EUROPE IN UPHEAVAL, EUROPE IN UPHEAVAL, 1850-19141850-1914

Scott MastersScott MastersCrestwood CollegeCrestwood College

after the rev. changes/idealism of the early after the rev. changes/idealism of the early 19th c., Europe began to follow a more 19th c., Europe began to follow a more pragmatic course, determined by more pragmatic course, determined by more practical politicians and reformerspractical politicians and reformers

to varying degrees, they would play a to varying degrees, they would play a key role in one of the period’s more sig. key role in one of the period’s more sig. developments: the Rise of the developments: the Rise of the Nation-Nation-StateState

the force behind this was the force behind this was nationalismnationalism, esp. as , esp. as it was harnessed by individual philosophers it was harnessed by individual philosophers and politiciansand politicians

““new” new” nationsnations would be created, and would be created, and eventually the forces that would lead to eventually the forces that would lead to WW I would be unleashedWW I would be unleashed– the nat’lism of this period would inc. not the nat’lism of this period would inc. not

only territory, pop., and mil. capacity; it only territory, pop., and mil. capacity; it would also inc. an eco. dimension (brought would also inc. an eco. dimension (brought on by the IR) – this created a contest of on by the IR) – this created a contest of imperialismimperialism

FRANCEFRANCE

no longer a monarchy, but a republic no longer a monarchy, but a republic – but – but Louis-Napoleon Louis-Napoleon (Bonaparte) (Bonaparte) was an autocratic figure whose use was an autocratic figure whose use of nat’lism threatened this balanceof nat’lism threatened this balance

Louis-Napoleon had emerged as a Louis-Napoleon had emerged as a compromise figure in the ongoing compromise figure in the ongoing dispute b/n the monarchists and the dispute b/n the monarchists and the republicansrepublicans– he served as pres. (in the he served as pres. (in the Second Second

RepublicRepublic) and later took the title of ) and later took the title of emperor, ruling as emperor, ruling as Napoleon IIINapoleon III over the over the Second EmpireSecond Empire

As pres. of the 2nd Repub., L-N had to As pres. of the 2nd Repub., L-N had to contend w/ being limited to one 4 yr. term…he contend w/ being limited to one 4 yr. term…he and the monarchists wanted to extend his and the monarchists wanted to extend his rule, leading to a couprule, leading to a coup

– the Ass’y was dissolved, universal male the Ass’y was dissolved, universal male suffrage was intro’d (w/ a property suffrage was intro’d (w/ a property qualification), leading radicals were qualification), leading radicals were arrested, and the army occupied Paris, arrested, and the army occupied Paris, killing 200 rioters in the process…killing 200 rioters in the process…

–Louis then proclaimed himself emperor Louis then proclaimed himself emperor and promised to restore dem. rights, inc. a and promised to restore dem. rights, inc. a series of series of plebiscitesplebiscites where the people where the people supported himsupported him

– He was able to do this as He was able to do this as the eco. was prosperous, the eco. was prosperous, w/ …w/ …

– railroad constructionrailroad construction– high employmenthigh employment– available creditavailable credit– gov’t assistance/planning gov’t assistance/planning

(seen in the re-design of (seen in the re-design of Paris by Paris by HaussmanHaussman))

– By the 1860s, discontent By the 1860s, discontent was on the rise, b/c of was on the rise, b/c of pol. scandals; Napoleon pol. scandals; Napoleon III responded w/ dem. III responded w/ dem. reforms (resp. gov’t, free reforms (resp. gov’t, free speech, unions…) that speech, unions…) that kept his popularity highkept his popularity high

Nap. III did have mil. Nap. III did have mil. ambitions: in 1854, he ambitions: in 1854, he sought to protect Christians sought to protect Christians in the Ottoman Empire, in the Ottoman Empire, challenging Russia in the challenging Russia in the process…process…the main thing the the main thing the Crimean Crimean WarWar did was to presage did was to presage what ind. war would becomewhat ind. war would becomeit also showed the influence it also showed the influence of war correspondents and of war correspondents and the need for better medicine the need for better medicine ((Florence NightingaleFlorence Nightingale); and ); and since Russia fared poorly, since Russia fared poorly, Fr. was able to re-est. itself Fr. was able to re-est. itself as the center of Euro. dip.as the center of Euro. dip.

ITALYITALY

one of the “new” nations one of the “new” nations united in this period – it united in this period – it combined idealistic combined idealistic nat’lism, pop. uprising, nat’lism, pop. uprising, realpolitikrealpolitik and took and took place in spite of place in spite of opposition from the opposition from the pope and Austriapope and Austriathis mvmt., known as this mvmt., known as the the RisorgimentoRisorgimento, , had had been around since the been around since the early 19th c. and had early 19th c. and had been kept alive by been kept alive by secret societies known secret societies known as as carbonaricarbonari

– their early uprisings their early uprisings failed, leading to the rise failed, leading to the rise of of Giuseppe MazziniGiuseppe Mazzini – he – he founded a Young Italy founded a Young Italy society and dreamed of a society and dreamed of a unified Italy based on unified Italy based on nat’lism and liberalismnat’lism and liberalism

after a series of uprisings, after a series of uprisings, Mazzini est. himself as Mazzini est. himself as pres. of a republic in pres. of a republic in Rome: when Austrian and Rome: when Austrian and Fr. troops tried to intervene Fr. troops tried to intervene to restore the pope, to restore the pope, Giuseppe GaribaldiGiuseppe Garibaldi and his and his Red ShirtsRed Shirts tried to defend tried to defend the city (they had to the city (they had to surrender in 1849)surrender in 1849)

the more seasoned politician the more seasoned politician Camillo CavourCamillo Cavour stepped forward, stepped forward, using using realpolitikrealpolitik to secure It. unity – to secure It. unity – he cheated in elecs., made and he cheated in elecs., made and unmade foreign alliances, and put unmade foreign alliances, and put It. unification on the agenda of the It. unification on the agenda of the 1856 Paris Peace Conf1856 Paris Peace Conf. (he was . (he was partially successful)partially successful)

at this pt., Garibaldi and his at this pt., Garibaldi and his remaining 1000 Red Shirts (remaining 1000 Red Shirts (i millei mille) ) captured Sicily and s. Italy, meeting captured Sicily and s. Italy, meeting w/ Cavour in 1861 to secure the w/ Cavour in 1861 to secure the Kingdom of Italy under Kingdom of Italy under King VictorKing Victor--Emmanuel IIEmmanuel II (con. monarchy) in (con. monarchy) in 1866 Venice was added (It. 1866 Venice was added (It. supported Pr. in its war w/ Aus.) supported Pr. in its war w/ Aus.) and in 1870 Rome was added when and in 1870 Rome was added when Nap. III removed Fr. troops to fight Nap. III removed Fr. troops to fight Pr….Rome then became the capitalPr….Rome then became the capital

GERMANYGERMANY

RomanticismRomanticism + + RealpolitikRealpolitik Liberal nat’lists had worked for a unified Ger. since 1815Liberal nat’lists had worked for a unified Ger. since 1815

The n. states under Pr. created an eco. union in 1834 – the The n. states under Pr. created an eco. union in 1834 – the ZollvereinZollverein (customs union) – led to eco., ind., and railroad (customs union) – led to eco., ind., and railroad

expansion; the belief that a unified state was needed began to be expansion; the belief that a unified state was needed began to be recognizedrecognized

The debate was b/n The debate was b/n the “the “Greater Greater GermansGermans” (who ” (who wanted Austria inc.) wanted Austria inc.) and the “and the “Lesser Lesser GermansGermans” (who ” (who were pro-Pr.) - ?were pro-Pr.) - ?

at this point, at this point, Count Count Otto von BismarckOtto von Bismarck est. himself as the est. himself as the leading Pr. leading Pr. politician – known politician – known for his use of for his use of realpolitikrealpolitik in in achieving his pol. achieving his pol. goals (“goals (“blood and blood and ironiron”)”)

– All Bismarck needed was All Bismarck needed was an excuse: Denmark gave an excuse: Denmark gave him one when it put a claim him one when it put a claim on the regions of on the regions of Schleswig and HolsteinSchleswig and Holstein – – both Aus. and Pr. quickly both Aus. and Pr. quickly defeated them (and the Pr. defeated them (and the Pr. army, armed by army, armed by Krupp,Krupp, est. est. its reputation)its reputation)

– He then proposed the re-He then proposed the re-org. of the German Confed. org. of the German Confed. based on universal based on universal suffrage; he knew this suffrage; he knew this would be rejected in would be rejected in Austria and that it would Austria and that it would probably lead to war b/n Pr. probably lead to war b/n Pr. and Aus.and Aus.

The Pr. army, w/ its ind. The Pr. army, w/ its ind. weaponry and led by Gen. weaponry and led by Gen. Helmuth von MoltkeHelmuth von Moltke, won , won the Aust-Pr. War in 7 the Aust-Pr. War in 7 wks….Bis. negotiated a wks….Bis. negotiated a lenient peace and created a lenient peace and created a n. Ger. Confed. under Pr. n. Ger. Confed. under Pr. leadership (Pr. leadership (Pr. Kaiser Kaiser Wilhelm IWilhelm I acted as king) acted as king)

Other s. Ger. states, such as Other s. Ger. states, such as Bavaria, signed a mil. Bavaria, signed a mil. alliance w/ Prussia and went alliance w/ Prussia and went on to develop closer eco. on to develop closer eco. and pol. relations (Aus. was and pol. relations (Aus. was pushed out)pushed out)

The main threat to emerging The main threat to emerging Ger. unity was France, Ger. unity was France, where Nap. III had won a key where Nap. III had won a key plebiscite in 1870plebiscite in 1870

– this would lead to the this would lead to the Franco-Franco-Prussian WarPrussian War

it began as a diplomatic it began as a diplomatic dispute over succession to dispute over succession to the Sp. Throne (Pr. and Sp. the Sp. Throne (Pr. and Sp. still had family still had family connections)…the Fr. connections)…the Fr. feared being surrounded feared being surrounded and newspapers in both Pr. and newspapers in both Pr. and Fr. inflamed nat’list and Fr. inflamed nat’list emotionsemotions

– Pr. did remove their Pr. did remove their candidate to the Sp. candidate to the Sp. throne, but the Fr. made throne, but the Fr. made add. demands (that Pr. add. demands (that Pr. wouldn’t try this again), wouldn’t try this again), which Bis. edited and which Bis. edited and released to the press…released to the press…w/ Fr. “honour” sullied, w/ Fr. “honour” sullied, Nap. III declared war in Nap. III declared war in 18701870

– Pr. won w/in months…Pr. won w/in months…1/2 million troops were 1/2 million troops were moved to the front by moved to the front by train and at train and at SedanSedan they they captured 100 000 Fr. captured 100 000 Fr. troops and Nap. III…troops and Nap. III…this, combined w/ the this, combined w/ the brutal siege of Paris, led brutal siege of Paris, led to the collapse of the to the collapse of the 2nd Empire2nd Empire

In the 1871 In the 1871 Treaty of Treaty of FrankfurtFrankfurt, Fr. ceded , Fr. ceded Alsace-LorraineAlsace-Lorraine, , paid reparations, paid reparations, and dealt w/ Pr. and dealt w/ Pr. occupation for 3 occupation for 3 yrs.yrs.

LATE VICTORIAN BRITAIN, 1867-1914: LATE VICTORIAN BRITAIN, 1867-1914: DISRAELI AND GLADSTONEDISRAELI AND GLADSTONE

dem. had been entrenched dem. had been entrenched by this time, and the by this time, and the extension of the franchise extension of the franchise was an accepted part of the was an accepted part of the processprocess– in 1867, the in 1867, the 2nd Reform 2nd Reform

BillBill was passed by the was passed by the gov’t of the Conservative gov’t of the Conservative (Tory) (Tory) Benjamin DisraeliBenjamin Disraeli

w/ this working class w/ this working class male householders male householders were given suffragewere given suffrage

– in 1884, a in 1884, a 3rd Reform Bill3rd Reform Bill went through under the went through under the Liberal Liberal William William GladstoneGladstone, extending the , extending the franchise to male rural franchise to male rural householdershouseholders

late 19th c. G.B. still saw the late 19th c. G.B. still saw the same ongoing conflict though: same ongoing conflict though: reform v. tradition reform v. traditionDisraeli tried to profit from this Disraeli tried to profit from this by creating a new by creating a new conservatism that appealed to conservatism that appealed to est. landowners and the est. landowners and the working classworking class– emphasized tradition, emphasized tradition,

patriotism, and reform, patriotism, and reform, working w/ working w/ Queen VictoriaQueen Victoria, , who emerged as key who emerged as key symbol of his visionsymbol of his vision

– Disraeli also emerged as a Disraeli also emerged as a leading imperialist: he leading imperialist: he made Victoria the made Victoria the Empress Empress of Indiaof India and bought shares and bought shares in the in the Suez CanalSuez Canal, and , and fought colonial wars in fought colonial wars in Asia and AfricaAsia and Africa

– At home, his social reforms At home, his social reforms recognized unions, public recognized unions, public housing, consumer housing, consumer protection, workplaceprotection, workplace safetysafety……

Gladstone and the Liberals followed “Gladstone and the Liberals followed “Peace, Peace, Retrenchment, and ReformRetrenchment, and Reform”, favouring free trade ”, favouring free trade and fewer colonial wars/adventuresand fewer colonial wars/adventures– They also favoured a They also favoured a laissez fairelaissez faire approach approach

and the eradication of outdated laws and the eradication of outdated laws – In this respect, they reformed the army, civil In this respect, they reformed the army, civil

service, and educational institutions, doing service, and educational institutions, doing away w/ away w/ patronagepatronage

– after ongoing Balkan conflict saw the after ongoing Balkan conflict saw the slaughter of 1000s of Christians by the slaughter of 1000s of Christians by the Ottomans (and Disraeli backed the Ottomans Ottomans (and Disraeli backed the Ottomans b/c of his concerns over Russia), Gladstone b/c of his concerns over Russia), Gladstone was back in officewas back in office

Gladstone was not successful in his own Gladstone was not successful in his own foreign policy initiatives – conflict w/ the foreign policy initiatives – conflict w/ the BoersBoers and the Irish showed that peace was elusive; w/ and the Irish showed that peace was elusive; w/ his intro of the his intro of the Irish Home Rule BillIrish Home Rule Bill he split his he split his own partyown party

w/ these devels. and those in other Euro. w/ these devels. and those in other Euro. nations, a new type of rivalry had emerged, nations, a new type of rivalry had emerged, based on ind., imperialism and eco. competitionbased on ind., imperialism and eco. competition

nat’lism in the Balkans was esp. complex b/c of nat’lism in the Balkans was esp. complex b/c of the number of ethno-cultural groups in close the number of ethno-cultural groups in close proximity; they were stuck in the collapsing proximity; they were stuck in the collapsing Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, and Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, and the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 only inflamed the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 only inflamed emotionsemotions

the “spark” would thus occur in this the “spark” would thus occur in this region, creating the total war that would region, creating the total war that would transform the 20th c.transform the 20th c.

Germany and G.B. emerged as the key Germany and G.B. emerged as the key powers in this period often called “powers in this period often called “The The Road to WarRoad to War” – both identified their ” – both identified their dominance as a natural outcome of dominance as a natural outcome of earlier history: the difference was that earlier history: the difference was that in Ger. the old aristocracy retained its in Ger. the old aristocracy retained its influence w/o much trouble, while in influence w/o much trouble, while in G.B. the dispute b/n the landed interests G.B. the dispute b/n the landed interests and the people led to constitutional and the people led to constitutional crises and reformscrises and reforms

SOCIALISMSOCIALISMsoc. had appeal for the growing trade union soc. had appeal for the growing trade union mvmt. as well as those who gravitated to mvmt. as well as those who gravitated to MarxMarx– several attempts at real soc. organization had several attempts at real soc. organization had

been made and had not succeededbeen made and had not succeeded– subsequent attempts took a diff. approach: subsequent attempts took a diff. approach:

gradualism replaced rev. for many socialistsgradualism replaced rev. for many socialiststhis approach came to be known as this approach came to be known as revisionismrevisionism, and it , and it divided the soc. Worlddivided the soc. World

even so, even so, Social DemocraticSocial Democratic parties did begin to parties did begin to appear and had success in Ger. and Fr.appear and had success in Ger. and Fr.

– in GB the in GB the Labour PartyLabour Party arose during this period to rep. arose during this period to rep. the working classthe working class

– from its inception, the Labour Party was divided b/n the from its inception, the Labour Party was divided b/n the trade unionists and intellectuals (assoc. w/ the trade unionists and intellectuals (assoc. w/ the FabiansFabians))

the entrenchment of soc. ideals the entrenchment of soc. ideals had created a sense of crisis in had created a sense of crisis in Europe – it was more Europe – it was more pronounced in the repressive pronounced in the repressive conditions of E. Europeconditions of E. Europe– Russia in 1905 saw the beginning Russia in 1905 saw the beginning

of profound change as revolution of profound change as revolution began to grip the country (during began to grip the country (during the time of the time of Czar Nicholas IICzar Nicholas II, , 1894-1917)1894-1917)

– Russia was in the midst of an Russia was in the midst of an identity crisis: czarist repression identity crisis: czarist repression + industrialization (much of which + industrialization (much of which was financed by foreign capital; it was financed by foreign capital; it created the Russian working class created the Russian working class and the demand for rev. change)and the demand for rev. change)

The principal The principal Marxist Party, the Marxist Party, the Social Democratic Social Democratic Party, had been Party, had been exiled to Switz. – exiled to Switz. – they were caught in they were caught in the revisionist the revisionist debate along w/ debate along w/ other Euro. other Euro. SocialistsSocialistsVladimir LeninVladimir Lenin authored authored What Is to What Is to Be Done?,Be Done?, defending the defending the Marxist concept of Marxist concept of rev. and advancing rev. and advancing the ideal of a the ideal of a vanguardvanguard

– the majority the majority agreed w/ him = agreed w/ him = Bolsheviks Bolsheviks (while (while the minority were the minority were called the called the Mensheviks)Mensheviks)

– as events in Russia as events in Russia deteriorated (eco. slump, deteriorated (eco. slump, defeat in the 1904-5 defeat in the 1904-5 Russo-Japanese WarRusso-Japanese War), a ), a real rev. unfoldedreal rev. unfolded

the spark was the spark was Bloody Bloody SundaySunday, when the , when the czar’s troops opened czar’s troops opened fire on peaceful fire on peaceful demonstrators - this demonstrators - this led to crises across led to crises across Russia, leading Russia, leading Nicholas II to create the Nicholas II to create the DumaDuma in an effort to in an effort to reach a settlementreach a settlementthe Duma’s powers the Duma’s powers were limited and the were limited and the radicals and radicals and conservatives were at conservatives were at odds over the pace and odds over the pace and direction of reform: direction of reform: Nicholas continued as Nicholas continued as an autocratan autocrat