Eudaimonistic Identity Theory:Eudaimonistic Identity Theory:Philosophical Foundations andPhilosophical Foundations and

Theoretical PropositionsTheoretical Propositions

Alan S. WatermanAlan S. Waterman

The College of New JerseyThe College of New Jersey

Theoretical FoundationsTheoretical Foundations

Personality TheoriesPersonality Theories

Erikson—Erikson—Identity: Youth and CrisisIdentity: Youth and Crisis

Maslow—Maslow—Toward a Psychology of BeingToward a Psychology of Being

May—May—Love and WillLove and Will

Philosophy of EudaimonismPhilosophy of Eudaimonism

Aristotle—Aristotle—Nichomachean EthicsNichomachean Ethics

NortonNorton—Personal Destinies—Personal Destinies

James Marcia: Identity Status James Marcia: Identity Status ParadigmParadigm

Defining Dimensions of the Identity StatusesDefining Dimensions of the Identity Statuses

Exploration (Crisis): The systematic Exploration (Crisis): The systematic consideration of alternative potential consideration of alternative potential identity elementsidentity elements

Commitment: The formation of an Commitment: The formation of an unwavering investment in particular unwavering investment in particular alternatives that give direction and meaning alternatives that give direction and meaning to lifeto life

The Identity StatusesThe Identity Statuses ExplorationExploration

Never in Crisis In Crisis Past CrisisNever in Crisis In Crisis Past Crisis

Present Foreclosure ---------- IdentityPresent Foreclosure ---------- Identity

AchievementAchievement

CommitmentsCommitments

Absent Identity Moratorium Identity Absent Identity Moratorium Identity

Diffusion DiffusionDiffusion Diffusion

““One person with a belief is One person with a belief is equal in force to ninety-nine equal in force to ninety-nine who have only interests.”who have only interests.”

John Stuart MillJohn Stuart Mill

Eudaimonistic Philosophy: Eudaimonistic Philosophy: An Ethical TheoryAn Ethical Theory

The ethical ideal is to recognize and live in The ethical ideal is to recognize and live in accordance with the daimon or “true self”.accordance with the daimon or “true self”.

The daimon refers to those potentialities of each The daimon refers to those potentialities of each individual, the realization of which represents individual, the realization of which represents the greatest fulfillment in living for that person.the greatest fulfillment in living for that person.

The daimon is an excellence toward which one The daimon is an excellence toward which one strives thus it gives direction and meaning to strives thus it gives direction and meaning to life.life.

EudaimoniaEudaimonia

The subjective state accompanying actions The subjective state accompanying actions consistent with the daimon, that is, actions consistent with the daimon, that is, actions involving self-realization.involving self-realization.

* Feelings of personal expressiveness* Feelings of personal expressiveness

* Strength of purpose* Strength of purpose

* Competence* Competence

* Feelings of rightness * Feelings of rightness

HedoniaHedonia

The subjective experience of pleasure The subjective experience of pleasure irrespective of the source.irrespective of the source.

* sensory gratification* sensory gratification * enjoyment of material possessions* enjoyment of material possessions * competitive advantage * competitive advantage * schadenfreude* schadenfreude * self-realization* self-realization

The Personally Expressive Activities The Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire (PEAQ)Questionnaire (PEAQ)

Subjective Experience ScalesSubjective Experience Scales

Interest (1 item)Interest (1 item)

Flow (8 items)Flow (8 items)

Personal expressiveness (eudamonia) (6 items)Personal expressiveness (eudamonia) (6 items)

Hedonic enjoyment (hedonia) (6 items)Hedonic enjoyment (hedonia) (6 items)

Predictor ScalesPredictor Scales

Self-determination (2 items)Self-determination (2 items)

Balance of challenges and skills (2 items)Balance of challenges and skills (2 items)

Self-realization values (2 items)Self-realization values (2 items)

Effort (1 item)Effort (1 item)

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions

1. The goal of the process of identity formation1. The goal of the process of identity formation should be to recognize one’s best potentials should be to recognize one’s best potentials and choose purposes in living consistent withand choose purposes in living consistent with those potentials. those potentials.

(This is a value statement and therefore is not empirically (This is a value statement and therefore is not empirically testable.)testable.)

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

2. When individuals engage in activities that 2. When individuals engage in activities that

involve the development of their best potentials involve the development of their best potentials and pursue related goals, they will report and pursue related goals, they will report experiences of eudaimonia (personal experiences of eudaimonia (personal expressiveness) more so than when engaged expressiveness) more so than when engaged in other activities. in other activities.

(Schwartz & Waterman, in press; (Schwartz & Waterman, in press; Waterman, in press; Waterman, Waterman, in press; Waterman, Schwartz, & Conti, in press; Waterman et Schwartz, & Conti, in press; Waterman et al., 2003)al., 2003)

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

3. Relationships are hypothesized between the 3. Relationships are hypothesized between the processes used in identity formation and the processes used in identity formation and the likelihood of making personally expressive likelihood of making personally expressive choices.choices.

3a. The recognition of one’s personal 3a. The recognition of one’s personal potentials and the forming of personally potentials and the forming of personally expressive commitments is more likely to expressive commitments is more likely to occur through a process of exploration than occur through a process of exploration than through a process of identification. In other through a process of identification. In other words, the identity achievement status should words, the identity achievement status should associated with eudaimonia to a greater extent associated with eudaimonia to a greater extent than is the foreclosure status. than is the foreclosure status.

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

3b. Abdication of the task of identity 3b. Abdication of the task of identity

formation (identity diffusion) should formation (identity diffusion) should

contraindicate eudaimonia. contraindicate eudaimonia.

(Schwartz, Mullis, Waterman, & Dunham, (Schwartz, Mullis, Waterman, & Dunham,

2000; Waterman, in press)2000; Waterman, in press)

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

4. Experiences of eudaimonia can be used as a 4. Experiences of eudaimonia can be used as a

signifier that the activities engaged in involve signifier that the activities engaged in involve

one’s best (or at least better) personal potentials one’s best (or at least better) personal potentials

and therefore it can be used as a criteria when and therefore it can be used as a criteria when

making identity choices. making identity choices.

The test of this hypothesis using retrospective The test of this hypothesis using retrospective

reports is currently being undertaken.reports is currently being undertaken.

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

5. Since hedonia involves experiences of happiness 5. Since hedonia involves experiences of happiness

irrespective of source, whereas eudaimonia irrespective of source, whereas eudaimonia

involves happiness deriving specifically from self-involves happiness deriving specifically from self-

realization, it follows that eudaimonia is a realization, it follows that eudaimonia is a

sufficient, but not a necessary, condition for sufficient, but not a necessary, condition for

experiences of hedonia (Telfer, 1980). Therefore, experiences of hedonia (Telfer, 1980). Therefore,

it should be possible to demonstrate that it should be possible to demonstrate that

eudaimonia and hedonia are two related, but eudaimonia and hedonia are two related, but

distinguishable conceptions of happiness. distinguishable conceptions of happiness.

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

5a. There should be a substantial positive 5a. There should be a substantial positive

correlation between measures of the two correlation between measures of the two

constructs.constructs.

5b. Eudaimonia, in comparison with hedonia, 5b. Eudaimonia, in comparison with hedonia,

should correlate more strongly with measures should correlate more strongly with measures

of self-realization values, the balance of of self-realization values, the balance of

challenges and skills, and effort.challenges and skills, and effort.

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

5c. Hedonia, in comparison with eudaimonia, 5c. Hedonia, in comparison with eudaimonia,

should correlate more strongly with measures should correlate more strongly with measures

of such positive subjective experiences as of such positive subjective experiences as

feeling relaxed, excited, and content, and feeling relaxed, excited, and content, and

negatively with such negative subjective negatively with such negative subjective

experiences as anger, anxiety, and confusion. experiences as anger, anxiety, and confusion.

(Waterman, 1993, in press; Waterman, (Waterman, 1993, in press; Waterman,

Schwartz & Conti, in press)Schwartz & Conti, in press)

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

6. Eudaimonistic identity choices are intrinsically 6. Eudaimonistic identity choices are intrinsically

motivating. A distinction should exist between motivating. A distinction should exist between intrinsic motivation (when both hedonia and intrinsic motivation (when both hedonia and eudamonia are present) and hedonic eudamonia are present) and hedonic motivation (when hedonia but not eudaimonia motivation (when hedonia but not eudaimonia is present). is present).

(Waterman, Schwartz, & Conti, in press)(Waterman, Schwartz, & Conti, in press)

Eudaimonistic Identity Theory: PropositionsEudaimonistic Identity Theory: Propositions (continued)(continued)

7. Increases or decreases in the predictor 7. Increases or decreases in the predictor

variables for eudaimonia over time should be variables for eudaimonia over time should be

associated with corresponding changes in the associated with corresponding changes in the

experiences of eudaimonia.experiences of eudaimonia.

(Schwartz & Waterman, in press)(Schwartz & Waterman, in press)