th© nämini ehre tlon of th© territory ©öd Its inhabitorvto. /

4 . The eärlnieterinr Authority mev esttobllBh, ssrinteln, end control ©aoh fcasee, fa c ilit ie s , erd forces, rnd rvtr.hmw5no.ro© for their ©eeoTity, ©r i t mey Offen neoe©B''ry or deritvble in th© troet territory.

5 . fceihinr: ln th in Truetoeehip ©freement » h a ll preclude th©© drinint er Ins eetthordty fror, reinteinlnc exintlnr ©F«N*s/ents end entering Into each «dditlorwOL errcftrert© n© i t n y deem neeeronry or deeirsbl© Idth ©nether jp«mber of th© United BetloTie rith reryeot to ©bering richte of oeettpetlon ©nd operation, and reopen?lbllity for the ©ptebliehmort, n&lnt».- en©e end control of exist 1»$ or ©ddlt.Ienel n illtrry ben©« end fa c ilit ie s in the tract territory ( i .e . th© Admiralty IrleM© etrsterJc er«e), proride*, horrrer, tlv*t no pneh ©pyeorente fhs.ll preclude th© offer of each be see, ©rv! fa c ilitie s to the i;ectrrlty Cnnrcil erf the United PstlOn» on Its ©ell,

6, The fasendment, ©It ere tier, or termimtior» of this Traeteeehlp npreor*?*nt ©hell be only by noenirw?«* erreerert of th© ©in»r©* tor lee ( i . e . the ©toter direotly o enoeroed), ©abject to th© epporoT?;! of th© f«rori ty Council.

AUSTRALIAN ARCHIVES A C r CRS A b ^ ( f f T ITEH