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European Training Programme MA Literacy Programme Development- Linguistics for Literacy
Grammar report Alice Eastwood NO TEXTS EDIT2013 04 17.docLfL13 Grammar report Alice Eastwood.doc 1
Language Project
Grammar Report (Note: This assignment is not in its original format. In order to reduce the size of the file, the source texts have been
removed from the Appendices.)
Name of Language: Tado
Name of report writer: Alice Eastwood
Date: February 2013
Title Text 1: Powega Nu Mane Pade Lowei
The Friendship of the Rooster and the Eagle: A
Folktale
Author Text 1: Steven Malonta (source language not known)
Translated to Indonesian by Vitri Caroline
Translated to Tado by Bance Tarua Editors:
Jonathan Coombs (SIL) Janet Oruh (SIL)
Tado Language Development Team
Title Text 1: Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Linduii
The Origin of the Name of Lake Lindu
Author Text 2:
Else Kasumba Editors:
Nurdin Yabu
Lantoh Santika Ezra Tasungki
Bance Tarua Ronald A. Kasumba
Irwanto Tolei
List of Abbreviations Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning
1/2/3SG. 1st/2nd/3rd person singular
GEN genitive
1/2/3PL. 1st/2nd/3rd person plural
IRR irrealis
1pn 1st person plural inclusive
N noun
1px 1st person plural exclusive
NASP nominal aspect
ABS absolutive
NP noun phrase
Adj adjective NUCN nucleus of a noun phrase
ASP aspect P adposition
CLASS
classifier PERIPHERYN
periphery of a noun
phrase
COMPL completed PP adpositional phrase
CONJ conjunction
PRED predicate
CONTRA contrary to expectations PROPOSS possessive pronoun
COREN core of a noun phrase QNT
quantifier
DEF definite
REAL realis
DEIC deictic (spatial and temporal)
SVO Subject-Verb-Object
emph emphatic
TNS tense
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Table of Contents 1 Typology
1.1 Language Classification and
Location
3
1.2 Description of data
collection process,
methodology
3
2 Noun Phrases 2.1 Noun phrase structure 4
2.2 Noun phrase operators 5 2.3 Noun morphology 8
3 Clause structure – simple sentences
3.1 Basic clause structure 11
3.2 Non-verbal predicate
constructions
12
3.3 Argument Adjuncts 13
3.4 Adjuncts 14 3.5 Operators in the clause 14
3.6 Dependent/head marking 15 3.7 Extra-core slots or
detached positions
16
3.8 Verbal morphology 17 4 Speech act types
4.1 Features of statements,
questions (y/n and content), commands
18
4.2 The expression of different
focus types (especially narrow focus)
18
5 Grammatical relations 5.1 PSA patterning 19 6 Clause structure – complex
sentences
6.1 Evidence of different types
of complex sentences
19
7 Reflection
7.1 Questions for future
research
19
7.2 Lessons learned 19 8 References
20
9 Appendices 9.1 Appendix A
The Friendship of the Rooster and the Eagle: A
Folktale
21
9.2 Appendix B
The Origin of Lake Lindu
43
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1 Typology
1.1 Language Classification and Location
The Tado language, otherwise known as Lindu, is a language of Central Sulawesi. Like several surrounding
languages, the language is called by the word for ‘no’ (tado). It is the mother tongue of about 2000 peopleiii
in the villages of Anca, Tomado and Langko near Lake Lindu. It is very similar to the neighbouring Moma
language, and considered by some to be a dialect of Moma. Tado is synthetic and agglutinative.
The classification of Tado is:
Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Celebic, Kaili-Pamona, Northern, Kaili
1.2 Description of data collection process, methodology
Powega Nu Manu Pade Lowe was one of the earliest texts to be translated to Tado. The text was chosen for analysis in this grammar report because a fully interlinearised version was available. It was interlinearised by
Jonathan Coombs, the SIL linguist who lived in the provincial capital from 2007-8, spending short periods in Lindu, and who facilitated the development of the orthography. His work is foundational to this grammar
report. The translation from Indonesian to English was carried out by Bance Tarua, a member of the Tado
language development team. The text has been thoroughly edited for consistency of spelling by the Tado Language Development Team, Janet Oruh and Jonathan Coombs. Nevertheless, two factors must be taken
into account when reading the text. Firstly, the Tado orthography was developed in 2008 by the newly-formed Tado Language Development team and Janet Oruh (née Watkins) and is still is tentative. Secondly,
because it is a translation by an inexperienced translator and all editors were new to the process of editing Tado, there is a risk that in places Tarua may have adapted his mother tongue to Indonesian word order.
Nevertheless, the text has been in use in three Tado schools since July 2010 and has met with approval
there. The second text, Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu, was written by Else Kasumba during a writers’ workshop
in July 2011. Else is a non-native speaker of Tado who has lived in Lindu for decades. It was subsequently edited by the members of the Tado language development team listed above, all of whom are native
speakers. They were helped by Budy Karmoy, an Indonesian national with knowledge of the Tado orthography. It constitutes one of fourteen texts in the Grade IV textbook for Tado Local Content subject
which was distributed to three Tado-speaking schools in October 2012.
The basic stem formers in Tado are pe- po- paN- pa- which can be thought of as imperative or quasi infinitive. ‘na-‘, ‘naN-, ‘ne-‘ or ‘no-‘ indicate realis. However, when Coombs initially parsed the text Powega
Nu Mane Pade Lowe in the FLEx software he felt it would be simplest to just use small affixes, adding a derivational prefix (stem-formers e- o- aN- a-) to form a bound stem and then add a required inflectional
prefix (p- n- m-) before it, even though the p- is incorrect. This was the system I adopted in parsing the
second text, Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu, too. This means that generally verbs are represented as e.g. ‘eabi/neabi’ instead of the stem ‘peabi’ (‘eabi’ does not in fact exist) or as e.g. ’n-angkondi’, rather than 'n-
pangkondi' or 'n- paN- kondi'. In contrast, this grammar paper, not relying on a computer for parsing,
treats the prefixation as a single merged prefix; e.g. nang-kondi.
The second text was only partially analysed because it proved impossible to understand the exact meaning of the Tado from the loose Indonesian interpretation which I had been sent. Thus, much of the content of
this grammar paper is based on the text analysed by Jonathan Coombs. His version originally provided a
free translation in Indonesian; this has been translated to English for the purposes of this paper.
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2 Noun Phrases
2.1 Noun phrase structure
i. The basic noun phrase in Tado with a single direct argument can be illustrated as follows:
NP
COREN PP
NUCN P NP
N
kaloua nu manu1
journey of chicken
ii. Nouns may be preceded by classifiers, for example:
NP
COREN PERIPHERY
NUCN Adj
N
sa-mbaaa manu tuama1
1SG-CLASS chicken male
NASP NUCN
COREN
NP
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‘Sambaa’ is a classifier for chickens. All nouns have classifiers which “are mandatory when there is only one
or two of whatever it is, because sa=[1SG] and ro=[2SG] are bound to the classifier” (Oruh, 2013). So the
word order here is: classifier, noun, adjective.
However, this is flexible. In utterance 14 of the same text, the phrase appears:
141 na- rata manu tina sa- mbaa
TNS
REAL
arrived chicken female 1SG. CLASS
A female chicken arrived.
Reversing the word order in this way is not possible in Indonesian, which excludes the possibility that the
translator was influenced here by the word order of the national language from which he was translating.
Probably, the device is used to bring the word female into focus by moving it from third to second place in
the phrase.
The two sentences above also show that Tado does not mark nouns for gender. If necessary, gender is
indicated by the addition of an adjective.
Additionally, we see that there is no indefinite article in Tado.
2.2 Noun phrase operators
i. Text 2 begins with the following sentence:
12 na- ria -mo sa- uatu na- tuwu sa- camboko lindu
adj exist completed 1SG. time TNS
REAL
live 1SG. pair eel
Once there lived a pair of eels.
However, the subsequent sentence begins:
NP
COREN
NUCN
N
Lindu sa-camboko ei2
Eels 1SG. pair this
NUCN
COREN QNT
NP DEIC
1 Extract from the text Powega Nu Manu Pade Lowe 2 Extract from the text Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu
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In the above tree we see that the position of the noun and the quantifier is reversed with the addition of
the deictic marker. A similar phrase:
6.12 lindu tina ei
eel female this
This female eel
follows the same pattern, with the deictic marker after the modifier.
The word ‘ei’ (this) appears three times in Text 1 and 14 times in Text 2. The context of each of these
appearances is listed below:
Phrase Gloss Occurrences
1. lindu (sacamboko) ei2 this (pair of) eels 5
2. to poindo ei2 this fisherman 5
3. duna eo ei2 up to this day 2
4. nemo-nemo i ngona i kita ei2 let it not be that we
(emph) get eaten
1
5. nipoili nu lindu tina ei2 The flow of (caused by)
this female eel 1
6. yaku ei nangonco1 I (emph) am looking for 1
7. manu tuama ei1 this cockerel 1
8. bana naronto pade duna ei1 thread is missing till this 1
Here we see that when ‘ei’ follows a pronoun as in example 4 and 6, the effect is to emphasise that
pronoun.
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The word ‘edou’ is the equivalent of the deictic sense of the English ‘that’. There is no evidence in either text that it also functions as a pronoun. Thus, in the following example it has been represented only in the
operator projection:
CLAUSE
NP NP
COREN COREN
NUCN PERIPHERYN CLM NUCN
PERIPHERYN
NP NP
N Adj N Adj
PROPOSS
bana bulawa pade jaru bulawa=ku edou
thread gold with needle gold=my that
NUCN
COREN
NP DEIC
The possessive in Tado can be formed using the clitic ‘nu’. ‘Nu’ is written separately from the noun it modifies, unless that noun begins with a plosive or 's', in which case it is assimilated. E.g nu sou becomes
ncou (of the house) and lampi nu paa becomes lampi mpaa (meaning=???).
Translation: That gold thread and
those gold needles of mine
(Utterance 9.1)
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NP
COREN
NUCN PP
N P NP
kondia nu manu ee1
food poss chicken DEF
NUCN
COREN
NP DEF
2.3 Noun morphology
Whilst independent pronouns do exist in Tado, more frequently they appear as clitics attached to verb
phrases or to nouns.
TADO Indep Erg/Abs Erg.IR (proclitic)
Gen/Erg.RL (enclitic)
Abs (enclitic)
1s yaku ku= =ku =ku .
2s iko mu= / ?nu= =mu . =ko
3s ia na= =na =ya / ?=a .
1pn kita/ikita ta= =ta =ta .
1px ikami ka= =ka =ka .
2p komi/ikomi mi= / ?ni= =mi . =komi / ?=mi
3p isira ra= =ra =ra .
(Coombs 2008: 2)
Free translation:
The rooster’s food
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The examples below illustrate the enclitics marking the genitive case.
Examples:
NP
COREN
NUCN PP
N P NP
wega =na lowe ee1
friend 3SG.GEN eagle the
NUCN
COREN
NP DEF
Possession is marked here by the pronoun =na which is attached to the head noun, even though
syntactically it belongs to the adpositional phrase. Thus the same word order is preserved as with the clitic
‘nu’ (see 2.1 above).
NP
COREN
NUCN PROPOSS
N PERIPHERY
Adj
pale bula =ku
hand white 1SG.GEN
Here, possession is marked by the pronoun =ku which is phonologically attached to the adjective rather
than to the noun but applies to whole NP.
Translation: The eagle’s friend
(Utterance 21)
Free Translation:
Honestly, …. (Utterance 22)
Commented [u1]: Hmm. That's not very satisfying to me. My
intuition is that the =na and the lowe ee are both (redundantly) modifying wega, rather than =na doing the same thing that nu does. -
Jon
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NP
COREN CONJ COREN
PROPOSS
NUCN NUCN
N N
Sampulu jaru pade bana =mu
Ten needle with thread =2SG.GEN
NUCN NUCN
QNT COREN COREN
NP NP
Here, the pronoun =mu attaches phonologically to the second of the two nouns it modifies. Note that like other Austronesian languages Tado does not mark nouns for number: if necessary, a separate quantifier is
provided (as in ‘sampulu jaru’ above). Thus, in the text Powega Nu Mane Pade Lowe, we cannot tell from the
grammar whether the needle is singular or plural until Utterance 22.
Nouns are not marked for case.
Translation: Your thread and ten needles
(Utterance 22)
(Utterance 21)
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3 Clause structure – simple sentences
3.1 Basic CLAUSE structure
CLAUSE
CORE PERIPHERY
NP NUC NP PP
COREp
PRED PROPOSS NUCP NP
PRED
P
manu nang-onco kondia =na ri laentongo nu ngambaa ee
chicken TNS.REAL-look for food =3SG.GEN in middle of valley DEF
CLAUSE
CORE
NP NUC NP
PRED PROPOSS
Adj PROPOSS V
sumawee muli =mu ma-jadi kondia =ku =da =mo1
all descendants =2SG. TNS.IRR-become food =1SG.GEN contrary to expectations3 =COMPL
NUC ASP
NUC ASP
CORE
CLAUSE
3 Hereafter, CONTRA
Translation:
The rooster was looking for (its) food in the middle of the
valley
(Utterance 2.2)
Translation: All your
descendants will become my
food (Utterance 23.2)
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On the evidence of this data, the basic word order in Tado is Actor-Predicate-Undergoer (or Subject-Verb-Object). However,
in general there are also a large number of undergoer voice clauses. many of which have the word order undergoer Verb Agent
Undergoer (where uV is an undergoer-voice verb marked with ni- or ra= etc.). It is in fact possible that a majority of clauses
begin with a verb, despite a basic SVO word order.
3.2 Non-verbal predicate constructions
There are no copula verbs in Tado. In the example below, we see an adjectival predicate without a copula
verb:
CLAUSE
CORE
PrCS NUC
PRED PRO
Adv Adj
nuapa pade na-lino =ko1
what with adj-silent =2SG.ABS
A second example is:
5.11 Yaku na- oro gaga
I adj hungry very
I am very hungry.
Translation: Why are you silent?
(Utterance 6.2)
Commented [u2]: True, although there are a large number of
undergoer-voice clauses in Tado, some of which are U uV A (which
is still SVO by the LFG theory I was taught), but many of which are
uV A U (where uV is an undergoer-voice verb marked with ni- or
ra= etc.) So, it's possible that maybe a majority of clauses begin with a verb, despite a possibly basic SVO order.
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3.3 Argument Adjuncts
CLAUSE
CORE
NUC
PRED PP
V PRO
na- lou =ra =mo ri ngambaa1
TNS.REAL-go =3PL.ABS=COMPL at =2SG.ABS
PRED
PRED ASP
NUC
CORE
CLAUSE
The argument adjunct in Tado occurs after the verb.
Translation: They went to the valley (Utterance 2.1)
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3.4 Adjuncts
CLAUSE
CORE PERIPHERY
NUC PP
PRED COREp
PRO PRED NUCP NP
PRED
V P
n-esompo =ya n-euntu ri siawe nu manu ee
TNS.REAL-descend 3.SG.ABS TNS.REAL-abate at near of chicken DEF
The adjunct occurs after the clausal predicate. For another examples, please refer to the first tree diagram
in 3.1. There, the adjunct ‘ri laentongo nu ngambaa ee’ also occurs in the same position.
3.5 Operators in the clause:
“Historically, […..] the basic stem-formers (pe- po- paN- pa- which can be thought of as imperative or quasi infinitive) were used to derive uninflected verbal stems, and then optional inflectional infixes plus
deletion rules could transform these (into ne- no- naN- na- 'realis' or me- mo- maN- ma- 'irrealis').”
(Coombs 2013: 2).
m- (or ma-, maN-, me-, mo-) marks irrealis, that is, something which has not yet happened, e.g (“I am able
to”) in the next example. This bound morpheme in the sentence below is attached to two of the verbs,
carrying the irrealis meaning across the whole clause.
9.11 ma- mala =da =ko ku= wei mam- peodo abi
TNS
IRR
be able
to
CONTRA 2SG.ABS 1SG= Give TNS.IRR lend friend
I can (in fact) lend them to you, friend
Compare, however, the example below, where the ‘m-‘ is not marking irrealis; rather, it is an allomorph of
nu: an example of nasal assimilation of nu= -pandake:
1.31 lowe n- eworo ri m- pandake =na
eagle TNS.REAL fly at of climb =3SG.GEN
the eagle flying above
Translation: He came down
and stopped near that rooster. (Utterance 3.3)
Commented [u3]: This one, which I was intending as the stem-former for stative stems ('adj'), may be a mistake. It looks like their
stem-former may have actually been ka- or something else. Although
there is an imperative such as paleta=mo=ko, I now suspect that that pa- is really just another allomorph of paN- where the root's L
deleted the N. Sorry! -Jon
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‘n-‘ (or ‘na-‘, ‘naN-, ‘ne-‘, ‘no-‘) indicates realis. Specifically, ‘na-‘ often marks adjectives (which technically
are stative verbs). See below for examples:
2.11 ngambaa ta na- ria sa- mpolea kou na- tuwu ra= peuntui =ra
valley not adj there
is
1SG CLASS Tree adj alive 3PL.
ERG
.IRR
stop 3PL.
ERG
There was not a single living tree in the valley where they stopped.
‘ta-’ This is a free morpheme, short for tado, which negates the core (see example above), appears before
the predicative adjective.
Additional morphemes include:
‘=da-‘ This marks something contrary to expectation. It is a bound aspectual morpheme. An example
occurs in the first example in this section (above).
‘ni-’ This marks patient voice in the realis tense, and agent is not indicated. “In the irrealis, […] ra- often
serves this purpose rather than specifically indicating 3PL” (Coombs 2013). Please refer to 3.7 below for an
example of the use of ‘ni-‘.
N.B. ‘=ra‘ Note that in the final word in the example 2.11 above, the clitic =ra is not absolutive as one would expect. The sentence includes the phrase “Ta naria sampolea kou or ‘there wasn’t a single tree,’ in
which kou is clearly singular because of the number word before it, sampolea. So =ra, being plural, cannot refer to the tree. It must refer to the birds, which means it must be ergative and not absolutive. This
shows that in every similar construct, the second ra is always ergative and does not make the verb realis as
it normally would. The first ra makes the verb irrealis, and since as Jon said (and also Adriani and Esser) it is often used by itself to indicate a generic passive in the irrealis, where the agent is not mentioned, the
second ra is added just to explicitly refer to the agent” (Oruh, 2013).
3.6 Dependent/head marking
In the following sentence, neither the predicate nor the arguments are marked to show their relationship.
Word order (agent-predicate-undergoer) provides this information.
251 manu sa- mata n- opangkae nang onco jaru
chicken 1SG eye TNS
REAL
scratch TNS
REAL
look
for
needle
The chicken always scratches and looks for the needles.
In the two sentences below, however, the undergoer is marked with a possessive pronoun to show its
relationship to the head noun. The predicate remains unmarked.
2.21 manu nang onco kondia =na
chicken TNS
REAL
look for food 3SG.
GEN
The chicken was looking for its food.
Formatted: Font: Italic
Commented [u4]: Actually, I think the verb is marked as active
(or "actor voice") rather than as passive (or "undergoer voice"),
which would be marked with a ni- .
Commented [u5]: Actually I think that, "Manu nionco kondiana"
would mean the opposite--that the chicken got eaten by its food.
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8.11 Yaku no- wia kapi =ku
1SG TNS.
REAL
make wing 1SG.GEN
I make my wings.
In the last example, tense and agent are marked on the predicate ‘mamala kupeodo’:
8.21 ane ma- mala ku= peodo bana =mu
if TNS IRR be able to 1SG.ERG.IRR Borrow thread =2SG.GEN
If I could borrow your thread
However, undergoer is not marked on the predicate, in any of the above examples. Therefore, on this
evidence Tado is a dependent-marking language.
3.7 Extra-core slots or detached positions.
SENTENCE
CLAUSE
CORE
LDP PrCS NUC
PRED PRO
NP V
abi nuapa ni-onco =mu
friend what PATIENT-search =2SG.ERG.REAL1
Here, the question word takes the pre-core slot, and the word ‘abi’ (‘friend’) is in left-detached position.
For a second example, please refer to 3.2. (This utterance is also preceded by the word ‘abi’, also in left
detached position.)
Translation: Friend, what are
you searching for? (Utterance 4.1)
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3.8 Verbal morphology
(tense, voice) (stem-former)
ROOT/
STEM (pron 1) (pron 2) (aspect) (aspect) (pron 2)
m- (irrealis)
n- (realis)
-----
ni- ra-
----- ERG.IR: ku= 1s mu= 2s na= 3s ta= 1pn ka= 1px mi= 2p ra= 3p etc.
paN- po-
pe-
ERG.RL:
=ku 1s =mu 2s =na 3s
=ta 1pn =ka 1px =mi 2p =ra 3p
ABS:
=ku 1s =ya 3s
=ta 1pn =ka 1px =ra 3p
=da =pa
=mo ABS:
=ko 2s
=komi 2p
Coombs (personal correspondence)
The table above describes the order of tense prefixes and proclitics in Tado. “Tado has independent
pronouns, but most often this information is encoded as a clitic attached to the verb” (Coombs, 2008 ibid).
Markers affixing to the front of the verb stem (in order): tense, voice, ergative irrealis proclitics
Markers affixing to the end of the verb stem phrase (in order): ergative realis proclitics, possessive
pronouns, clitics marking absolutives (except for 2SG and 2PL), the aspectual marker for contra-expectation (‘=da’), for action in progress (‘=pa’), for completed action (‘=mo’) and clitics marking
absolutive 2SG and 2PL.
Pronouns indicating ergative irrealis and ergative realis are identical, only differing in whether they come before or after the stem, which is why they are tentatively labeled as proclitics rather than prefixes. The
absolutive 1SG, 1PL (inclusive), 1PL (exclusive) and 3PL are also the same as the former set; however, 2SG,
3SG and 2PL are different.
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4 Speech act types
4.1 Features of statements, questions (y/n and content), commands
Please refer to section 3.1 for features of statements, and to section 3.7 and 6.1 for features of questions.
CLAUSE
CORE
NUC
PRED NP
V Adj
mu-jaga bana bulawa
2SG.ERG.IRR-look after thread gold
The positive command employs the irrealis proclitic on the verb to indicate that what is commanded has
not yet happened. An example of a negative command:
9.21 Nee ngoni na- kalio nu roa =ku
Let not later 3SG.ERG.IRR see of friend 1SG
Don’t let my friends see.
Here again in the negative the irrealis proclitic is attached to the negative command. ‘You’ is implied and
the undergoer of the verb ‘see’ is also implied.
4.2 The expression of different focus types
Translation: Look after (the)
gold thread (Utterance 4.1)
Commented [u6]: Isn't this just "friend"? Otherwise, I'd expect ra= instead of na= .
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9.21 ma- mala =da =ko ku- wei mam peodo abi
TNS
IRR
be able to CONTRA =2SG.ABS 1SG.ERG.IRR- give TNS.
IRR
lend friend
I am (in fact) able to lend to you, friend
(cont’d) ane ntani =na tado ku- wei mam peodo bana
[…]
=ku
if different 3SG.GEN not 1SG.ERG.IRR give TNS.
IRR
lend thread
[…]
=1SG.
GEN
(but) to others, I will not lend my thread
The topic, ‘ane ntani’, which is in left-detached position, is introduced here by the use of the word ‘ane’ (‘if’). The focus of the sentence is ‘tado kuwei mampeodo banaku’ (I won’t lend my thread to others). This
is evidence that Tado can use predicate focus.
5 Grammatical relations
5.1 PSA patterning in case and/or agreement
Tado employs the ergative/absolutive distinction when selecting between the reduced pronouns. In the first example sentence quoted in 3.5, the absolutive pronoun ‘=ko=’ (‘you’) marks the undergoer. It is
attached to the end of the first verb. The first person ergative proclitic ‘ku=’ indicates that the speaker is the actor. It attaches to the second verb in the three juxtaposed verbs. Please see 2.3 for a list of proclitics
marking ergative and absolutive.
6 Clause structure – complex sentences
6.1 Evidence of different types of complex sentences.
12.11 no- mulei =ya =mo na- ndou kapi =na
TNS.
REAL
begin 3SG.ABS COMPL TNS.REAL sew wing =3SG.GEN
He began to sew his wings.
Tado can juxtapose two or more verbs. In the example above, the second clause is an argument of the first
clause. Both verbs are in the realis tense. Note that it is not necessary to have a separate agent in Tado;
the agent in the sentence above is indicated on the first verb. Please refer to 4.2 for a second example.
7 Reflection
7.1 Questions for future research
It would be helpful to read again the documents I have received which describe the morphophonemics of
Tado. The [p] in the basic stem formers pe- po- paN- pa is deleted or assimilated in a number of verb
forms in a way that I do not yet fully understand.
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Furthermore, in Jonathan Coombs’ table cited in Section 3.8 above, voice is listed as marked by ‘aN-, o-,
e-, ni-, etc.’. I have discussed ‘ni’ briefly in 3.5 above. More research is needed and might, for example, lead to a revision of 3.6.
7.2 Lessons learned about the process and your organisation of the project
Documents and emails sent to me by Jonathan Coombs and Janet Oruh, who have done research into
Tado and the neighbouring language, Moma, were indispensable in writing this project. Indeed, the text which I used to get most of the information was interlinearised by Jonathan Coombs. I could not have
done this project without them.
My initial decision to draw trees by hand led me to write my draft by hand. This was a helpful approach, as
it allowed me to focus on content rather than formatting at the drafting stage.
Word count: 3260
8 References
i Malonta, S. (2010) Powega Nu Mane Pade Lowe, SIL International. ii Kasumba, E. (2012) Pamulana Sanga Tongo Ri Lindu, SIL International. iii SIL, 1990 quoted in http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=klw
Unpublished sources
Coombs,J (2008) Moma and Tado Pronouns.
European Training Programme (2010) An Introduction to Grammar.
Oruh,J. (2011) Janet's sketch of Moma-Tado Grammar.docx.
Coombs, J. (2013) Parsing Tado-Lindu with FLEx and Hermit Crab.doc.
Emails from Jonathan Coombs about Parsing Tado (2013).
Emails from Janet Oruh about the grammar of Tado (2013).
Email from Jonathan Coombs about differences between Tado & Moma (2013).