300 CONROY ET AL

300

JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 13 300ndash322 2001Copyright copy 2001 by the Association for Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology1041-320001 $1200 + 00

Evaluative Criteria and ConsequencesAssociated with Failure and Success for

Elite Athletes and Performing Artists

DAVID E CONROY

The Pennsylvania State University

ARTUR POCZWARDOWSKI

St Lawrence University

KEITH P HENSCHEN

University of Utah

Fears of failure and success are widely regarded as salient threats to performancein a variety of domains yet scientific understanding of these constructs is still inits infancy Sixteen elite athletes and performing artists participated in in-depthinterviews to shed light on the nature of the cognitive-motivational-relationalappraisals associated with these fears Results revealed distinct criteria for evalu-ations of failure and success as well as the perceived consequences of failure andsuccess It was concluded that the criteria used to evaluate failure and success aresufficiently distinct to suggest that perceptions of failure and success should notbe thought of as a bipolar phenomenon The consequences of failure and successwere used to form multidimensional models of fear of failure and fear of success

Fear can be a fascinating and powerful emotional response to failure or suc-cess Fear of failure (FF) and fear of success (FS) have somewhat controversialhistories in the social and behavioral sciences perhaps due in part to the lack of aunified theory to frame these constructs A meta-theory of emotion would provide

Manuscript submitted 20 March 2000 revision received 20 August 2000This research was supported by a faculty seed grant from the University of Utah to the

third authorAddress correspondence to David E Conroy Department of Kinesiology 267 Rec Hall

The Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802-5702 Email David-Conroypsuedu

301FAILURE AND SUCCESS

a useful framework to guide research into these kinds of emotional responses tofailure and success

A Theory of Emotion

The cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion (Lazarus 1991 1999)is a very comprehensive theory of emotion that has gained acceptance and popu-larity in recent years According to this theory emotions are associated with cog-nitive-motivational-relational appraisals that summarize how perceived changesin onersquos relationship to the environment affect onersquos ability to accomplish onersquosgoal(s) For the constructs of interest in this paper (ie FF and FS) the relevantperceived relational change is a perception of failure or success in a performance

Perceptions of Relational Changes

According to Duda (1993) ldquothe ways in which sport participants define per-sonal success and judge their level of competence coincide with their overall mo-tives for being thererdquo (p 429) A number of systems exist to classify the needs thatmotivate human behavior For example Murray (1938) studied 50 males and pro-posed a list of 30 needs that motivate human behavior (eg achievement affilia-tion infavoidance [to name but a few]) Later Maslow (1970) presented a smallerlist of needs organized into a hierarchy of importance beginning with those re-quired for survival (eg physiological and safety needs) and progressing throughbelongingness esteem aesthetic and cognitive needs before peaking with the needfor self-actualization More recently Ryan and Deci (2000a 2000b) argued thatneeds for autonomy competence and relatedness are ldquoessential for facilitatingoptimal functioningrdquo (Ryan amp Deci 2000b p 68) Although the generalizabilityof these needs to specific achievement contexts remains to be determined percep-tions of failure or success may be determined by how well performersrsquo needs aremet more than by either the level of performance alone or the orientation perform-ers take in evaluating their competence

It would be extremely difficult to determine what needs performers are attempt-ing to fulfill in a performance but a close proxy for this information might beaccessed by determining specific examples of criteria performers use to evaluatewhether they failed or succeeded Furthermore it seems unlikely that these evalu-ative criteria are invariant between individuals or even between seemingly similarperformance domains For example performing artists could use different criteriafor evaluating their failuresuccess than athletes Such knowledge would be valu-able because it could shed light on the importance of context in understandingemotional responses to failure and success Thus research is needed to clarify ifand how the factors that influence perceptions of failuresuccess vary betweenperformance domains such as the arts and sport

Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Appraisals

Once individuals perceive relational changes indicating failure or success theymust appraise how those changes affect their ability to accomplish their goals

302 CONROY ET AL

before experiencing an emotion1 In this appraisal individuals determine (a) whethertheir goals are impacted by the perceived relational change (b) which of theirgoals are impacted and (c) how important achieving those goals is to them Col-lectively the cognitive-motivational-relational appraisals for each emotion can berepresented by a core relational theme (CRT) For example the CRT for fear isthat one is ldquofacing an immediate concrete physical dangerrdquo the CRT for anxietyis that one is ldquofacing an uncertain existential threatrdquo (Lazarus 1991 p 122) TheseCRTs appear to be consistent with the worry that Liebert and Morris (1967) distin-guished as characteristic of anxiety Wigfield and Eccles (1990) identified a needto understand the specific content of worries associated with anxiety Similarlythe FF and FS domains may be clarified by distinguishing the threatening or aver-sive consequences associated with failure and success respectively

Fear of failure Birney Burdick and Teevan (1969) were the first behavioralscientists to note that it is ldquothe possibility of nonattainment of an achievementstandard [which] can produce fear If we are to understand why nonattainment isaversive we must know what results from nonattainmentrdquo (p 201) Based on areview of the literature and their own research Birney et al (1969) proposed thatthree general consequences of failure were associated with FF (a) devaluation ofonersquos self-estimate (b) non-ego punishment and (c) reduction in onersquos social value

Fear of devaluing onersquos self-estimate involves the threat of having to change(typically but not necessarily in a downward direction) onersquos beliefs about one-self Fear of non-ego punishment has similarly threatening consequences but thepunishments do not involve the performerrsquos self-estimate2 Finally fear of havinga reduced social value involves the threat that others will not perceive a performeras valuable According to Birney et al (1969) a performerrsquos perceptions of thelikelihood of these consequences will be directly related to her or his fear of fail-ure Although it is easy to understand how failure might be threatening the threat(s)presented by success may be subtle because success is so widely viewed as desir-able

Fear of success Based on their early experiences consulting with athletesOgilvie and Tutko (1966) introduced a complementary notion of ldquosuccess pho-biardquo as a problem confronting some performers3 Ogilvie (1968) outlined five FS

1 Lazarus (1991) described a process of primary and secondary appraisals used to an-swer this question but stated that the secondary appraisal was only relevant for certainemotions For the emotions most closely related to FF and FS (viz fear and anxiety) onlythe primary appraisal process is necessary Thus consideration of the appraisal process inthe present paper will be limited to the primary appraisal

2 As used by Birney et al (1969) the phrase ldquonon-ego punishmentrdquo is not meant toimply that the individual does not have an ego involvement in the transaction it simplymeans that the punishment is not to onersquos self-estimate

3 Shortly after this publication Matina Horner (1968) completed her landmark disserta-tion on fear of success Discussion of Hornerrsquos work is excluded from the present reviewbecause a sport performance-specific discussion of FS is available (whereas a comparablesport-specific discussion of FF was not available)

303FAILURE AND SUCCESS

syndromes In the first syndrome athletes fear the social and emotional isolationthat accompanies success The second syndrome involves athletes who experi-ence guilt over asserting themselves in competition The third syndrome was thesubtlest in Ogilviersquos opinion but it may also be the most complex In this syn-drome athletes protect themselves from competition because they fear discover-ing their true potential These athletes are fearful of failing and generalize thatfear to success because failure and success are seen as opposite sides of the samecoin Withdrawing from competition or rationalizing onersquos ability are defensesagainst this fear Athletes who fear success also may develop anxiety about thepossibility of surpassing a previous record established by an admired performerThe final fear of success syndrome relates to the pressure of constantly having tomatch or exceed onersquos previous best performance to satisfy fans and the media

Both the Birney et al (1969) and Ogilvie (1968 Ogilvie amp Tutko 1966) mod-els implicitly acknowledge the importance of performersrsquo perceptions of the con-sequences of their performance Thus these existing models of FF and FS areconsistent with the contemporary cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emo-tion Neither of these models has been subject to empirical validation within thecontext of specific performance domains Additionally it is not known whetherthe FF and FS universes vary between performance domains (ie are the fearedconsequences of failing in sport similar to the feared consequences of failing inthe performing arts) Such information about the function of context in appraisalsis critical for individuals who wish to research or consult across performance do-mains Systematic research into the consequences of failure and success in spe-cific performance domains with defined populations may extend this knowledge

Purpose

The cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion provides a frameworkfor organizing existing research and informs our understanding of FF and FSBased on the literature reviewed above several research questions are apparentanswers to which would enhance our understanding of FF and FS First whatevaluative criteria are relevant for performersrsquo perceptions of failure or successSecond what aversive consequences have performers learned to be associatedwith failure and success An exploratory qualitative method was used to answerthese questions Results will be presented in two phases corresponding to each ofthese research questions

A third question concerned the transferability of these results across differentsocially-evaluative performance domains Despite the similar physical and mentaldemands of athletic and artistic performance differences in the longevity of per-forming careers and the subcultures (eg values roles norms) of sport and thearts could influence the criteria used to evaluate failuresuccess and the conse-quences associated with failuresuccess Performance feedback in sport is muchmore overt and objective (eg scores times distances) than is feedback on artis-tic performance (eg feedback from an audience directors critics colleagues) Itis important to understand the role and contribution of performance context in-

304 CONROY ET AL

stead of assuming that the context does not influence emotional responses to per-formance Findings related to contextual differences will be included with the PhaseI and II results

METHOD

Participants

Eight elite athletes (four male four female) and eight elite performing artists(four male four female) older than 18 years of age voluntarily participated insemi-structured interviews that lasted an average of approximately two hoursAthletes in the sample competed in team (basketball American football volley-ball) and individual (archery golf gymnastics skeet shooting track and field [multi-event]) sports Participants were judged to be elite because the sample included aworld record holder an Olympic medalist (and multiple Olympian) two All-Ameri-can collegiate athletes an All-Conference collegiate athlete a World Champion-ship level competitor and two professional athletes Pairs of performing artists(one male one female) were sampled from the domains of dance (ballet) singing(opera) music (percussion and string bass) and acting Again the sample of per-forming artists was judged to be elite because six of the performing artists wereprofessionals with either national or international reputations and two were re-gionally-recognized professionals in training

Elite performers were selected for this study because they have invested sig-nificant time in the domain and the results of their participation can have powerfulconsequences on the rest of their lives In sum elite performers are likely to haveheightened ego-involvement in their performances compared to non-elite perform-ers and ego-involvement is a prerequisite for emotion according to the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion The domains of sport and the perform-ing arts were sampled because (a) both athletic and artistic performances integratephysical and mental performance in socially-evaluative settings and (b) manysport psychology consultants are beginning to cross boundaries between thesedomains in their practices (Hays 2000 Partington amp Orlick 1998) Six of theathletes and two of the performing artists had previously worked with a perfor-mance enhancement consultant

Materials

Interviews were videotaped using a tripod-mounted Sony Hi-8 camcorder(CCD-TRV65) with a Soundgrabber II external microphone (Crown Audio ElkhartIN) QSR NUDIST 4 (1997) and Microsoft Excel 97 software were used to fa-cilitate data management

Procedures

Pilot study After the Institutional Review Board approved study proceduresfor use with human participants a pilot study was conducted Two female athletes

305FAILURE AND SUCCESS

participated in pilot interviews that were used to focus the interview guide andimprove interviewing procedures Specifically investigators determined that (a)the interview guide could be shortened by reducing the number of questions aboutparticipantsrsquo pre- during- and post-performance routines (b) probes should beused to clarify the developmental roots of participantsrsquo emotional responses (c)resistance should be handled by addressing participantsrsquo feelings about respond-ing to the question before pursuing an answer to a question (d) participantsrsquo spe-cific words should be used when reflecting paraphrasing and summarizing re-sponses to stimulate further disclosure and (e) participants should be debriefedcompletely about the purposes of the study at the end of each interview to provideclosure on the experience

Sampling procedures Purposive sampling procedures (Patton 1990) were usedto recruit the athletes in the sample Because of the investigatorsrsquo limited contactsin the performing arts community snowball sampling procedures (Patton 1990)were used to recruit performing artists Existing relationships with insiders in theperforming arts community also were used to gain access to some of the perform-ing artists (cf Gamson 1995) These procedures allow for ldquoinformation-rich casesrdquo(Patton 1990 p 169) All participants were telephoned by one of the investiga-tors to request their participation in the study Everybody approached agreed toparticipate in the study Participants were given the choice of being interviewed atthe investigatorsrsquo laboratory (n = 9) or a location of their choosing (the participantrsquoshome n = 4 the participantrsquos studioofficepractice area n = 3)

Interviews The interviewers described the study to participants prior to eachinterview and reminded participants of the voluntary and confidential nature oftheir participation Participants then provided informed consent to participate inthe study The general interview guide approach (Patton 1990 Spradley 1979)was used to structure the interviews and two investigators were present for everyinterview4 When appropriate questions were followed by probes specific to theinformation shared by the participant No participants refused to answer any ques-tions in the interviews

Transcription Videotaped interviews were transcribed by two professional tran-scribers transcripts were an average of 304 single-spaced pages (SD = 68) in 12-point font Each interviewer watched eight of the videotaped interviews to checkthe accuracy of the transcripts Videotapes also were reviewed for non-verbal cuesthat would suggest additional meaning to the verbal data Any transcription errorswere corrected in this process and each member of the research team was thengiven a copy of the corrected transcript Researchers also gave participants a copyof the corrected transcript for partial member-checking purposes (Lincoln amp Guba1985) Seven participants indicated that their transcripts were accurate representa-tions of their experience and three returned feedback to clarify or expand on as-pects of their interview (six participants did not return any feedback on their tran-script) All comments received were integrated into the data set for reduction andanalysis

4 A copy of this interview guide is available upon request from the first author

306 CONROY ET AL

Analytic Procedures

Content analysis All three investigators read the 16 transcripts and markedmeaning units independently Although videotaping interviews permitted record-ing of non-verbal behaviors these behaviors did not appear to be especially infor-mative in the present study thus analyses were limited to the verbal content ofinterviews The first two authors used Miles and Hubermanrsquos (1994) linked sub-processes of data analysis involving (a) data reduction (b) data display and (c)conclusion drawing and verification In this process the two analysts coded theraw data from their independently-marked transcripts using the QSR NUDIST 4(1997) computer program Spradleyrsquos (1979) recommendations were followed forassessing the contextual meaning of data Disagreements between investigatorsabout the meaning of raw data units were discussed and agreements were negoti-ated Next the interviewers grouped similar raw data codes into meaning unitsand assigned meaning units names that were as close to the words used by theparticipants as possible The next stages in the analysis involved grouping mean-ing units into lower-order themes and then grouping lower-order themes intohigher-order themes To increase the transferability of results and lessen the possi-bility that results would simply reflect idiosyncrasies of single informants at leasttwo participants had to provide different meaning units for each lower-order theme(ie one participantrsquos narrative could not generate a lower-order theme by itself)When naming lower-order themes efforts were taken to keep the theme namesclose to the participantsrsquo language Two or more lower-order themes were re-quired to assemble a higher-order theme The investigators permitted themselvesto use the language of social science when needed to name higher-order themesThe third author served as a quasi-auditor throughout this data analysis process Asecond auditor who was not directly involved in the project but has experiencereviewing qualitative research also reviewed the analyses5

Writing and representation The process of writing and representation (Coffeyamp Atkinson 1996) deepened the analysis Following the collaborative effort of allthree researchers in the process of reconstructing participantsrsquo meanings the find-ings were clarified and contextualized Thus the referential adequacy of partici-pantsrsquo reports was considered to enhance the credibility (Lincoln amp Guba 1985)of this exploratory study

Trustworthiness

All of the outlined procedures were carried out using a team approach which inand of itself served as a major trustworthiness check In addition several tech-niques described by Patton (1990) were purposefully selected and contextually

5 The first author can upon request provide extensive appendices containing hierarchi-cally-organized lists of meaning units lower-order themes and higher-order themes for thecriteria associated with perceptions of failure criteria associated with perceptions of suc-cess consequences of failure consequences of success respectively including the identifi-cation numbers of participants reporting each meaning unit

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

301FAILURE AND SUCCESS

a useful framework to guide research into these kinds of emotional responses tofailure and success

A Theory of Emotion

The cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion (Lazarus 1991 1999)is a very comprehensive theory of emotion that has gained acceptance and popu-larity in recent years According to this theory emotions are associated with cog-nitive-motivational-relational appraisals that summarize how perceived changesin onersquos relationship to the environment affect onersquos ability to accomplish onersquosgoal(s) For the constructs of interest in this paper (ie FF and FS) the relevantperceived relational change is a perception of failure or success in a performance

Perceptions of Relational Changes

According to Duda (1993) ldquothe ways in which sport participants define per-sonal success and judge their level of competence coincide with their overall mo-tives for being thererdquo (p 429) A number of systems exist to classify the needs thatmotivate human behavior For example Murray (1938) studied 50 males and pro-posed a list of 30 needs that motivate human behavior (eg achievement affilia-tion infavoidance [to name but a few]) Later Maslow (1970) presented a smallerlist of needs organized into a hierarchy of importance beginning with those re-quired for survival (eg physiological and safety needs) and progressing throughbelongingness esteem aesthetic and cognitive needs before peaking with the needfor self-actualization More recently Ryan and Deci (2000a 2000b) argued thatneeds for autonomy competence and relatedness are ldquoessential for facilitatingoptimal functioningrdquo (Ryan amp Deci 2000b p 68) Although the generalizabilityof these needs to specific achievement contexts remains to be determined percep-tions of failure or success may be determined by how well performersrsquo needs aremet more than by either the level of performance alone or the orientation perform-ers take in evaluating their competence

It would be extremely difficult to determine what needs performers are attempt-ing to fulfill in a performance but a close proxy for this information might beaccessed by determining specific examples of criteria performers use to evaluatewhether they failed or succeeded Furthermore it seems unlikely that these evalu-ative criteria are invariant between individuals or even between seemingly similarperformance domains For example performing artists could use different criteriafor evaluating their failuresuccess than athletes Such knowledge would be valu-able because it could shed light on the importance of context in understandingemotional responses to failure and success Thus research is needed to clarify ifand how the factors that influence perceptions of failuresuccess vary betweenperformance domains such as the arts and sport

Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Appraisals

Once individuals perceive relational changes indicating failure or success theymust appraise how those changes affect their ability to accomplish their goals

302 CONROY ET AL

before experiencing an emotion1 In this appraisal individuals determine (a) whethertheir goals are impacted by the perceived relational change (b) which of theirgoals are impacted and (c) how important achieving those goals is to them Col-lectively the cognitive-motivational-relational appraisals for each emotion can berepresented by a core relational theme (CRT) For example the CRT for fear isthat one is ldquofacing an immediate concrete physical dangerrdquo the CRT for anxietyis that one is ldquofacing an uncertain existential threatrdquo (Lazarus 1991 p 122) TheseCRTs appear to be consistent with the worry that Liebert and Morris (1967) distin-guished as characteristic of anxiety Wigfield and Eccles (1990) identified a needto understand the specific content of worries associated with anxiety Similarlythe FF and FS domains may be clarified by distinguishing the threatening or aver-sive consequences associated with failure and success respectively

Fear of failure Birney Burdick and Teevan (1969) were the first behavioralscientists to note that it is ldquothe possibility of nonattainment of an achievementstandard [which] can produce fear If we are to understand why nonattainment isaversive we must know what results from nonattainmentrdquo (p 201) Based on areview of the literature and their own research Birney et al (1969) proposed thatthree general consequences of failure were associated with FF (a) devaluation ofonersquos self-estimate (b) non-ego punishment and (c) reduction in onersquos social value

Fear of devaluing onersquos self-estimate involves the threat of having to change(typically but not necessarily in a downward direction) onersquos beliefs about one-self Fear of non-ego punishment has similarly threatening consequences but thepunishments do not involve the performerrsquos self-estimate2 Finally fear of havinga reduced social value involves the threat that others will not perceive a performeras valuable According to Birney et al (1969) a performerrsquos perceptions of thelikelihood of these consequences will be directly related to her or his fear of fail-ure Although it is easy to understand how failure might be threatening the threat(s)presented by success may be subtle because success is so widely viewed as desir-able

Fear of success Based on their early experiences consulting with athletesOgilvie and Tutko (1966) introduced a complementary notion of ldquosuccess pho-biardquo as a problem confronting some performers3 Ogilvie (1968) outlined five FS

1 Lazarus (1991) described a process of primary and secondary appraisals used to an-swer this question but stated that the secondary appraisal was only relevant for certainemotions For the emotions most closely related to FF and FS (viz fear and anxiety) onlythe primary appraisal process is necessary Thus consideration of the appraisal process inthe present paper will be limited to the primary appraisal

2 As used by Birney et al (1969) the phrase ldquonon-ego punishmentrdquo is not meant toimply that the individual does not have an ego involvement in the transaction it simplymeans that the punishment is not to onersquos self-estimate

3 Shortly after this publication Matina Horner (1968) completed her landmark disserta-tion on fear of success Discussion of Hornerrsquos work is excluded from the present reviewbecause a sport performance-specific discussion of FS is available (whereas a comparablesport-specific discussion of FF was not available)

303FAILURE AND SUCCESS

syndromes In the first syndrome athletes fear the social and emotional isolationthat accompanies success The second syndrome involves athletes who experi-ence guilt over asserting themselves in competition The third syndrome was thesubtlest in Ogilviersquos opinion but it may also be the most complex In this syn-drome athletes protect themselves from competition because they fear discover-ing their true potential These athletes are fearful of failing and generalize thatfear to success because failure and success are seen as opposite sides of the samecoin Withdrawing from competition or rationalizing onersquos ability are defensesagainst this fear Athletes who fear success also may develop anxiety about thepossibility of surpassing a previous record established by an admired performerThe final fear of success syndrome relates to the pressure of constantly having tomatch or exceed onersquos previous best performance to satisfy fans and the media

Both the Birney et al (1969) and Ogilvie (1968 Ogilvie amp Tutko 1966) mod-els implicitly acknowledge the importance of performersrsquo perceptions of the con-sequences of their performance Thus these existing models of FF and FS areconsistent with the contemporary cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emo-tion Neither of these models has been subject to empirical validation within thecontext of specific performance domains Additionally it is not known whetherthe FF and FS universes vary between performance domains (ie are the fearedconsequences of failing in sport similar to the feared consequences of failing inthe performing arts) Such information about the function of context in appraisalsis critical for individuals who wish to research or consult across performance do-mains Systematic research into the consequences of failure and success in spe-cific performance domains with defined populations may extend this knowledge

Purpose

The cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion provides a frameworkfor organizing existing research and informs our understanding of FF and FSBased on the literature reviewed above several research questions are apparentanswers to which would enhance our understanding of FF and FS First whatevaluative criteria are relevant for performersrsquo perceptions of failure or successSecond what aversive consequences have performers learned to be associatedwith failure and success An exploratory qualitative method was used to answerthese questions Results will be presented in two phases corresponding to each ofthese research questions

A third question concerned the transferability of these results across differentsocially-evaluative performance domains Despite the similar physical and mentaldemands of athletic and artistic performance differences in the longevity of per-forming careers and the subcultures (eg values roles norms) of sport and thearts could influence the criteria used to evaluate failuresuccess and the conse-quences associated with failuresuccess Performance feedback in sport is muchmore overt and objective (eg scores times distances) than is feedback on artis-tic performance (eg feedback from an audience directors critics colleagues) Itis important to understand the role and contribution of performance context in-

304 CONROY ET AL

stead of assuming that the context does not influence emotional responses to per-formance Findings related to contextual differences will be included with the PhaseI and II results

METHOD

Participants

Eight elite athletes (four male four female) and eight elite performing artists(four male four female) older than 18 years of age voluntarily participated insemi-structured interviews that lasted an average of approximately two hoursAthletes in the sample competed in team (basketball American football volley-ball) and individual (archery golf gymnastics skeet shooting track and field [multi-event]) sports Participants were judged to be elite because the sample included aworld record holder an Olympic medalist (and multiple Olympian) two All-Ameri-can collegiate athletes an All-Conference collegiate athlete a World Champion-ship level competitor and two professional athletes Pairs of performing artists(one male one female) were sampled from the domains of dance (ballet) singing(opera) music (percussion and string bass) and acting Again the sample of per-forming artists was judged to be elite because six of the performing artists wereprofessionals with either national or international reputations and two were re-gionally-recognized professionals in training

Elite performers were selected for this study because they have invested sig-nificant time in the domain and the results of their participation can have powerfulconsequences on the rest of their lives In sum elite performers are likely to haveheightened ego-involvement in their performances compared to non-elite perform-ers and ego-involvement is a prerequisite for emotion according to the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion The domains of sport and the perform-ing arts were sampled because (a) both athletic and artistic performances integratephysical and mental performance in socially-evaluative settings and (b) manysport psychology consultants are beginning to cross boundaries between thesedomains in their practices (Hays 2000 Partington amp Orlick 1998) Six of theathletes and two of the performing artists had previously worked with a perfor-mance enhancement consultant

Materials

Interviews were videotaped using a tripod-mounted Sony Hi-8 camcorder(CCD-TRV65) with a Soundgrabber II external microphone (Crown Audio ElkhartIN) QSR NUDIST 4 (1997) and Microsoft Excel 97 software were used to fa-cilitate data management

Procedures

Pilot study After the Institutional Review Board approved study proceduresfor use with human participants a pilot study was conducted Two female athletes

305FAILURE AND SUCCESS

participated in pilot interviews that were used to focus the interview guide andimprove interviewing procedures Specifically investigators determined that (a)the interview guide could be shortened by reducing the number of questions aboutparticipantsrsquo pre- during- and post-performance routines (b) probes should beused to clarify the developmental roots of participantsrsquo emotional responses (c)resistance should be handled by addressing participantsrsquo feelings about respond-ing to the question before pursuing an answer to a question (d) participantsrsquo spe-cific words should be used when reflecting paraphrasing and summarizing re-sponses to stimulate further disclosure and (e) participants should be debriefedcompletely about the purposes of the study at the end of each interview to provideclosure on the experience

Sampling procedures Purposive sampling procedures (Patton 1990) were usedto recruit the athletes in the sample Because of the investigatorsrsquo limited contactsin the performing arts community snowball sampling procedures (Patton 1990)were used to recruit performing artists Existing relationships with insiders in theperforming arts community also were used to gain access to some of the perform-ing artists (cf Gamson 1995) These procedures allow for ldquoinformation-rich casesrdquo(Patton 1990 p 169) All participants were telephoned by one of the investiga-tors to request their participation in the study Everybody approached agreed toparticipate in the study Participants were given the choice of being interviewed atthe investigatorsrsquo laboratory (n = 9) or a location of their choosing (the participantrsquoshome n = 4 the participantrsquos studioofficepractice area n = 3)

Interviews The interviewers described the study to participants prior to eachinterview and reminded participants of the voluntary and confidential nature oftheir participation Participants then provided informed consent to participate inthe study The general interview guide approach (Patton 1990 Spradley 1979)was used to structure the interviews and two investigators were present for everyinterview4 When appropriate questions were followed by probes specific to theinformation shared by the participant No participants refused to answer any ques-tions in the interviews

Transcription Videotaped interviews were transcribed by two professional tran-scribers transcripts were an average of 304 single-spaced pages (SD = 68) in 12-point font Each interviewer watched eight of the videotaped interviews to checkthe accuracy of the transcripts Videotapes also were reviewed for non-verbal cuesthat would suggest additional meaning to the verbal data Any transcription errorswere corrected in this process and each member of the research team was thengiven a copy of the corrected transcript Researchers also gave participants a copyof the corrected transcript for partial member-checking purposes (Lincoln amp Guba1985) Seven participants indicated that their transcripts were accurate representa-tions of their experience and three returned feedback to clarify or expand on as-pects of their interview (six participants did not return any feedback on their tran-script) All comments received were integrated into the data set for reduction andanalysis

4 A copy of this interview guide is available upon request from the first author

306 CONROY ET AL

Analytic Procedures

Content analysis All three investigators read the 16 transcripts and markedmeaning units independently Although videotaping interviews permitted record-ing of non-verbal behaviors these behaviors did not appear to be especially infor-mative in the present study thus analyses were limited to the verbal content ofinterviews The first two authors used Miles and Hubermanrsquos (1994) linked sub-processes of data analysis involving (a) data reduction (b) data display and (c)conclusion drawing and verification In this process the two analysts coded theraw data from their independently-marked transcripts using the QSR NUDIST 4(1997) computer program Spradleyrsquos (1979) recommendations were followed forassessing the contextual meaning of data Disagreements between investigatorsabout the meaning of raw data units were discussed and agreements were negoti-ated Next the interviewers grouped similar raw data codes into meaning unitsand assigned meaning units names that were as close to the words used by theparticipants as possible The next stages in the analysis involved grouping mean-ing units into lower-order themes and then grouping lower-order themes intohigher-order themes To increase the transferability of results and lessen the possi-bility that results would simply reflect idiosyncrasies of single informants at leasttwo participants had to provide different meaning units for each lower-order theme(ie one participantrsquos narrative could not generate a lower-order theme by itself)When naming lower-order themes efforts were taken to keep the theme namesclose to the participantsrsquo language Two or more lower-order themes were re-quired to assemble a higher-order theme The investigators permitted themselvesto use the language of social science when needed to name higher-order themesThe third author served as a quasi-auditor throughout this data analysis process Asecond auditor who was not directly involved in the project but has experiencereviewing qualitative research also reviewed the analyses5

Writing and representation The process of writing and representation (Coffeyamp Atkinson 1996) deepened the analysis Following the collaborative effort of allthree researchers in the process of reconstructing participantsrsquo meanings the find-ings were clarified and contextualized Thus the referential adequacy of partici-pantsrsquo reports was considered to enhance the credibility (Lincoln amp Guba 1985)of this exploratory study

Trustworthiness

All of the outlined procedures were carried out using a team approach which inand of itself served as a major trustworthiness check In addition several tech-niques described by Patton (1990) were purposefully selected and contextually

5 The first author can upon request provide extensive appendices containing hierarchi-cally-organized lists of meaning units lower-order themes and higher-order themes for thecriteria associated with perceptions of failure criteria associated with perceptions of suc-cess consequences of failure consequences of success respectively including the identifi-cation numbers of participants reporting each meaning unit

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

302 CONROY ET AL

before experiencing an emotion1 In this appraisal individuals determine (a) whethertheir goals are impacted by the perceived relational change (b) which of theirgoals are impacted and (c) how important achieving those goals is to them Col-lectively the cognitive-motivational-relational appraisals for each emotion can berepresented by a core relational theme (CRT) For example the CRT for fear isthat one is ldquofacing an immediate concrete physical dangerrdquo the CRT for anxietyis that one is ldquofacing an uncertain existential threatrdquo (Lazarus 1991 p 122) TheseCRTs appear to be consistent with the worry that Liebert and Morris (1967) distin-guished as characteristic of anxiety Wigfield and Eccles (1990) identified a needto understand the specific content of worries associated with anxiety Similarlythe FF and FS domains may be clarified by distinguishing the threatening or aver-sive consequences associated with failure and success respectively

Fear of failure Birney Burdick and Teevan (1969) were the first behavioralscientists to note that it is ldquothe possibility of nonattainment of an achievementstandard [which] can produce fear If we are to understand why nonattainment isaversive we must know what results from nonattainmentrdquo (p 201) Based on areview of the literature and their own research Birney et al (1969) proposed thatthree general consequences of failure were associated with FF (a) devaluation ofonersquos self-estimate (b) non-ego punishment and (c) reduction in onersquos social value

Fear of devaluing onersquos self-estimate involves the threat of having to change(typically but not necessarily in a downward direction) onersquos beliefs about one-self Fear of non-ego punishment has similarly threatening consequences but thepunishments do not involve the performerrsquos self-estimate2 Finally fear of havinga reduced social value involves the threat that others will not perceive a performeras valuable According to Birney et al (1969) a performerrsquos perceptions of thelikelihood of these consequences will be directly related to her or his fear of fail-ure Although it is easy to understand how failure might be threatening the threat(s)presented by success may be subtle because success is so widely viewed as desir-able

Fear of success Based on their early experiences consulting with athletesOgilvie and Tutko (1966) introduced a complementary notion of ldquosuccess pho-biardquo as a problem confronting some performers3 Ogilvie (1968) outlined five FS

1 Lazarus (1991) described a process of primary and secondary appraisals used to an-swer this question but stated that the secondary appraisal was only relevant for certainemotions For the emotions most closely related to FF and FS (viz fear and anxiety) onlythe primary appraisal process is necessary Thus consideration of the appraisal process inthe present paper will be limited to the primary appraisal

2 As used by Birney et al (1969) the phrase ldquonon-ego punishmentrdquo is not meant toimply that the individual does not have an ego involvement in the transaction it simplymeans that the punishment is not to onersquos self-estimate

3 Shortly after this publication Matina Horner (1968) completed her landmark disserta-tion on fear of success Discussion of Hornerrsquos work is excluded from the present reviewbecause a sport performance-specific discussion of FS is available (whereas a comparablesport-specific discussion of FF was not available)

303FAILURE AND SUCCESS

syndromes In the first syndrome athletes fear the social and emotional isolationthat accompanies success The second syndrome involves athletes who experi-ence guilt over asserting themselves in competition The third syndrome was thesubtlest in Ogilviersquos opinion but it may also be the most complex In this syn-drome athletes protect themselves from competition because they fear discover-ing their true potential These athletes are fearful of failing and generalize thatfear to success because failure and success are seen as opposite sides of the samecoin Withdrawing from competition or rationalizing onersquos ability are defensesagainst this fear Athletes who fear success also may develop anxiety about thepossibility of surpassing a previous record established by an admired performerThe final fear of success syndrome relates to the pressure of constantly having tomatch or exceed onersquos previous best performance to satisfy fans and the media

Both the Birney et al (1969) and Ogilvie (1968 Ogilvie amp Tutko 1966) mod-els implicitly acknowledge the importance of performersrsquo perceptions of the con-sequences of their performance Thus these existing models of FF and FS areconsistent with the contemporary cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emo-tion Neither of these models has been subject to empirical validation within thecontext of specific performance domains Additionally it is not known whetherthe FF and FS universes vary between performance domains (ie are the fearedconsequences of failing in sport similar to the feared consequences of failing inthe performing arts) Such information about the function of context in appraisalsis critical for individuals who wish to research or consult across performance do-mains Systematic research into the consequences of failure and success in spe-cific performance domains with defined populations may extend this knowledge

Purpose

The cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion provides a frameworkfor organizing existing research and informs our understanding of FF and FSBased on the literature reviewed above several research questions are apparentanswers to which would enhance our understanding of FF and FS First whatevaluative criteria are relevant for performersrsquo perceptions of failure or successSecond what aversive consequences have performers learned to be associatedwith failure and success An exploratory qualitative method was used to answerthese questions Results will be presented in two phases corresponding to each ofthese research questions

A third question concerned the transferability of these results across differentsocially-evaluative performance domains Despite the similar physical and mentaldemands of athletic and artistic performance differences in the longevity of per-forming careers and the subcultures (eg values roles norms) of sport and thearts could influence the criteria used to evaluate failuresuccess and the conse-quences associated with failuresuccess Performance feedback in sport is muchmore overt and objective (eg scores times distances) than is feedback on artis-tic performance (eg feedback from an audience directors critics colleagues) Itis important to understand the role and contribution of performance context in-

304 CONROY ET AL

stead of assuming that the context does not influence emotional responses to per-formance Findings related to contextual differences will be included with the PhaseI and II results

METHOD

Participants

Eight elite athletes (four male four female) and eight elite performing artists(four male four female) older than 18 years of age voluntarily participated insemi-structured interviews that lasted an average of approximately two hoursAthletes in the sample competed in team (basketball American football volley-ball) and individual (archery golf gymnastics skeet shooting track and field [multi-event]) sports Participants were judged to be elite because the sample included aworld record holder an Olympic medalist (and multiple Olympian) two All-Ameri-can collegiate athletes an All-Conference collegiate athlete a World Champion-ship level competitor and two professional athletes Pairs of performing artists(one male one female) were sampled from the domains of dance (ballet) singing(opera) music (percussion and string bass) and acting Again the sample of per-forming artists was judged to be elite because six of the performing artists wereprofessionals with either national or international reputations and two were re-gionally-recognized professionals in training

Elite performers were selected for this study because they have invested sig-nificant time in the domain and the results of their participation can have powerfulconsequences on the rest of their lives In sum elite performers are likely to haveheightened ego-involvement in their performances compared to non-elite perform-ers and ego-involvement is a prerequisite for emotion according to the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion The domains of sport and the perform-ing arts were sampled because (a) both athletic and artistic performances integratephysical and mental performance in socially-evaluative settings and (b) manysport psychology consultants are beginning to cross boundaries between thesedomains in their practices (Hays 2000 Partington amp Orlick 1998) Six of theathletes and two of the performing artists had previously worked with a perfor-mance enhancement consultant

Materials

Interviews were videotaped using a tripod-mounted Sony Hi-8 camcorder(CCD-TRV65) with a Soundgrabber II external microphone (Crown Audio ElkhartIN) QSR NUDIST 4 (1997) and Microsoft Excel 97 software were used to fa-cilitate data management

Procedures

Pilot study After the Institutional Review Board approved study proceduresfor use with human participants a pilot study was conducted Two female athletes

305FAILURE AND SUCCESS

participated in pilot interviews that were used to focus the interview guide andimprove interviewing procedures Specifically investigators determined that (a)the interview guide could be shortened by reducing the number of questions aboutparticipantsrsquo pre- during- and post-performance routines (b) probes should beused to clarify the developmental roots of participantsrsquo emotional responses (c)resistance should be handled by addressing participantsrsquo feelings about respond-ing to the question before pursuing an answer to a question (d) participantsrsquo spe-cific words should be used when reflecting paraphrasing and summarizing re-sponses to stimulate further disclosure and (e) participants should be debriefedcompletely about the purposes of the study at the end of each interview to provideclosure on the experience

Sampling procedures Purposive sampling procedures (Patton 1990) were usedto recruit the athletes in the sample Because of the investigatorsrsquo limited contactsin the performing arts community snowball sampling procedures (Patton 1990)were used to recruit performing artists Existing relationships with insiders in theperforming arts community also were used to gain access to some of the perform-ing artists (cf Gamson 1995) These procedures allow for ldquoinformation-rich casesrdquo(Patton 1990 p 169) All participants were telephoned by one of the investiga-tors to request their participation in the study Everybody approached agreed toparticipate in the study Participants were given the choice of being interviewed atthe investigatorsrsquo laboratory (n = 9) or a location of their choosing (the participantrsquoshome n = 4 the participantrsquos studioofficepractice area n = 3)

Interviews The interviewers described the study to participants prior to eachinterview and reminded participants of the voluntary and confidential nature oftheir participation Participants then provided informed consent to participate inthe study The general interview guide approach (Patton 1990 Spradley 1979)was used to structure the interviews and two investigators were present for everyinterview4 When appropriate questions were followed by probes specific to theinformation shared by the participant No participants refused to answer any ques-tions in the interviews

Transcription Videotaped interviews were transcribed by two professional tran-scribers transcripts were an average of 304 single-spaced pages (SD = 68) in 12-point font Each interviewer watched eight of the videotaped interviews to checkthe accuracy of the transcripts Videotapes also were reviewed for non-verbal cuesthat would suggest additional meaning to the verbal data Any transcription errorswere corrected in this process and each member of the research team was thengiven a copy of the corrected transcript Researchers also gave participants a copyof the corrected transcript for partial member-checking purposes (Lincoln amp Guba1985) Seven participants indicated that their transcripts were accurate representa-tions of their experience and three returned feedback to clarify or expand on as-pects of their interview (six participants did not return any feedback on their tran-script) All comments received were integrated into the data set for reduction andanalysis

4 A copy of this interview guide is available upon request from the first author

306 CONROY ET AL

Analytic Procedures

Content analysis All three investigators read the 16 transcripts and markedmeaning units independently Although videotaping interviews permitted record-ing of non-verbal behaviors these behaviors did not appear to be especially infor-mative in the present study thus analyses were limited to the verbal content ofinterviews The first two authors used Miles and Hubermanrsquos (1994) linked sub-processes of data analysis involving (a) data reduction (b) data display and (c)conclusion drawing and verification In this process the two analysts coded theraw data from their independently-marked transcripts using the QSR NUDIST 4(1997) computer program Spradleyrsquos (1979) recommendations were followed forassessing the contextual meaning of data Disagreements between investigatorsabout the meaning of raw data units were discussed and agreements were negoti-ated Next the interviewers grouped similar raw data codes into meaning unitsand assigned meaning units names that were as close to the words used by theparticipants as possible The next stages in the analysis involved grouping mean-ing units into lower-order themes and then grouping lower-order themes intohigher-order themes To increase the transferability of results and lessen the possi-bility that results would simply reflect idiosyncrasies of single informants at leasttwo participants had to provide different meaning units for each lower-order theme(ie one participantrsquos narrative could not generate a lower-order theme by itself)When naming lower-order themes efforts were taken to keep the theme namesclose to the participantsrsquo language Two or more lower-order themes were re-quired to assemble a higher-order theme The investigators permitted themselvesto use the language of social science when needed to name higher-order themesThe third author served as a quasi-auditor throughout this data analysis process Asecond auditor who was not directly involved in the project but has experiencereviewing qualitative research also reviewed the analyses5

Writing and representation The process of writing and representation (Coffeyamp Atkinson 1996) deepened the analysis Following the collaborative effort of allthree researchers in the process of reconstructing participantsrsquo meanings the find-ings were clarified and contextualized Thus the referential adequacy of partici-pantsrsquo reports was considered to enhance the credibility (Lincoln amp Guba 1985)of this exploratory study

Trustworthiness

All of the outlined procedures were carried out using a team approach which inand of itself served as a major trustworthiness check In addition several tech-niques described by Patton (1990) were purposefully selected and contextually

5 The first author can upon request provide extensive appendices containing hierarchi-cally-organized lists of meaning units lower-order themes and higher-order themes for thecriteria associated with perceptions of failure criteria associated with perceptions of suc-cess consequences of failure consequences of success respectively including the identifi-cation numbers of participants reporting each meaning unit

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

303FAILURE AND SUCCESS

syndromes In the first syndrome athletes fear the social and emotional isolationthat accompanies success The second syndrome involves athletes who experi-ence guilt over asserting themselves in competition The third syndrome was thesubtlest in Ogilviersquos opinion but it may also be the most complex In this syn-drome athletes protect themselves from competition because they fear discover-ing their true potential These athletes are fearful of failing and generalize thatfear to success because failure and success are seen as opposite sides of the samecoin Withdrawing from competition or rationalizing onersquos ability are defensesagainst this fear Athletes who fear success also may develop anxiety about thepossibility of surpassing a previous record established by an admired performerThe final fear of success syndrome relates to the pressure of constantly having tomatch or exceed onersquos previous best performance to satisfy fans and the media

Both the Birney et al (1969) and Ogilvie (1968 Ogilvie amp Tutko 1966) mod-els implicitly acknowledge the importance of performersrsquo perceptions of the con-sequences of their performance Thus these existing models of FF and FS areconsistent with the contemporary cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emo-tion Neither of these models has been subject to empirical validation within thecontext of specific performance domains Additionally it is not known whetherthe FF and FS universes vary between performance domains (ie are the fearedconsequences of failing in sport similar to the feared consequences of failing inthe performing arts) Such information about the function of context in appraisalsis critical for individuals who wish to research or consult across performance do-mains Systematic research into the consequences of failure and success in spe-cific performance domains with defined populations may extend this knowledge

Purpose

The cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion provides a frameworkfor organizing existing research and informs our understanding of FF and FSBased on the literature reviewed above several research questions are apparentanswers to which would enhance our understanding of FF and FS First whatevaluative criteria are relevant for performersrsquo perceptions of failure or successSecond what aversive consequences have performers learned to be associatedwith failure and success An exploratory qualitative method was used to answerthese questions Results will be presented in two phases corresponding to each ofthese research questions

A third question concerned the transferability of these results across differentsocially-evaluative performance domains Despite the similar physical and mentaldemands of athletic and artistic performance differences in the longevity of per-forming careers and the subcultures (eg values roles norms) of sport and thearts could influence the criteria used to evaluate failuresuccess and the conse-quences associated with failuresuccess Performance feedback in sport is muchmore overt and objective (eg scores times distances) than is feedback on artis-tic performance (eg feedback from an audience directors critics colleagues) Itis important to understand the role and contribution of performance context in-

304 CONROY ET AL

stead of assuming that the context does not influence emotional responses to per-formance Findings related to contextual differences will be included with the PhaseI and II results

METHOD

Participants

Eight elite athletes (four male four female) and eight elite performing artists(four male four female) older than 18 years of age voluntarily participated insemi-structured interviews that lasted an average of approximately two hoursAthletes in the sample competed in team (basketball American football volley-ball) and individual (archery golf gymnastics skeet shooting track and field [multi-event]) sports Participants were judged to be elite because the sample included aworld record holder an Olympic medalist (and multiple Olympian) two All-Ameri-can collegiate athletes an All-Conference collegiate athlete a World Champion-ship level competitor and two professional athletes Pairs of performing artists(one male one female) were sampled from the domains of dance (ballet) singing(opera) music (percussion and string bass) and acting Again the sample of per-forming artists was judged to be elite because six of the performing artists wereprofessionals with either national or international reputations and two were re-gionally-recognized professionals in training

Elite performers were selected for this study because they have invested sig-nificant time in the domain and the results of their participation can have powerfulconsequences on the rest of their lives In sum elite performers are likely to haveheightened ego-involvement in their performances compared to non-elite perform-ers and ego-involvement is a prerequisite for emotion according to the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion The domains of sport and the perform-ing arts were sampled because (a) both athletic and artistic performances integratephysical and mental performance in socially-evaluative settings and (b) manysport psychology consultants are beginning to cross boundaries between thesedomains in their practices (Hays 2000 Partington amp Orlick 1998) Six of theathletes and two of the performing artists had previously worked with a perfor-mance enhancement consultant

Materials

Interviews were videotaped using a tripod-mounted Sony Hi-8 camcorder(CCD-TRV65) with a Soundgrabber II external microphone (Crown Audio ElkhartIN) QSR NUDIST 4 (1997) and Microsoft Excel 97 software were used to fa-cilitate data management

Procedures

Pilot study After the Institutional Review Board approved study proceduresfor use with human participants a pilot study was conducted Two female athletes

305FAILURE AND SUCCESS

participated in pilot interviews that were used to focus the interview guide andimprove interviewing procedures Specifically investigators determined that (a)the interview guide could be shortened by reducing the number of questions aboutparticipantsrsquo pre- during- and post-performance routines (b) probes should beused to clarify the developmental roots of participantsrsquo emotional responses (c)resistance should be handled by addressing participantsrsquo feelings about respond-ing to the question before pursuing an answer to a question (d) participantsrsquo spe-cific words should be used when reflecting paraphrasing and summarizing re-sponses to stimulate further disclosure and (e) participants should be debriefedcompletely about the purposes of the study at the end of each interview to provideclosure on the experience

Sampling procedures Purposive sampling procedures (Patton 1990) were usedto recruit the athletes in the sample Because of the investigatorsrsquo limited contactsin the performing arts community snowball sampling procedures (Patton 1990)were used to recruit performing artists Existing relationships with insiders in theperforming arts community also were used to gain access to some of the perform-ing artists (cf Gamson 1995) These procedures allow for ldquoinformation-rich casesrdquo(Patton 1990 p 169) All participants were telephoned by one of the investiga-tors to request their participation in the study Everybody approached agreed toparticipate in the study Participants were given the choice of being interviewed atthe investigatorsrsquo laboratory (n = 9) or a location of their choosing (the participantrsquoshome n = 4 the participantrsquos studioofficepractice area n = 3)

Interviews The interviewers described the study to participants prior to eachinterview and reminded participants of the voluntary and confidential nature oftheir participation Participants then provided informed consent to participate inthe study The general interview guide approach (Patton 1990 Spradley 1979)was used to structure the interviews and two investigators were present for everyinterview4 When appropriate questions were followed by probes specific to theinformation shared by the participant No participants refused to answer any ques-tions in the interviews

Transcription Videotaped interviews were transcribed by two professional tran-scribers transcripts were an average of 304 single-spaced pages (SD = 68) in 12-point font Each interviewer watched eight of the videotaped interviews to checkthe accuracy of the transcripts Videotapes also were reviewed for non-verbal cuesthat would suggest additional meaning to the verbal data Any transcription errorswere corrected in this process and each member of the research team was thengiven a copy of the corrected transcript Researchers also gave participants a copyof the corrected transcript for partial member-checking purposes (Lincoln amp Guba1985) Seven participants indicated that their transcripts were accurate representa-tions of their experience and three returned feedback to clarify or expand on as-pects of their interview (six participants did not return any feedback on their tran-script) All comments received were integrated into the data set for reduction andanalysis

4 A copy of this interview guide is available upon request from the first author

306 CONROY ET AL

Analytic Procedures

Content analysis All three investigators read the 16 transcripts and markedmeaning units independently Although videotaping interviews permitted record-ing of non-verbal behaviors these behaviors did not appear to be especially infor-mative in the present study thus analyses were limited to the verbal content ofinterviews The first two authors used Miles and Hubermanrsquos (1994) linked sub-processes of data analysis involving (a) data reduction (b) data display and (c)conclusion drawing and verification In this process the two analysts coded theraw data from their independently-marked transcripts using the QSR NUDIST 4(1997) computer program Spradleyrsquos (1979) recommendations were followed forassessing the contextual meaning of data Disagreements between investigatorsabout the meaning of raw data units were discussed and agreements were negoti-ated Next the interviewers grouped similar raw data codes into meaning unitsand assigned meaning units names that were as close to the words used by theparticipants as possible The next stages in the analysis involved grouping mean-ing units into lower-order themes and then grouping lower-order themes intohigher-order themes To increase the transferability of results and lessen the possi-bility that results would simply reflect idiosyncrasies of single informants at leasttwo participants had to provide different meaning units for each lower-order theme(ie one participantrsquos narrative could not generate a lower-order theme by itself)When naming lower-order themes efforts were taken to keep the theme namesclose to the participantsrsquo language Two or more lower-order themes were re-quired to assemble a higher-order theme The investigators permitted themselvesto use the language of social science when needed to name higher-order themesThe third author served as a quasi-auditor throughout this data analysis process Asecond auditor who was not directly involved in the project but has experiencereviewing qualitative research also reviewed the analyses5

Writing and representation The process of writing and representation (Coffeyamp Atkinson 1996) deepened the analysis Following the collaborative effort of allthree researchers in the process of reconstructing participantsrsquo meanings the find-ings were clarified and contextualized Thus the referential adequacy of partici-pantsrsquo reports was considered to enhance the credibility (Lincoln amp Guba 1985)of this exploratory study

Trustworthiness

All of the outlined procedures were carried out using a team approach which inand of itself served as a major trustworthiness check In addition several tech-niques described by Patton (1990) were purposefully selected and contextually

5 The first author can upon request provide extensive appendices containing hierarchi-cally-organized lists of meaning units lower-order themes and higher-order themes for thecriteria associated with perceptions of failure criteria associated with perceptions of suc-cess consequences of failure consequences of success respectively including the identifi-cation numbers of participants reporting each meaning unit

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

304 CONROY ET AL

stead of assuming that the context does not influence emotional responses to per-formance Findings related to contextual differences will be included with the PhaseI and II results

METHOD

Participants

Eight elite athletes (four male four female) and eight elite performing artists(four male four female) older than 18 years of age voluntarily participated insemi-structured interviews that lasted an average of approximately two hoursAthletes in the sample competed in team (basketball American football volley-ball) and individual (archery golf gymnastics skeet shooting track and field [multi-event]) sports Participants were judged to be elite because the sample included aworld record holder an Olympic medalist (and multiple Olympian) two All-Ameri-can collegiate athletes an All-Conference collegiate athlete a World Champion-ship level competitor and two professional athletes Pairs of performing artists(one male one female) were sampled from the domains of dance (ballet) singing(opera) music (percussion and string bass) and acting Again the sample of per-forming artists was judged to be elite because six of the performing artists wereprofessionals with either national or international reputations and two were re-gionally-recognized professionals in training

Elite performers were selected for this study because they have invested sig-nificant time in the domain and the results of their participation can have powerfulconsequences on the rest of their lives In sum elite performers are likely to haveheightened ego-involvement in their performances compared to non-elite perform-ers and ego-involvement is a prerequisite for emotion according to the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion The domains of sport and the perform-ing arts were sampled because (a) both athletic and artistic performances integratephysical and mental performance in socially-evaluative settings and (b) manysport psychology consultants are beginning to cross boundaries between thesedomains in their practices (Hays 2000 Partington amp Orlick 1998) Six of theathletes and two of the performing artists had previously worked with a perfor-mance enhancement consultant

Materials

Interviews were videotaped using a tripod-mounted Sony Hi-8 camcorder(CCD-TRV65) with a Soundgrabber II external microphone (Crown Audio ElkhartIN) QSR NUDIST 4 (1997) and Microsoft Excel 97 software were used to fa-cilitate data management

Procedures

Pilot study After the Institutional Review Board approved study proceduresfor use with human participants a pilot study was conducted Two female athletes

305FAILURE AND SUCCESS

participated in pilot interviews that were used to focus the interview guide andimprove interviewing procedures Specifically investigators determined that (a)the interview guide could be shortened by reducing the number of questions aboutparticipantsrsquo pre- during- and post-performance routines (b) probes should beused to clarify the developmental roots of participantsrsquo emotional responses (c)resistance should be handled by addressing participantsrsquo feelings about respond-ing to the question before pursuing an answer to a question (d) participantsrsquo spe-cific words should be used when reflecting paraphrasing and summarizing re-sponses to stimulate further disclosure and (e) participants should be debriefedcompletely about the purposes of the study at the end of each interview to provideclosure on the experience

Sampling procedures Purposive sampling procedures (Patton 1990) were usedto recruit the athletes in the sample Because of the investigatorsrsquo limited contactsin the performing arts community snowball sampling procedures (Patton 1990)were used to recruit performing artists Existing relationships with insiders in theperforming arts community also were used to gain access to some of the perform-ing artists (cf Gamson 1995) These procedures allow for ldquoinformation-rich casesrdquo(Patton 1990 p 169) All participants were telephoned by one of the investiga-tors to request their participation in the study Everybody approached agreed toparticipate in the study Participants were given the choice of being interviewed atthe investigatorsrsquo laboratory (n = 9) or a location of their choosing (the participantrsquoshome n = 4 the participantrsquos studioofficepractice area n = 3)

Interviews The interviewers described the study to participants prior to eachinterview and reminded participants of the voluntary and confidential nature oftheir participation Participants then provided informed consent to participate inthe study The general interview guide approach (Patton 1990 Spradley 1979)was used to structure the interviews and two investigators were present for everyinterview4 When appropriate questions were followed by probes specific to theinformation shared by the participant No participants refused to answer any ques-tions in the interviews

Transcription Videotaped interviews were transcribed by two professional tran-scribers transcripts were an average of 304 single-spaced pages (SD = 68) in 12-point font Each interviewer watched eight of the videotaped interviews to checkthe accuracy of the transcripts Videotapes also were reviewed for non-verbal cuesthat would suggest additional meaning to the verbal data Any transcription errorswere corrected in this process and each member of the research team was thengiven a copy of the corrected transcript Researchers also gave participants a copyof the corrected transcript for partial member-checking purposes (Lincoln amp Guba1985) Seven participants indicated that their transcripts were accurate representa-tions of their experience and three returned feedback to clarify or expand on as-pects of their interview (six participants did not return any feedback on their tran-script) All comments received were integrated into the data set for reduction andanalysis

4 A copy of this interview guide is available upon request from the first author

306 CONROY ET AL

Analytic Procedures

Content analysis All three investigators read the 16 transcripts and markedmeaning units independently Although videotaping interviews permitted record-ing of non-verbal behaviors these behaviors did not appear to be especially infor-mative in the present study thus analyses were limited to the verbal content ofinterviews The first two authors used Miles and Hubermanrsquos (1994) linked sub-processes of data analysis involving (a) data reduction (b) data display and (c)conclusion drawing and verification In this process the two analysts coded theraw data from their independently-marked transcripts using the QSR NUDIST 4(1997) computer program Spradleyrsquos (1979) recommendations were followed forassessing the contextual meaning of data Disagreements between investigatorsabout the meaning of raw data units were discussed and agreements were negoti-ated Next the interviewers grouped similar raw data codes into meaning unitsand assigned meaning units names that were as close to the words used by theparticipants as possible The next stages in the analysis involved grouping mean-ing units into lower-order themes and then grouping lower-order themes intohigher-order themes To increase the transferability of results and lessen the possi-bility that results would simply reflect idiosyncrasies of single informants at leasttwo participants had to provide different meaning units for each lower-order theme(ie one participantrsquos narrative could not generate a lower-order theme by itself)When naming lower-order themes efforts were taken to keep the theme namesclose to the participantsrsquo language Two or more lower-order themes were re-quired to assemble a higher-order theme The investigators permitted themselvesto use the language of social science when needed to name higher-order themesThe third author served as a quasi-auditor throughout this data analysis process Asecond auditor who was not directly involved in the project but has experiencereviewing qualitative research also reviewed the analyses5

Writing and representation The process of writing and representation (Coffeyamp Atkinson 1996) deepened the analysis Following the collaborative effort of allthree researchers in the process of reconstructing participantsrsquo meanings the find-ings were clarified and contextualized Thus the referential adequacy of partici-pantsrsquo reports was considered to enhance the credibility (Lincoln amp Guba 1985)of this exploratory study

Trustworthiness

All of the outlined procedures were carried out using a team approach which inand of itself served as a major trustworthiness check In addition several tech-niques described by Patton (1990) were purposefully selected and contextually

5 The first author can upon request provide extensive appendices containing hierarchi-cally-organized lists of meaning units lower-order themes and higher-order themes for thecriteria associated with perceptions of failure criteria associated with perceptions of suc-cess consequences of failure consequences of success respectively including the identifi-cation numbers of participants reporting each meaning unit

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

305FAILURE AND SUCCESS

participated in pilot interviews that were used to focus the interview guide andimprove interviewing procedures Specifically investigators determined that (a)the interview guide could be shortened by reducing the number of questions aboutparticipantsrsquo pre- during- and post-performance routines (b) probes should beused to clarify the developmental roots of participantsrsquo emotional responses (c)resistance should be handled by addressing participantsrsquo feelings about respond-ing to the question before pursuing an answer to a question (d) participantsrsquo spe-cific words should be used when reflecting paraphrasing and summarizing re-sponses to stimulate further disclosure and (e) participants should be debriefedcompletely about the purposes of the study at the end of each interview to provideclosure on the experience

Sampling procedures Purposive sampling procedures (Patton 1990) were usedto recruit the athletes in the sample Because of the investigatorsrsquo limited contactsin the performing arts community snowball sampling procedures (Patton 1990)were used to recruit performing artists Existing relationships with insiders in theperforming arts community also were used to gain access to some of the perform-ing artists (cf Gamson 1995) These procedures allow for ldquoinformation-rich casesrdquo(Patton 1990 p 169) All participants were telephoned by one of the investiga-tors to request their participation in the study Everybody approached agreed toparticipate in the study Participants were given the choice of being interviewed atthe investigatorsrsquo laboratory (n = 9) or a location of their choosing (the participantrsquoshome n = 4 the participantrsquos studioofficepractice area n = 3)

Interviews The interviewers described the study to participants prior to eachinterview and reminded participants of the voluntary and confidential nature oftheir participation Participants then provided informed consent to participate inthe study The general interview guide approach (Patton 1990 Spradley 1979)was used to structure the interviews and two investigators were present for everyinterview4 When appropriate questions were followed by probes specific to theinformation shared by the participant No participants refused to answer any ques-tions in the interviews

Transcription Videotaped interviews were transcribed by two professional tran-scribers transcripts were an average of 304 single-spaced pages (SD = 68) in 12-point font Each interviewer watched eight of the videotaped interviews to checkthe accuracy of the transcripts Videotapes also were reviewed for non-verbal cuesthat would suggest additional meaning to the verbal data Any transcription errorswere corrected in this process and each member of the research team was thengiven a copy of the corrected transcript Researchers also gave participants a copyof the corrected transcript for partial member-checking purposes (Lincoln amp Guba1985) Seven participants indicated that their transcripts were accurate representa-tions of their experience and three returned feedback to clarify or expand on as-pects of their interview (six participants did not return any feedback on their tran-script) All comments received were integrated into the data set for reduction andanalysis

4 A copy of this interview guide is available upon request from the first author

306 CONROY ET AL

Analytic Procedures

Content analysis All three investigators read the 16 transcripts and markedmeaning units independently Although videotaping interviews permitted record-ing of non-verbal behaviors these behaviors did not appear to be especially infor-mative in the present study thus analyses were limited to the verbal content ofinterviews The first two authors used Miles and Hubermanrsquos (1994) linked sub-processes of data analysis involving (a) data reduction (b) data display and (c)conclusion drawing and verification In this process the two analysts coded theraw data from their independently-marked transcripts using the QSR NUDIST 4(1997) computer program Spradleyrsquos (1979) recommendations were followed forassessing the contextual meaning of data Disagreements between investigatorsabout the meaning of raw data units were discussed and agreements were negoti-ated Next the interviewers grouped similar raw data codes into meaning unitsand assigned meaning units names that were as close to the words used by theparticipants as possible The next stages in the analysis involved grouping mean-ing units into lower-order themes and then grouping lower-order themes intohigher-order themes To increase the transferability of results and lessen the possi-bility that results would simply reflect idiosyncrasies of single informants at leasttwo participants had to provide different meaning units for each lower-order theme(ie one participantrsquos narrative could not generate a lower-order theme by itself)When naming lower-order themes efforts were taken to keep the theme namesclose to the participantsrsquo language Two or more lower-order themes were re-quired to assemble a higher-order theme The investigators permitted themselvesto use the language of social science when needed to name higher-order themesThe third author served as a quasi-auditor throughout this data analysis process Asecond auditor who was not directly involved in the project but has experiencereviewing qualitative research also reviewed the analyses5

Writing and representation The process of writing and representation (Coffeyamp Atkinson 1996) deepened the analysis Following the collaborative effort of allthree researchers in the process of reconstructing participantsrsquo meanings the find-ings were clarified and contextualized Thus the referential adequacy of partici-pantsrsquo reports was considered to enhance the credibility (Lincoln amp Guba 1985)of this exploratory study

Trustworthiness

All of the outlined procedures were carried out using a team approach which inand of itself served as a major trustworthiness check In addition several tech-niques described by Patton (1990) were purposefully selected and contextually

5 The first author can upon request provide extensive appendices containing hierarchi-cally-organized lists of meaning units lower-order themes and higher-order themes for thecriteria associated with perceptions of failure criteria associated with perceptions of suc-cess consequences of failure consequences of success respectively including the identifi-cation numbers of participants reporting each meaning unit

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

306 CONROY ET AL

Analytic Procedures

Content analysis All three investigators read the 16 transcripts and markedmeaning units independently Although videotaping interviews permitted record-ing of non-verbal behaviors these behaviors did not appear to be especially infor-mative in the present study thus analyses were limited to the verbal content ofinterviews The first two authors used Miles and Hubermanrsquos (1994) linked sub-processes of data analysis involving (a) data reduction (b) data display and (c)conclusion drawing and verification In this process the two analysts coded theraw data from their independently-marked transcripts using the QSR NUDIST 4(1997) computer program Spradleyrsquos (1979) recommendations were followed forassessing the contextual meaning of data Disagreements between investigatorsabout the meaning of raw data units were discussed and agreements were negoti-ated Next the interviewers grouped similar raw data codes into meaning unitsand assigned meaning units names that were as close to the words used by theparticipants as possible The next stages in the analysis involved grouping mean-ing units into lower-order themes and then grouping lower-order themes intohigher-order themes To increase the transferability of results and lessen the possi-bility that results would simply reflect idiosyncrasies of single informants at leasttwo participants had to provide different meaning units for each lower-order theme(ie one participantrsquos narrative could not generate a lower-order theme by itself)When naming lower-order themes efforts were taken to keep the theme namesclose to the participantsrsquo language Two or more lower-order themes were re-quired to assemble a higher-order theme The investigators permitted themselvesto use the language of social science when needed to name higher-order themesThe third author served as a quasi-auditor throughout this data analysis process Asecond auditor who was not directly involved in the project but has experiencereviewing qualitative research also reviewed the analyses5

Writing and representation The process of writing and representation (Coffeyamp Atkinson 1996) deepened the analysis Following the collaborative effort of allthree researchers in the process of reconstructing participantsrsquo meanings the find-ings were clarified and contextualized Thus the referential adequacy of partici-pantsrsquo reports was considered to enhance the credibility (Lincoln amp Guba 1985)of this exploratory study

Trustworthiness

All of the outlined procedures were carried out using a team approach which inand of itself served as a major trustworthiness check In addition several tech-niques described by Patton (1990) were purposefully selected and contextually

5 The first author can upon request provide extensive appendices containing hierarchi-cally-organized lists of meaning units lower-order themes and higher-order themes for thecriteria associated with perceptions of failure criteria associated with perceptions of suc-cess consequences of failure consequences of success respectively including the identifi-cation numbers of participants reporting each meaning unit

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

307FAILURE AND SUCCESS

grounded to further enhance the trustworthiness of this study The following tech-niques constituted the characterizing traits for readers to use in evaluating thetrustworthiness of this study (Sparkes 1998) (a) conducting and incorporatingfindings from a pilot study (b) using two forms of study auditing (horizontally viapeer debriefing between the interviewers vertically via a quasi-auditor who par-ticipated in research design but not data collection or analysis and vertically viaan external auditor who was not involved in designing or conducting the research)(c) using partial member checking (d) employing investigator triangulation (e)assuring appropriate education and training in the content area as well as in quali-tative research methodology and (f) providing thick description of the proceduresand results

PHASE I EVALUATIVE CRITERIA ASSOCIATEDWITH FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Perceptions of Failure

Categories of control and affiliation were used to organize the higher-orderthemes that directly emerged from the data This model of evaluative criteria forfailure comprised 5 higher-order themes 12 lower-order themes and 70 meaningunits Table 1 presents a list of the higher- and lower-order themes describingcriteria used to evaluate failure in participantsrsquo performance domains

Control The control category represented participantsrsquo assessments and attri-butions of their responsibility for the failure The performers described failure astheir inability to influence themselves their performance and their career to theextent that would allow for desirable outcomes

Commitment unfulfilled emerged as a higher-order theme from participantsrsquoreports For instance Athlete 3 said ldquoFailure at certain times is not achieving thegoal I set for myselfrdquo Some participants added that not taking advantage of anopportunity is a failure in itself ldquoFailure is just not making the most of opportuni-ties yoursquore given Number one not being given opportunity is hard but then if youare [given an opportunity] donrsquot waste itrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Participantsrsquo narratives also referred to the higher-order theme of having insuf-ficient realistic control Only performing artists (n = 4) reported the lower-ordertheme of poor artistic communication The meaning of not having control overthings that can be controlled as a criterion for failure was eloquently captured byPerforming Artist 15 who said

I was really mad at myself this last show because I kept forgetting my lines dur-ing the run It was a split second but it started to aggravate me because I felt likeI was failing I felt that I would trip over words mistakes that I thought were sounprofessional for me at this point to be doing

Performers also believed that they should control their effort or how they copewith stressors Therefore ldquoFailure would probably be not giving the best effort

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

308 CONROY ET AL

you could not being satisfied with your effortrdquo(Athlete 6) or making ldquoa mockeryof something that yoursquove been handed At least give it your best shot because ifyou donrsquot then on any level thatrsquos really a failurerdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Lastly according to the performers control-related failure occurred when theyexperienced a blocked wish for unrealistic control Athlete 4 reported

Irsquom a control freak I like to put myself in a position that I think I have controlover the outcome I guess I havenrsquot taken into account the other stuff the stuffI canrsquot control I think being sick or being late to a game or somebody is notdoing their part I have always thought that Irsquove had control over that or at leastIrsquove had a part responsibility in it

In some cases these experiences had a profound impact on a performerrsquos lifebecause ldquonever being given a chance is like the worst thing in the world for aperformermdashan artist or an athlete Because how can you ever know [your poten-tial] if you werenrsquot ever given the chance to tryrdquo (Performing Artist 9)

Affiliation The affiliation category for evaluating failure comprised two higher-order themes that reflected participantsrsquo perceptions that they were devalued intheir eyes or in othersrsquo eyes In other words this category referred to the hostileshift in performersrsquo perceptions of their relationships with self and others in andout of the performance domain (with respect to their identities as performers as

Table 1Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for Evaluating

Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Commitment unfulfilled (67) (a) Not accomplishing my goals (b) Squandering anopportunity

Insufficient realistic control (67) (a) Not controlling things I should control (b) Pooradaptation (c) Poor artistic communication (d) Losingperspective on my role in performance

Blocked wish for unrealistic (a) Thinking I should control more than I can (b) No morecontrol (77) opportunity

Affiliation Category (66)

Generate negative feelings (a) Giving others reason to doubt me (b) Disappointingin others (65) others

Generate negative feelings (a) Irsquom nothing (b) Becoming skeptical of selfin self (14)

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

309FAILURE AND SUCCESS

well as people) Affiliation was selected as the category name instead of hostility(or a similar name) because it suggests the bipolar and dynamic nature of relation-ships to others and perceptions of self (ie friendly to hostile loving to attacking)Performing Artist 14 captured these two higher-order themes in one short responseto the question of what failure meant to her ldquoNo self-worth that people wouldnrsquotlike yourdquo

Narratives referred to a higher-order theme of generating negative feelings inothers More performing artists (n = 5) than athletes (n = 2) reported the lower-order theme of giving others reason to doubt the performer For example Per-forming Artist 16 disclosed

When you say failure the first thing I can think of is like letting my family downlike everybody hates me Itrsquos just like the biggest biggest pit Itrsquos just downdown in the gutter Like nobody thinks Irsquom even interesting or attractive orremotely anything maybe a sense of disappearing Of people walking by andyoursquore just invisible practically Thatrsquos failure to me

The final higher-order theme associated with perceptions of failure involvedperformersrsquo generating negative feelings in themselves One of the most powerfulstatements supporting the notion of failure as not fulfilling this affiliative motivewas again provided by Performing Artist 16 for whom failure was

Not mattering Being nothing Being a cipher in this world like just becoming anothing Something that canrsquot affect anything in any way just canrsquot move any-thing canrsquot change anything Just something that is so almost like a little pebblethat canrsquot

Perceptions of Success

As seen in Table 2 control and affiliation again emerged as categories for group-ing 4 higher-order themes 11 lower-order themes and 62 meaning units related tothe criteria participants used to evaluate their success

Control The category of control in the performersrsquo definitions of success con-tained their perceptions of their ability to influence and assumed responsibility forinfluencing themselves their performance and their career in a desired manner

Participantsrsquo narratives supported the higher-order theme of achieving a de-sired outcome earningdeserving the opportunity was reported by all performingartists and only three athletes The essence of what participants meant by achiev-ing a desired outcome was presented as follows ldquoFor myself [success] would beaccomplishing the goals that Irsquove set for myselfrdquo (Athlete 1)

Participants also defined success as their ability to implement a desired processwithin their performance and career The following illustrates how participantsviewed success as being able to initiate and control the process of performanceldquoYou canrsquot do everything right all the time so [success is] knowing that you wentout and gave a good effortrdquo (Athlete 6) Similarly performers perceived goodadaptation to performance outcomes as a success in itself

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

310 CONROY ET AL

Beyond a finish or beyond a score [success] is dealing with certain situationsDealing maybe with the wind conditions better dealing with the Olympic roundsIf I came away losing but I felt like I went up and that I was aggressive in myshots then I feel good about coming away even if I maybe lost (Athlete 2)

Affiliation The affiliation category in the participantsrsquo definitions of successconcerned the friendliness of participantsrsquo perceptions of self and perceptions ofother peoplersquos beliefs about them as performers and persons

One higher-order theme involved pleasing others None of the athletesrsquo narra-tives informed the lower-order theme of effective artistic communication (com-pared to six performing artists) Two athletes and five performing artists reportedthe lower-order theme of satisfying others For example

[A] singerrsquos job is to find something that seems to work and inspires your col-leagues and inspires the audience in some way and the conductor Thatrsquos suc-cess thatrsquos what wersquore doing wersquore trying to find something thatrsquos very humanand sharing that (Performing Artist 10)

Performing Artist 13 said that success ldquois in the fact that they call you backagain and invite you to come back and do it again It generally reflects at leastsome satisfaction with your previous performancerdquo

Performers also defined success using the higher-order theme of enhanced per-ceptions of self this theme was briefly summarized by Athlete 7 who said ldquowhenyoursquore winning or playing good you feel good about yourself and you carry your-self with confidencerdquo

Table 2Categories and Themes in Subjective Criteria for

Evaluating Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Control Category (88)

Achieved desired outcome (78) (a) Accomplished goals (b) Earneddeserved theopportunity (c) Showed others I can still do it

Implementing desired process (77) (a) Controlling what I can control (b) Maximizing mypotential (c) Adapting effectively

Affiliation Category (58)

Desire to please others (26) (a) Effective artistic communication (b) Satisfying others

Enhanced perceptions of self (54) (a) Appreciate self (b) Positive feelings about self(c) I received positive attention

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

311FAILURE AND SUCCESS

DISCUSSION

Using in-depth interviews the present study identified criteria used by per-formers to evaluate their performance and generate perceptions of failure or suc-cess These findings represent one of the first efforts designed to document thespecific criteria associated with elite performersrsquo perceptions of success and fail-ure The transferability of these results may be somewhat limited because the samplewas delimited to include only performers who had a great deal of experience (ofboth success and failure) in their performance domains Given the apparently dy-namic nature of these evaluative criteria over time individuals who perform atlower-levels or have less experience in the domain may use different (or at least agreater variety of) criteria to evaluate their successes and failures Although thisdelimitation should be kept in mind it also is considered to be an asset in thepresent study because few studies have examined the criteria by which elite per-formers evaluate their performances

Results from the present study were organized in categories of affiliation andcontrol to accommodate the limited number of higher-order themes It was clearthat these evaluative criteria sampled a broader domain than simple levels of per-formance or orientations for evaluating ability Taken collectively the criteria forevaluating failure and success resembled Ryan and Decirsquos (2000b) model of hu-man needs for optimal functioning The need for relatedness was well representedin participantsrsquo reports (eg generating negative feelings in others having a de-sire to please others) Participants also appeared to use an internalized form ofrelatedness as criteria for evaluating success and failure (eg generating negativefeelings in themselves enhancing perceptions of themselves) The need for com-petence was readily apparent as well in criteria such as having a commitmentunfulfilled achieving a desired outcome and implementing a desired processThe criteria based around realistic and unrealistic control could be related to theneed for autonomy but this link is slightly more speculative than the links for thepreceding needs

Differences emerged in how athletes and performing artists evaluated their per-formances With respect to criteria used to evaluate failure performing artists evalu-ated their performances based on (a) poor artistic communication (b) losing per-spective on their role in the performance (c) giving others reason to doubt themand (d) both lower-order themes associated with generating negative feelings aboutthemselves more than did athletes These results suggested that affiliative failurewas more salient for performing artists than athletes Additionally there appear tobe unique aspects of the artistic performance (eg effective communication andkeeping onersquos role in perspective) that are not as relevant for failure in sports

Concerning the criteria used to evaluate success more performing artists em-phasized earningdeserving the opportunity and both lower-order themes associ-ated with a desire to please others than did athletes Interestingly athletes seemedto emphasize appreciating themselves and receiving positive attention when evalu-ating whether they were successful more than did performing artists In absoluteterms these differences were relatively small and there did not appear to be a

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

312 CONROY ET AL

difference between the performance domains with respect to the associated higher-order theme of having enhanced perceptions of oneself Thus it may be prematureto draw conclusions about how these evaluative components may be unique to aperformance domain

Integrating Perceptions of Failure and Success

Distinct criteria for evaluating success and failure in performance emerged Asexpected a perception of success in one aspect of performance precluded a per-ception of failure in that same aspect just as a perception of failure precluded aperception of success Because the evaluative criteria were distinct however aperformance that was not evaluated as a success was not necessarily evaluated asa failure This ldquogray areardquo in performance evaluations has not received attention inthe literature The language of one participant (Performing Artist 16) illustratedthis complexity when she unconventionally chose to describe herself as being ldquonotnot successfulrdquo instead of phrasing her statement simply as ldquobeing successfulrdquo (asone might expect)

The question of whether certain phenomenological experiences (eg percep-tions of failure and success) are bipolar or independent is important and has beenexamined in other contexts For example in the study of affect the distinctionbetween pleasant and unpleasant affect has sparked much research and spiriteddiscussion about whether these affects are bipolar or independent dimensions (egDiener 1999 Feldman Barrett amp Russell 1998 Green Goldman amp Salovey1993 Russell amp Carroll 1999 Watson Wiese Viadya amp Tellegen 1999)

Although evaluative criteria were grouped in terms of the same categories (con-trol and affiliation) the higher-order themes appeared to be somewhat differentfor success and failure At first glance the affiliation category may appear to lenditself to a single bipolar continuum because success was based on pleasing othersor enhancing perceptions of self whereas failure represented the opposite (iegenerating negative feelings in others or in the self) Closer examination of thelower-order themes comprising the higher-order affiliative themes however re-veals that when situated within the narrative context meanings of affiliation withinfailure and success were quite different For example there was no affiliative suc-cess that could be paired with an affiliative failure such as giving others a reason todoubt me Similarly the affiliative success of effective artistic communicationwas not represented in the domain of affiliative failure

The distinct evaluative criteria were more apparent for the control categories infailure and success The higher-order control themes for failure involved not hav-ing enough control (realistic or not) or not being able to fulfill a commitment Incontrast the higher-order control themes associated with success simply involvedcontrolling the process or outcome of the performance Thus although commonmotives (ie control and affiliation) may underlie performance evaluations per-ceptions of failure and success demonstrated more independence than bipolarityin the present data

Participants reported that they either failed or succeeded but did not report thatthey both failed and succeeded It appears that these perceptions may develop

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

313FAILURE AND SUCCESS

from one of two processes First the performer could pass a positive test for fail-ure or success This positive test entails determining that the performance met oneor more necessary criteria for either failure or success (summarized in Tables 1and 2) Alternately the performer could pass an antipositive test for the oppositeevaluation These antipositive tests for success and failure involve determiningthat the performance did not meet the criteria for failure or success respectivelyFor example a perception of failure could result from not meeting the criteria forsuccess The apparent independence of these systems (ie positive and antipositivetests for failuresuccess) creates the possibility for uncertain perceptions in per-formersrsquo evaluations and suggests that researchers and practitioners need to con-sider each of these dimensions separately in future work

Implications for Framing Achievement Conflicts

The finding that perceptions of failure and success are not bipolar is significantbecause it provides another way to frame FF and FS Previous definitions of FFinclude (a) the need ldquoto quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions whichmay lead to belittlementrdquo (Murray 1938 p 192) (b) ldquoa disposition to avoid fail-ure andor a capacity for experiencing shame and humiliation as a consequence offailurerdquo(Atkinson 1966 p 13) and (c) the ldquodisposition to become anxious aboutfailure under achievement stressrdquo (Atkinson amp Litwin 1973 p 146) These defi-nitions share the idea that failure presents a threat to the individual but the notionof anticipating a threat from not succeeding is not explicit in any of the definitionsExplicitly stating that not meeting evaluative criteria for succeeding can stimulateperceptions of failure (and FF) may facilitate a more complete sampling of thedomain of FF perceptions A similar argument could be made for FS Thus a morecomplete conceptualization of FF should include (a) the anticipated presence ofnegative consequences of failure as well as (b) the absence of anticipated positiveconsequences of success Similarly FS can be expanded to include (a) the antici-pated presence of negative consequences of success as well as (b) the absence ofanticipated positive consequences of failure This clarification will result in (a)greater theoretical specificity (b) more appropriate response sets for assessing FFand FS and (c) broader frames of reference for interviewing clients

PHASE II CONSEQUENCES OF FAILURE AND SUCCESS

RESULTS

Consequences of Failure

Seven higher-order themes 22 lower-order themes and 173 meaning units wereassociated with the perceived consequences of failure Table 3 presents the lower-order themes associated with the seven higher-order themes

Narratives referred to tangible losses as a higher-order theme the lower-ordertheme of repeated failure was only mentioned by athletes (n = 4) Athlete 2 cap-tured the change that accompanies these losses when she described that ldquoif Irsquom

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

314 CONROY ET AL

winning Irsquove got contract money and Irsquom in this magazine or Irsquom in that maga-zine then all of a sudden Irsquom not winning and I have a regular jobrdquo

With respect to the higher-order theme of attempted adaptation athletes re-ported the lower-order themes of increased motivation to improve and succeedand decreased motivation to perform more frequently than performing artists Asan example of how performers came to terms with the need to adapt Athlete 7 saidthat he had reached ldquothe point then where Irsquod almost look at myself and say lsquoWhatam I doing out herersquo I just knew that something had to change I either had to playbetter or quit playing in tournaments because it just wasnrsquot that much funrdquo

Feelings of losing control also appeared as a higher-order theme Athlete 2described a situation in which she failed that was difficult for her

I was in the position [I wanted to be in] Everything was working right for me Iwas shooting good My opponents didnrsquot come out and shoot anything spectacu-lar It was mine to take and I couldnrsquot take it that part is devastating becauseI lost an opportunity and maybe the opportunity of a lifetime to win an indi-vidual medal possibly the gold medal

Table 3Themes in Perceived Consequences of Failure in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Tangible losses (77) (a) Material loss (b) Repeated failure (c) Not accomplish-ing a goal (d) Blocked aspirations

Attempted adaptation (87) (a) Learned and improved performance (b) Interpretedpoor effort as the cause of failure (c) Increasedmotivation to improve and succeed (d) Decreasedmotivation to perform (e) Attempted to cope

Feeling of losing control (43) (a) Realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longerguaranteedrdquo (b) Perceptions of an uncertain future(c) Affected performerrsquos personal life

Shifts in interpersonal (a) Damaged relationship to important objectsothersexchanges (57) (b) Upsetting important others (c) Others offer support

Emotional cost (87) (a) Cycle of negative emotions (b) Lose confidence(c) A feeling of personal diminishment

Punitive action directed (a) Belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo (b) Self-criticismagainst self (66)

Embarrassing self-presentational (a) Public shame (b) Thought that ldquoI may not match thefailure (45) image that I wantrdquo

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

315FAILURE AND SUCCESS

A higher-order theme of shifting interpersonal exchanges emerged from par-ticipantsrsquo narratives Athlete 4 gave a striking example of how failing caused herto feel that she let others down (and her father in particular) when she commentedthat

I think I lose a little bit of trust from other people and it takes a while to get thatback It hurts me to lose trust because therersquos some sort of trust that you just canrsquotever ever get back and thatrsquos hard to deal with because you knew you hadthat like with my dad knowing that he sees me differently in his eyesthatrsquos hard and I know I canrsquot get that back because hersquoll always remember that

Sometimes however participants felt like they let down an internal representa-tion of an object instead of a person For example Performing Artist 10 said thatldquoitrsquos hard to explain but you let down the art and thatrsquos who yoursquore letting downItrsquos like an entity in itselfrdquo The cast of important others or objects implicated inthese statements included parents spouses co-workersteammates directorscoaches audiences and even an internal representation of ldquothe artrdquo itself

Emotional cost was reported as a higher-order theme Athlete 3 captured theemotions that followed failure for so many performers when she stated that

During the season it wasnrsquot just emotions of sadness it was just everythingIwas just up and down a lot this year Things were more extreme on more of thenegative side More frustrated more negative I wasnrsquot as happy because Ihardly had any good experiences because I wasnrsquot competing to where I wantedto be so there was no good ones

Under the higher-order theme of punitive beliefs about self twice as many per-forming artists (n = 4) as athletes (n = 2) reported the belief that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquoExamples of these beliefs were vividly expressed by Performing Artist 11 ldquoI thinkthe things that go through your mind are lsquoIrsquom not a good personrsquo and lsquoIrsquom nottalentedrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really can do thisrsquo lsquoI wonder if I really am doing the rightthingrsquo lsquoIs this really the profession I should be pursuingrsquo I think all those thingsnaturally go through your mindrdquo Interestingly this self-blame was perceived asbeing worse than any criticism that anyone else could offer (cf personal diminish-ment as an emotional cost) ldquoIrsquom the hardest person on myself I donrsquot thinkanybody could really say anything to hurt me as much as I could kick myself AndI have kicked myselfrdquo (Performing Artist 14)

Participants provided data contributing to the final higher-order theme embar-rassing self-presentational failure Athlete 6 may have said it best when he ob-served that ldquoWhen you fail everybody knowsrdquo

Consequences of Success

Five higher-order themes 15 lower-order themes and 88 meaning units wereassociated with performersrsquo perceived consequences of success Table 4 presentsthese lower- and higher-order themes

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

316 CONROY ET AL

Related to the higher-order theme of pressure to meet higher expectations twiceas many performing artists (n = 6) as athletes (n = 3) reported pressuring them-selves not to fail Participants commented that othersrsquo performance expectationswere raised people ldquoexpect you to play good all the timerdquo (Athlete 7) PerformingArtist 16 described how her success led her to expect the same in the future and towonder ldquoWhat happens if this time I fail What happens if this time I canrsquot pull itoff Itrsquos very scary because once yoursquore successful it means yoursquore not notsuccessful and I think thatrsquos terrifyingrdquo

Performance benefits also emerged as consequences of success Accounts oftwice as many performing artists (n = 4) than athletes (n = 2) supported the lower-order theme of rewards in future performance opportunities Performing Artist 11remarked that after succeeding she feels like she ldquohad control over my talentsthat my hard work has paid off I feel that I can do anything It definitely spurs myinterest to continue to do more and to do better the next timerdquo

Narratives also revealed the higher-order theme of surprising costs of succeed-ing Some participants lost their enjoyment of success as success became less posi-tively reinforcing and more of a relief ldquoThere was no second place or third placendash either you won and that was what you were supposed to do or you lost and thatwas really badrdquo (Athlete 2)

Another higher-order theme involved increased psychological interaction withothers More performing artists (n = 4) reported a belief that ldquoI owe others for mysuccessrdquo than athletes (n = 2) As Performing Artist 15 stated ldquoYou donrsquot have alife anymore because everybodyrsquos so involved with what you are doing People

Table 4Themes in Perceived Consequences of Success in Performance

Higher-Order Theme Lower-Order Themes

Pressure to meet higher (a) Othersrsquo expectations raised (b) Own expectationsexpectations (68) raised (c) Pressured self not to fail

Performance benefits (67) (a) Enhanced retrospective feelings of control (b) Beliefthat ldquoI have enhanced performance capabilitiesrdquo(c) Rewards in future performance opportunities

Surprising costs of succeeding (34) (a) Success became a bad thing (b) Tangible costs

Increased psychological interaction (a) Interpersonal rivalry (b) Belief that ldquoI owe others forwith others (76) my successrdquo (c) Others becoming more invested in

my performance (d) Increased recognition andappreciation

Enhanced perceptions of self (86) (a) Feeling good about myself as a performer (b) Feelinggood about myself (c) Humility

Note The numbers in parentheses after each label refer to the number of athletes and performingartists respectively who reported data associated with that category or higher-order theme Thesequence of themes is arbitrary

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

317FAILURE AND SUCCESS

kind of get annoying because they want to be around you more because they findyou fascinating as an actorrdquo

The final higher-order theme pertained to having enhanced perceptions of selfafter succeeding Athlete 5 captured the essence of this theme in stating ldquoItrsquos afeeling of worth of self-worth when Irsquom successfulrdquo

DISCUSSION

In the second phase of data analysis participantsrsquo perceptions of the conse-quences of failure and success were identified and organized Similar to the resultsof the first phase of this project some striking differences emerged between theperceptions of athletes and performing artists With respect to the consequences offailure athletes reported repeated failure increased motivation to improve andsucceed and a decreased motivation to perform more than did performing artistsIn contrast performing artists reported believing that ldquoIrsquom no goodrdquo more thandid athletes Overall motivation seemed to be more directly affected by failure forathletes than performing artists Performing artists on the other hand seemed moreattuned to changes in their self-concepts than did athletes

Concerning the consequences of success performing artists reported pressur-ing themselves not to fail receiving rewards in future performance opportunitiesand believing that they owed others for their success more than did athletes Thesedifferences suggested that performing artists believed that some of the importantconsequences of their success are out of their control

The primary purpose of this investigation was to generate cognitive-motiva-tional-relational models of fears of failure and success by elaborating on the con-sequences of failure and success perceived by elite performers According toLazarus (1991) the appraisals for fear and anxiety both involve the anticipation ofa threatening outcome As revealed in the Phase I results failure and success ap-peared to be perceptual states associated with different evaluative criteria and linkedby positive and antipositive tests By logical extension the anticipated threateningoutcomes following failure may derive either (a) from consequences of failingthat are threatening or (b) from certain consequences of succeeding that would beaversive if absent It may seem odd to suggest that not experiencing certain conse-quences of success would stimulate a fearful or anxious response If performersanticipated and made a psychological investment in receiving a particular conse-quence of success (eg gaining self-esteem) then not attaining such a conse-quence could be sufficiently threatening to stimulate a fearful or anxious responseThus fear of failure may derive from appraisal of threatening consequences of (a)failing or (b) not succeeding

On the other hand if performers perceived that the consequences of failurewould be desirable (eg if failure would lead to a decrease in othersrsquo involvementin their performance) the absence of those consequences may be sufficiently threat-ening to stimulate an emotional response Thus fear of success may derive fromappraising threatening consequences to (a) succeeding or (b) not failing (throughthe absence of desirable consequences of failing) Constructing ldquodouble-edgedrdquo

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

318 CONROY ET AL

models in this way may represent the domains of fear of failure and fear of successmore fully than models that focus only on the direct consequences of failing orsucceeding respectively

Extrapolating Composite Appraisals for Fear of Failureand Fear of Success

Reviewing the consequences of failure and success identified in the presentstudy provided a basis for defining the domains of fears of failure and success Toidentify the aversive consequences of failing or not succeeding that define the fearof failure domain the higher- and lower-order themes for each set of consequenceswere reviewed Some of these consequences were nearly redundant (eg experi-encing feelings of personal diminishment as a consequence of failure seemed similarto not realizing the consequence of feeling good about oneself as a consequence ofsucceeding) To handle this redundancy efficiently composite appraisals wereformed to represent consequences of failing and not succeeding that were concep-tually similar Three lower-order themes describing consequences of failing seemedto be associated with more than one composite appraisal (ie interpreted pooreffort as the cause of failure realization that ldquomy opportunity is no longer guaran-teedrdquo and perceptions of an uncertain future) so a conservative approach wasadopted and each theme was listed with each possible composite appraisal Tencomposite appraisals that mapped (at least partially) the fear of failure domaincould be identified from these data (a) experiencing personal diminishment (b)demonstrating that I have low ability (c) demonstrating that I lack control (d)experiencing tangible losses (e) wasting my effort (f) making my future uncer-tain (g) losing a special opportunity (h) causing others to lose interest in me (i)disappointing or upsetting important others and (j) experiencing an embarrassingself-presentational failure6

A similar procedure was utilized in reviewing the consequences of succeedingand not failing One consequence of succeeding (ie increased recognition andappreciation) seemed to influence two related but sufficiently unique appraisals(ie experiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry experiencing increased rec-ognition and appreciation) so a conservative approach was adopted and the conse-quence was used to inform both appraisals Ten composite appraisals associatedwith the fear of success domain included (a) not learning and improving (b)facing an overly rigid future (c) accomplishing all of my goals (d) facing higherexpectations (own and others) (e) losing enjoyment of success (desensitization)(f) experiencing tangible costs (eg slumps injuries loneliness) (g) experienc-ing jealousy and interpersonal rivalry (h) experiencing increased recognition andappreciation (i) not receiving support from others (j) losing or not increasingmotivation and (k) becoming over-confident6

6 Tables detailing the specific consequences (ie lower-order themes) comprising eachcomposite appraisal for fears of failure and success are available from the first author uponrequest

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

319FAILURE AND SUCCESS

Comparing Composite Appraisals to Existing Literature

The fear of failure appraisals identified above were largely consistent with Birneyet alrsquos (1969) early model of the construct For example Birney et alrsquos fear ofdevaluing onersquos self-estimate was similar to the composite appraisals of ldquoexperi-encing personal diminishmentrdquo ldquodemonstrating that I have low abilityrdquo and ldquodem-onstrating that I lack controlrdquo Appraisals related to ldquoexperiencing tangible lossesrdquoldquowasting my effortrdquo ldquomaking my future uncertainrdquo or ldquolosing a special opportu-nityrdquo were similar to Birney et alrsquos fear of non-ego punishment Finally the fearof reductions in onersquos social value appeared to be represented in appraisals thatone is ldquocausing important others to lose interest in merdquo ldquodisappointing or up-setting important othersrdquo or ldquoexperiencing an embarrassing self-presentationalfailurerdquo

The fear of success appraisals identified above generally resembled Ogilviersquos(1968) model although some appraisals conceivably involved more than one ofOgilviersquos syndromes The fear of social and emotional isolation was similar toappraisals such as ldquoothers not offering supportrdquo ldquoexperiencing jealousy and inter-personal rivalryrdquo ldquoexperiencing increased recognition and appreciationrdquo and ldquoex-periencing tangible costsrdquo to succeeding (eg loneliness) Fear of surpassing aprevious record held by an admired performer was associated with appraisals ofldquoaccomplishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquoexperiencing jealousy and interpersonal rivalryrdquoThe pressure of constantly having to match or exceed onersquos previous best perfor-mance was conceptually similar to appraisals involving ldquonot improvingrdquo ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo and ldquohaving expectations raised for onersquos performancerdquoGuilt over assertion and fear of discovering onersquos true potential only seemed to berelated to one type of appraisal each ldquobecoming over-confidentrdquo and ldquoaccom-plishing onersquos goalsrdquo respectively Three consequences of succeeding (compositeappraisals) were unlike previously documented fear of success syndromes in-cluding ldquohaving an overly-rigid futurerdquo ldquolosing or not increasing motivationrdquoand ldquolosing enjoyment of success (desensitization)rdquo

Overall the composite appraisals for FF and FS identified in the present studywere quite consistent with existing models of FF and FS The present results ex-tend these previous models by providing a more detailed (and empirically-de-rived) definition of the domains in question Although these results suggest thatfears of failure and success may be multidimensional constructs it would be pre-mature to draw conclusions about dimensionality without further research to testthe present findings in a confirmatory mode

Future Research

Several types of research may prove useful in developing understanding of FFand FS Qualitative methods were appropriate in the present study for examiningthe domain of appraisals made by elite performers Similar designs could be usedwith other populations of interest including youth performers in athletic artisticand academic performance domains Additionally coaches and teachersrsquo perspec-tives on these phenomena could provide valuable insights for social scientists It

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

320 CONROY ET AL

also will be important to assess the degree to which the use of particular evalua-tive criteria is associated with the belief in particular consequences of failingsucceeding 7

Several of the composite appraisals identified in the present research were simi-lar This similarity was not unexpected because a relatively conservative approachwas used to form the composite appraisals Measurement-oriented research thatcan shed light on the dimensionality of FF and FS will be very useful in the futureBoth multidimensional scaling of threat-provoking consequences and factor ana-lytic approaches will be helpful in answering this question

Assuming that future research supports the multidimensionality of FF and FSthe correlates and consequences of these different dimensions will need to be clari-fied Of particular interest will be outcomes such as performersrsquo and judgesrsquo sub-jective and objective ratings of performances Subjective performance outcomesrepresent performersrsquo satisfaction with their performances whereas objective per-formance outcomes represent changes in actual performance levels Both of theseoutcomes are important and will influence popular and scientific perceptions ofthe utility of these achievement-related constructs Research also will be needed tocompare the predictive power of these multidimensional models of performanceworries with less specific (typically unidimensional) measures of cognitive per-formance anxiety relative to objective and subjective performance outcomes

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using in-depth interviews with elite athletes and performing artists and induc-tive content analyses researchers identified a variety of (a) evaluative criteria thatinfluence perceptions of failure and success and (b) perceived consequences offailing and succeeding We hope that these findings provide a point of departurefor future research and practice related to motivation and emotion in performanceenvironments We do not presume that the models of evaluative criteria andconsequences of failure and success are necessarily complete and we recognizethat larger or more diverse samples in future research may yield additional infor-mation

Results from this study did reveal that the criteria used to evaluate failure arenot simply the opposite of the criteria used to evaluate success (ie failure andsuccess are not bipolar perceptions) Additionally the criteria used to evaluateperformance appeared to share more with human needs than with either perfor-mance goals or goal orientations Incorporating this broader frame of referencemay provide both consultants and researchers with greater precision in their as-sessments and a heightened understanding of performersrsquo realities Also the mini-mal overlap between the criteria used to evaluate performance failuresuccess andobjective standards of performance suggested that consultants and researchersshould take care to distinguish between objective and subjective failure (or suc-

7 We thank the section editor for pointing out this important question for future research

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

321FAILURE AND SUCCESS

cess) when considering the effects of performance failure (or success) on emotionand motivation Finally analysis of the evaluative criteria that influence percep-tions of failure or success revealed that context matters Many similar criteria weredescribed by both groups of performers but several striking differences emergedas well Consultants and researchers are advised to consider the role of context intheir assessments related to perceived failure or success

Multidimensional models of worries associated with FF and FS were devel-oped from participantsrsquo reports of the perceived consequences of failing or suc-ceeding Perhaps the greatest contribution of this research lies in the insight it hasadded to the phenomenology of performers who fear failure or success Both con-sultants and researchers may use this information to make their assessments of FFand FS more specific The value of this added specificity is an empirical questionbut it has the potential to uncover important nuances about FF and FS that we hopeleads to more effective case formulations and treatment planning for performanceenhancement consultants

REFERENCES

Atkinson J W (1966) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior In J W Atkinsonamp N T Feather (Eds) A theory of achievement motivation (pp 11ndash30) New YorkJohn Wiley amp Sons

Atkinson J W amp Litwin G H (1973) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceivedas motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure In D C McClelland amp RS Steele (Eds) Human motivation A book of readings (pp 145ndash163) MorristownNJ General Learning Press

Birney R C Burdick H amp Teevan R D (1969) Fear of failure New York Van NostrandCoffey A amp Atkinson P (1996) Making sense of qualitative data Complementary re-

search strategies Thousand Oaks CA SageDiener E (1999) Introduction to the special section on the structure of emotion Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology 76 803ndash804Duda J L (1993) Goals A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motiva-

tion in sport In R N Singer M Murphey amp L K Tennant (Eds) Handbook ofresearch on sport psychology (pp 421ndash436) New York Macmillan

Feldman Barrett L amp Russell J A (1998) Independence and bipolarity in the structureof current affect Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 967ndash984

Gamson J (1995) Stopping the spin and becoming a prop Fieldwork on Hollywood elitesIn R Hertz amp J B Imber (Eds) Studying elites using qualitative methods (pp 83ndash93) Thousand Oaks CA Sage

Green D P Goldman S L amp Salovey P (1993) Measurement error masks bipolarity inaffect ratings Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 1029ndash1041

Hays K F (2000) Breaking out Doing sport psychology with performing artists In M BAndersen (Ed) Doing sport psychology (pp 261ndash274) Champaign IL Human Ki-netics

Horner M S (1968) Sex differences in achievement motivation and performance in com-petitive and non-competitive situations Unpublished doctoral dissertation Universityof Michigan Ann Arbor

Lazarus R S (1991) Emotion and adaptation New York Oxford University Press

322 CONROY ET AL

Lazarus R S (1999) Stress and emotion A new synthesis New York SpringerLiebert R M amp Morris L W (1967) Cognitive and emotional components of test anxi-

ety A distinction and some initial data Psychological Reports 20 975ndash978Lincoln Y amp Guba E (1985) Naturalistic inquiry Thousand Oaks CA SageMaslow A (1970) Motivation amp personality (2nd ed) New York Harper amp RowMiles M B amp Huberman A M (1994) Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed) Thousand

Oaks CA SageMurray H A (1938) Explorations in personality A clinical and experimental study of

fifty men of college age New York Oxford University PressOgilvie B C (1968) The unconscious fear of success Quest 10 35ndash39Ogilvie B C amp Tutko T A (1966) Problem athletes and how to handle them London

PelhamPartington J amp Orlick T (1998) Modelling mental links to excellence MTE-1 for qual-

ity practice Journal of Excellence 1 97ndash113Patton M (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods Newbury Park CA SageQSR NUDIST 4 [Computer software] (1997) Thousand Oaks CA SageRussell J A amp Carroll J M (1999) On the bipolarity of positive and negative affect

Psychological Bulletin 125 1ndash30Ryan R M amp Deci E L (2000a) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations Classic definitions

and new directions Contemporary Educational Psychology 25 54ndash67Ryan R M amp Deci E L (2000b) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrin-

sic motivation social development and well-being American Psychologist 55 68ndash78

Sparkes A C (1998) Validity in qualitative inquiry and the problem of criteria Implica-tions for sport psychology The Sport Psychologist 12 363ndash386

Spradley J P (1979) Ethnographic interview Fort Worth TX Holt Rinehart WinstonWatson D Wiese D Vaidya J amp Tellegen A (1999) The two general activation sys-

tems of affect Structural findings evolutionary considerations and psychobiologicalevidence Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 820ndash838

Wigfield A amp Eccles J S (1990) Test anxiety in the school setting In M Lewis amp SM Miller (Eds) Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp 237ndash250) NewYork Plenum