EU ACCENT Plus and ICACGP Workshop...ACCENT Plus has focussed on some key selected issues of...
Transcript of EU ACCENT Plus and ICACGP Workshop...ACCENT Plus has focussed on some key selected issues of...
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 1 / 66
Report from the
EU ACCENT Plus and ICACGP
Workshop
Pollution studied by REmote Sensing
of Conurbations/urban conglomerations/
megacities
and Retrieved from observations
made by Instrumentation
on space BasEd platforms
-
PRESCRIBE
Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 2 / 66
Preface
ACCENT Plus (Atmospheric Composition Change: the European NeTwork-Policy Support and Science)
is an Instrument within the European Union, EU Framework Programme 7, FP7, being a coordination
and support action. It ran from 2010 to the end of 2014 and follows on its successful and larger
predecessor the ACCENT (Atmospheric Composition Change: the European NeTwork) project.
ACCENT Plus has focussed on some key selected issues of particular significance for environmental
policymaking.
iCACGP (international Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Pollution) is one of the
Commissions in IAMAS (International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences), which
in turn is one of the associations within IUGG (International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics)
under the non-governmental ICSU (International Council for Science) family. iCACGP was initiated in
the international Geophysics year in 1957. iCACGP promotes research on chemistry and the
composition of troposphere related to global pollution and climate change. It aims to initiate,
facilitate research programs which by necessity require international cooperation and collaboration.
It co-sponsors the international research project IGAC (International Global Atmospheric Chemistry)
together with the International Geosphere- Biosphere Programme (IGBP), and the international
SOLAS (Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study) together with IGBP (International Geosphere
Biosphere Programme), the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) and the World Climate
Research Programme (WCRP). SOLAS and IGAC are currently in the process of migrating to Future
Earth. The latter is a new transdisciplinary research initiative building on the Earth System Science
Partnership (ESSP), which under the auspices of the International Council for Science (ICSU)
addressed, the integrated study of the Earth System, the ways that it is changing, and the
implications for global and regional sustainability.
The rapid growth of population since the industrial revolution and in particular since the second
world war has the growth of conurbations, urban conglomerations and mega cities, or major
pollution centres, MPC, coupled with an increasing standard of living. MPC are an increasingly
important source of global air pollution. The population is predicted to reach around 10 Billion with
75% living in urban areas by 2050. Our knowledge and understanding of the impact of MPC on air
pollution and feedback with climate change is not adequate. An adequate knowledge of the
emissions of key pollutants and their precursors by MPC is a pre requisite to improve our
understanding of the processes, which determine the transport and transformation of pollution
within the troposphere, and provides an important part of the evidence base required for
policymaking. The remote sounding of trace atmospheric composition from space based platforms
provides a unique and only feasible approach to deliver global comparable knowledge about the
tropospheric trace constituents yield in top down estimates of emissions from MPC and subsequent
transport and transformation.
The development of and use of remote sensing to quantify atmospheric trace constituents and
assess both natural phenomena and tropospheric pollution has been one of the milestones of the
past two decades in atmospheric research for the provision of the data for numerical environmental
and climate predictions. This began in Europe with the preparation form 1984 to 1988 of the
SCIAMACHY (SCanning Imaging Absorption spectrometer for Atmospheric ChemistrY) project and
subsequent successful proposal, submitted in July 1988, for a passive solar remote sensing
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instrument for the ESA’s first Polar Orbiting Earth Observation Mission, POME-1: the research part of
the later renamed Envisat. The spin off originally called SCIA-mini was selected for ERS-2 and after
descoping became GOME (Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment), which began measurements on
board ERS-2 after its launch in 1995. SCIAMACHY flew aboard Envisat, which operated successfully
from 2002 to 2012. Subsequently GOME-2 was developed and flies on the EUMETSAT/ESA Metop
series: the first being launched in 2006 and the second in 2012. The successful retrieval of cloud and
aerosol parameters from space based platforms also developed rapidly over the past two decades
using a variety of instruments. The nadir sounding thermal infrared instruments such as the AIRS
(Atmospheric Infrared Sounder), on NASA AQUA in 2002 and later the IASI (Infrared Atmospheric
Sounding Interferometer) on MetOp series have as their primary objective the measurement of the
temperature but also yield some unique trace gas data products from the mid and upper
troposphere. Driven by the need to observe the diurnal variation of pollution, and the global
tropospheric composition, the field is growing. New missions are planned e.g. the realisation of the
GeoSCIA concept and first geostationary the EU Copernicus/ESA/EUMETSAT Sentinel 4 and the
follow on to GOME-2, the EU Copernicus/ESA/EUMETSAT Sentinel 5 and the ESA Sentinel 5
Precursor.
It was therefore very appropriate and timely that ACCENT Plus as a European contribution to the
iCACGP, commission a workshop with the title: “Pollution studied by REmote Sensing of
Conurbations/urban conglomerations/ megacities and Retrieved from observations made by
Instrumentation on space BasEd platforms – PRESCRIBE. This workshop was organised at the
University of Bremen for ACCENT Plus and was attended by an international team of scientific
experts, taking place on the 15 and 16th May 2015. The organisation team led by myself and
Andreas Richter had key support work from Geraldine Schmiechen, Petra Horn, Heiko Schellhorn,
Enno Peters, Folkard Wittrock and Lars Jeschke at IUP-UB Bremen and the ACCENT Plus project
office. The report was collated and written by Andreas Richter and I with contributions from all
PRESCRIBE participants and support from Folkard Wittrock, Enno Peters, and Geraldine Schmiechen
from the Institute of Environmental Physics/Institute of Remote Sensing of the University of Bremen.
My thanks go to all who worked hard to facilitate the smooth running of the PRESCRIBE meeting
and the report. The resulting report is a uniquely valuable and comprises a status reviewing the
progress made in remote sensing the pollution from megacities and making proposals for the future.
John P. Burrows Bremen 31st December 2014
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Executive Summary
As one of the key activities of ACCENT Plus and as a European contribution to the International
Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Pollution, ICACGP, a workshop was held in
Bremen on the 15th and 16th of May 2013 with the title: “Pollution studied by REmote Sensing of
Conurbations/megacities and Retrieved from observations made by Instrumentation on space BasEd
platforms – PRESCRIBE”. The objective of the PRESCRIBE workshop was to establish the status of
current and planned measurements from space, the development of retrieval algorithms and their
data products, as well as our understanding of the needs for the research community and
policymakers. At the workshop, the current status of research was reviewed and the successes were
assessed. Some key requirements, which will guide the future evolution of space based observations
of pollutants for numerical environmental prediction, monitoring environmental and climate change,
and the verification of international environmental policy, were established. Specifically, the
following was reviewed:
the relevant observational capabilities available in the past, present and in the near future
from planned missions;
some outstanding achievements thus far in terms of measurement and quantification of
the outflow and increasing emissions of pollutants and trace constituents (gases and
aerosols);
the current state of pollution / tropospheric chemistry observations from space
instrumentation;
the use of satellite data for attribution of pollution sources and their changes;
the potential global and regional impacts resulting from further industrialisation,
urbanisation, and land use change etc.
Highlights from some of the recent retrieved data products and applications were presented. It was
recognised that the past three decades have been a golden age of development of passive and
active remote sensing of atmospheric constituents. The challenge now is to achieve an adequate fit
for purpose global observing system. In principle the ground work and definition of needs has been
developed under the auspices of the WMO. The main challenge is to achieve an adequate temporal
sampling at adequate spatial resolution. In this context there is a clear need for new satellite
platforms driven by the scientific needs and for the development of the new and improved remote
sensing instrumentation required for future generations of observation systems. The latter are
needed for example to meet the objectives of the EU Copernicus programme. In particular the
recent establishment in late 2014 by the EU of the next phase of its Copernicus Atmospheric
Monitoring Service and the Climate Change Service, which are to be managed by ECMWF, is an
important step. In this context the specific use of the International space station, ISS, as an
international Atmospheric Observatory from the ISS, iAOBISS, was recommended. With respect to
the observation of the emissions from megacities, urban conurbations and agglomerations, the
group identified that the current and planned systems with their limited spatial resolution and
sampling have significant limitations. In summary much higher spatial and temporal sampling are
required for the next generation of instrumentation. New scientific missions and use of platforms
such as the ISS are required to demonstrate the capability of high resolution measurements.
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 The pre-industrial evolution of atmospheric composition and the biosphere ...................... 7
1.2 The early use of fossil fuels by mankind and the first air pollution ..................................... 10
1.3 Population growth .............................................................................................................. 10
1.4 Impact of industrialisation on agriculture and emissions from agriculture ......................... 11
1.5 Impact of industrialisation on the troposphere and air quality ........................................... 11
1.6 Impact of industrialisation on the upper atmosphere ........................................................ 13
1.7 Impact of industrialisation on climate, biodiversity and desertification ............................. 13
1.8 The ACCENT Plus Project and the PRESCRIBE Workshop .................................................... 14
2 Objectives and Scope of PRESCRIBE ........................................................................................... 17
3 Instrumentation for space-borne observations of megacity pollution ........................... 18
3.1 Recent Scientific Highlights ................................................................................................. 18
3.1.1 Carbon Monoxide ........................................................................................................ 18
3.1.2 Nitrogen dioxide .......................................................................................................... 19
3.1.3 Sulphur Dioxide ........................................................................................................... 21
3.1.4 VOCs and OVOCs ......................................................................................................... 21
3.1.5 Ozone (O3) ................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.6 Methane (CH4) ............................................................................................................. 23
3.1.7 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)................................................................................................... 24
3.1.8 Aerosols....................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Optimising the observing system ........................................................................................ 29
3.2.1 Definition of needs for an integrated global observing system ................................... 30
3.2.2 The evolution of European GMES/Copernicus and the Sentinels ................................ 36
3.2.3 The UVN instrument Sentinel-4 and MTG-IRS ............................................................. 38
3.2.4 The Sentinel 5 Precursor ............................................................................................. 40
3.2.5 Sentinel-5 and IASI-NG ................................................................................................ 41
3.2.6 CarbonSat .................................................................................................................... 41
3.3 Geophysical Validation of Satellite Data ............................................................................. 42
3.4 Scientific Exploitation of the Sentinel Programme and beyond .......................................... 44
3.5 Scientific Missions ............................................................................................................... 44
3.6 Platforms ............................................................................................................................. 45
3.6.1 The International Space Station .................................................................................. 45
3.6.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) ................................................................................ 46
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4 Current achievements of remote sensing of areas of high population density and
their emissions from space and our interpretative capability ................................................... 46
4.1 Forward Modelling .............................................................................................................. 46
4.2 Data Assimilation ................................................................................................................ 47
4.3 Inverse modelling ................................................................................................................ 48
4.4 Identifying gaps - making recommendations for the way forward ..................................... 52
4.4.1 Model improvements .................................................................................................. 52
4.4.2 Specific modelling needs from satellite data products ................................................ 53
5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................ 55
6 References .......................................................................................................................................... 56
7 Agenda of the PRESCIBE Workshop............................................................................................ 63
8 Participants of the PRESCRIBE workshop ................................................................................ 66
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1 Introduction
1.1 The pre-industrial evolution of atmospheric composition and the
biosphere The earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old with the first single cell life resembling stromatolites
and possibly appearing as early as about 3.5 billion years ago. The composition of the earth’s
atmosphere, prior to its having a biosphere was very different from the current atmosphere. The
development of the biosphere resulted in the release of molecular oxygen, O2, by photosynthesis,
and molecular nitrogen, N2, and nitrous oxide, N2O by bacteria. This changed the bulk atmospheric
composition and is clear after 2.7 billion before present. The release of O2 resulted in its photolysis
by vacuum ultraviolet radiation, the production of O-atoms and the formation of ozone, O3. The
absorptions of short wave ultraviolet solar radiation by N2, the solar vacuum UV by O2 and N2O
above the mesopause at around 85 km, and the biologically damaging short wave solar ultraviolet B
radiation by O3 above the tropopause warms the upper atmosphere. This created the vertical
structure of atmospheric temperature shown in Figure 1. The absorption by O3 creates the
temperature inversion we know as the stratosphere.
Figure 1: The temperature structure of the atmosphere at different latitude bands.
The gas layers protecting the earth’s surface from short wave ultraviolet radiation impacted the
evolution of life. The lack of short wave ultraviolet radiation at the surface of the earth enabled life
to leave the oceans and inhabit the earth with species evolving and disappearing for different
reasons. In the geological record the oldest fossils of the skulls of Homo Sapiens are recent, dating
back to approximately 160,000 years ago. This species dominated both its environment and
contemporaries and as a result began to grow in number. The hunter gatherer culture sustained a
population of 4-10 million about 10 000 years ago. Around this time the Neolithic Revolution took
place. This was characterised by the first permanent settlements being established. This way of life
and culture gave way to that of villages, then towns, later cities and more recently urban
conglomerations and mega cities. Initially the associated change in diet resulted in people becoming
smaller but, as affluence increased, humans grew in both size and population. This resulted in wide
spread land use change and man began significantly to modify the earth’s environment.
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The odour associated with electrical discharge was noted by van Marum in the 17 th century. The
origin of this smelly gas was attributed by Schönbein to its being O3 around 1839. Schönbein
developed a chemical detection system, which has similarities to the modern electrochemical cells
used in balloon sondes for O3 measurements but used colour change as its metric.
2KI + O3 + H2O 2KOH + O2 + I2
I2 + starch Blue or Purple colour
This chemical approach enabled tropospheric O3 to be measured well before stratospheric O3 was
discovered. In 1858 André Houzeau (Rouen, France) developed a quantitative method (involving a
mixture of iodine and arsenic) to measure ozone, and discovered that ozone is present in ambient
air. French Chemist Albert Levy used this chemical method to observe the abundance of O3 almost
continuously from 1877 to 1907 at the municipal Observatory of Parc Montsouris in Paris. In 1879,
Marie Alfred Cornu observed a sharp cut-off around 300 nm in the ultraviolet (UV) solar spectrum.
This was closely followed in 1881 by the measurement of the ozone absorption cross section in the
laboratory by Walter Noel Hartley and his recognition that this UV cut-off is produced by the
presence of ozone in the atmosphere. Initially and erroneously, tropospheric O3 was thought to be
healthy. However, for certain diseases and conditions, O3 is still used in medicine.
Following the discovery of winter smog and the importance of aerosol in the late 19th century in
cities and the subsequent discovery of summer smog in the late 1940’s in Los Angeles, our
knowledge of tropospheric chemistry has developed rapidly. The production of O3 in the
troposphere by catalytic cycles involving a) oxides of nitrogen, NOx (NO and NO2), and b) the
oxidation of volatile organic compounds, VOC, was recognised. Similarly the catalytic destruction of
O3 in in remote regions with low NOx by reactions of HOx (OH and HO2) was identified. The
importance of halogens in tropospheric O3 chemistry was initially disputed and remains an
important research topic. They participate in catalytic reactions which deplete O3. In addition In the
case of iodine, higher oxides are formed, which are also acid anhydrides. These hygroscopic
molecules lead to the formation of aerosol and cloud condensation nuclei. The importance of
heterogeneous multi-phase chemistry in the troposphere is now well recognised.
A schematic diagram of the current understanding of tropospheric chemistry is provided in Figure 2.
This describes schematically our understanding of the processes, which create and destroy ozone
and aerosol. These comprise primarily photochemical, gas and multiphase chemical reactions. These
reactions are influenced by changing temperature with, for example, the amount of O3 produced
empirically being found to be proportional to the third power of the change in temperature at the
surface. For this reason typical tropical mid- and high-latitude temperature profiles and the pressure
profiles are provided.
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Figure 2: A schematic diagram of the formation and removal of tropospheric O3 and aerosols.
Changes in temperature, which result from the release of short-lived and long-lived climate
pollutants, are changing the dynamics and chemistry conditions within the troposphere and upper
atmosphere. As a result the surface fluxes of species, stratosphere troposphere exchange, and
tropospheric composition and chemistry change. In turn, tropospheric chemistry feeds back and
impacts on climate change by changing the rate of loss of long-lived greenhouse gases, such as
methane (CH4), shorter lived climate pollutants such as aerosols, and the hydrological cycle, in
particular clouds.
The rise of mankind from one minor subspecies to its becoming the dominant animal has resulted in
its polluting and changing atmospheric composition at all scales from the local to the global within
the earth system, which comprises the sun, the earth’s atmosphere and surface. As a result of
industrialisation, intensive agriculture, modern land use and land management practises, and the
exploitation of the oceans, anthropogenic activity is now modifying the earth’s surface, its
ecosystems and its biodiversity on an unprecedented scale. Similarly the world’s oceans, through
water pollution and the current fishing practices, and the cryosphere, through climate change are
being altered.
The global extent and impact of anthropogenic activity on the earth’s atmosphere, environment,
ecosystems and biodiversity is such that earth’s lithosphere is now no longer in the Holocene but
rather in a new geological epoch, defined as the Anthropocene. This term was coined by Stroemer in
the 1980s but since 2000 the meaning and our understanding of this new epoch has been advanced
and popularised by the Nobel Prize winning scientist Paul J. Crutzen (Crutzen 2002).
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1.2 The early use of fossil fuels by mankind and the first air pollution The use by mankind of fossil fuels, in addition to biofuels, for domestic heating and cooking and later
the production of metals began after the Neolithic revolution. There is archaeological evidence from
China after approximately 3490 BC, that surface mining of coal and the domestic use of coal was
taking place. An early reference to the use of coal in metalworking is found in the geological treatise
on stones by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC). The earliest known use of coal in the
Americas was by the Aztecs who used coal for fuel and jet (a type of lignite) for ornaments. In
Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting all the major coalfields except those of North and South
Staffordshire by the late 2nd century BC. While much of its use remained local, a lively trade
developed along the North Sea coast supplying coal to Yorkshire and London. This also extended to
the continental Rhineland, where bituminous coal was already used for the smelting of iron ore.
Air pollution and poor air quality in towns and cities is not a new phenomenon. Complaints were
recorded in the 13th century when coal was first used in London. In 1273 the use of coal was
prohibited in London because of its being "prejudicial to health". In 1306 towards the end of the
reign of Edward I there was a royal proclamation, which prohibited artificers (craftsmen) from using
sea-coal (a soft coal) in their furnaces. In the 16th century, the diarist John Evelyn described air
pollution. Evelyn correctly identified the cause of pollution. His solution was based on an apparently
erroneous assumption that commercial, rather than domestic fires were the chief cause of dirty air.
Evelyn’s solution was to remove all of the shops and industries that burned coal from the city to a
suburban location, and would have created gardens throughout the city and a belt of fragrance
around it. Evelyn’s description and proposals will seem familiar to those who recall London before
the clean air act of 1956.
1.3 Population growth Starting from an estimated 4-10 million people at the Neolithic Revolution, the population grew and
rose to approximately 1 billion people worldwide in 1750. With the industrial revolution came the
ability to exploit fossil fuels for energy use in industry and transportation. As a consequence the
human population, its standard of living and the rate of urbanisation have grown much more rapidly.
Currently the population is increasing at a rate of around 1.14% per year i.e. an average increase of
around 80 million per year. Population growth rates maximised in the late 1960s, reaching 2% per
annum. From a peak of 2.19 percent per year in 1963, the annual growth rate has now halved and is
projected to continue to decline. The United Nations estimate that the rate of growth of population
will become less than 1% by 2020 and less than 0.5% by 2050 and world population is predicted to
stabilize at just above 10 billion persons after 2062 with 75% of humans living in urban areas.
(http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Documentation/publications.htm)
Urbanisation in particular during the Middle Ages, often produced conditions, which are favourable
for the outbreak of diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever and others. These epidemics were
directly related to unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal wastes, and garbage. For
example in 1347, the bacterium Yersinia pestis, carried by rats and spread by fleas, caused the "Black
Death", an outbreak of bubonic plague. Unsanitary conditions provided the perfect environment for
the deadly bacteria to flourish. Plagues and Pandemics have subsequently continued to modulate
the growth of human population. For example the outbreak of the Spanish flu beginning in 1918
killed 50 to 100 million people or 3-5% of the world's population.
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1.4 Impact of industrialisation on agriculture and emissions from
agriculture Agricultural practices have altered dramatically as a result of the industrial revolution. Machines
driven by domesticated animals gave way to those driven by fossil fuel combustion engines. In
addition the availability of cheap fossil fuel driven power facilitated the invention and realisation of
the Haber Bosch process, which fixes nitrogen, N2, with hydrogen, H2, to produce ammonia, NH3.
Haber demonstrated the process in 1909 in the laboratory and Bosch developed a commercial scale
production beginning in 1913. The resultant availability of inexpensive NH3 and also of nitric acid,
HNO3, which is made by several processes including the Ostwald process, which uses NH3, resulted in
the wide spread use an inexpensive source of ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, as a fertiliser. In soils
fertilisation results in the release of NH3, the oxidation of ammonium ions, NH4+, and the reduction
of nitrate ions, NO3-. This leads to significant and important surface fluxes of the long lived pollutant
nitrous oxide, N2O, and the short lived pollutant NO as well as nitrogen, N2, to the boundary layer.
The development of pesticides by the modern agro-chemical industry also relied on cheap fossil fuel
power. Initially in a "first generation", compounds, such as arsenic and hydrogen cyanide pesticides
were used. As they were either too ineffective or too toxic, their exploitation was limited. The
"second generation" pesticides include synthetic organic compounds. One of the most infamous
pesticides which are produced commercially, is 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di(4-chlorophenyl)ethane,
C14H9Cl5 better known as DDT and was discovered in 1939 by a Swiss chemist Paul Muller. DDT is
toxic to a wide range of insect pests ("broad spectrum") yet appeared to have low toxicity to
mammal. It was persistent (didn't break down rapidly in the environment) so that it didn't have to be
reapplied often. It was not water soluble (insoluble), so didn't get washed off by rain. It success led
to Muller receiving the Nobel Prize in 1949. However, in 1962 Rachel Carson published her book
“Silent Spring”. This milestone book pointed out the direct and indirect consequences of using DDT,
which led to the demise of birds, mammals and insects around the globe.
The Unite Nations Environmental Programme now defines Persistent Organic Pollutants, POPs, of
which DDT was the first identified member, as “chemical substances that persist in the environment,
bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health
and the environment”. With the evidence of long-range transport of these substances to regions
where they have never been used or produced and the consequent threats POPs pose to the
environment of the whole globe, the international community has on several occasions called for
urgent global actions to reduce and eliminate releases of these chemicals.
A co benefit of the availability of cheap energy from fossil fuels has been the combined use of
artificial fertilisers and pesticides, which has enabled mankind to feed its growing primarily urban
population. However it has thereby also contributed to large changes in land use and land use
management practices. The run-off from agricultural areas has polluted the rivers and estuaries.
Overall emissions to the planetary boundary layer have been modified and increased.
1.5 Impact of industrialisation on the troposphere and air quality Following the industrial revolution, fossil fuel combustion became the dominant source of energy for
mankind, being used for power generation, heating, cooking and transport, and releasing both short
lived and long lived pollutants to the atmosphere. Sulphur dioxide, SO2, nitric oxide, NO, which is
rapidly converted by reaction with O3, to nitrogen dioxide, NO2, carbon monoxide, CO, and a variety
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 12 / 66
of hydrocarbons, are examples of short lived pollutants. Aerosols of different types, comprising black
and brown carbon, are released directly to the atmosphere. They are also produced indirectly
through the oxidation of SO2 to sulphuric acid, H2SO4, and the production of aerosol condensation
nuclei.
The increasing magnitude and affluence of the world population, coupled with the industrial
production delivering its standard of living, have led to increasing emissions of both short lived and
long lived pollutants to the atmosphere. “Smog” was first used to describe the toxic, reducing and
acidic atmospheric conditions, which were found in London and other cities emitting much smoke,
during fog episodes in autumn, winter and spring and is attributed to Dr. Henry Antoine Des Voeux
in his 1905 discussion paper at a health congress. These conditions were first identified in London air
of the 19th century.
The phenomenon of winter smog coupled with the transport and transformation of this pollution
has resulted in acid deposition across the globe. In Europe this led to the acidification of the lakes in
Scandinavia. Recently this type of smog has become prevalent in Asia, where the rapid economic
growth in the past 30 years in both India and China has resulted in poor air quality on
unprecedented scales. A milestone occurred in the United Kingdom where the increase in the
number of deaths and respiratory disease in the winter of 1952 led to the first air pollution control
legislation, the clean air act of parliament in 1956. Similar legislation followed throughout Western
Europe and North America. This ultimately led in Europe amongst other measures to scrub sulphur
dioxide, SO2, from power stations.
The phenomenon of summer smog was first identified in the late 1940s in Los Angeles. Subsequently
this has been observed through the globe. These conditions are oxidising and O3, peroxyacetyl
nitrate, PAN (CH3CO.O2.NO2), and related compounds and aerosols are produced in large amounts.
These are all generally toxic to a greater or lesser extent. O3 maxima are often downwind from urban
areas. O3 impacts negatively agriculture and is estimated to cost Europe about 8 billion € per year in
lost production.
As a result of the use of fossil fuels for transportation by motor vehicles, shipping and aircraft,
previously remote pristine tropospheric regions are being, or have been already, impacted by air
pollution, e.g. the free troposphere, the stratosphere, and the planetary boundary layer above the
savannahs, the boreal and tropical forests, the oceans and the cryosphere. In addition
anthropogenic activities such as biomass burning, deforestation and changes in land management
practice are further impacting on the natural terrestrial eco systems and their ecosystem services.
The growing recognition of the importance of atmospheric pollution and its trans-boundary impacts
led to the creation of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, UNECE. Since 1979 the
UNECE Convention on Long-range Trans-boundary Air Pollution, UNECE LRTAP has addressed some
of the major environmental problems of the UNECE region through scientific collaboration and
policy negotiation. This has focused on controlling trans-boundary pollution in the European region
where its parties primarily sit. More recently in 2005 UNECE LRTAP organised its Task Force on
Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution (TF HTAP). This is an international scientific cooperative effort
to improve our understanding of the intercontinental transport of air pollution across the Northern
Hemisphere. HTAP reports to the Convention's EMEP Steering Body with participation being open to
all interested experts, both inside and outside the UNECE region.
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1.6 Impact of industrialisation on the upper atmosphere Surprisingly perhaps the upper atmospheric ozone, O3, which is located some distance from the
surface, is also negatively impacted by human behaviour. In the late 1960s the impact of high flying
aircraft on stratospheric O3 was raised. More recently the increasing release of N2O and methane
(CH4) by human behaviour has been recognised and assessed. For a variety of industrial applications
mankind began to release chlorofluorocarbon compounds, CFCs, (e.g. CFC-11, CF3CL und CFC-12,
CF2CL2) halons (Halon 1211, CF2ClBr, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl bromide, CH3Br. The CFCs and
halons were not previously present in the atmosphere. CH4, N2O, the CFCs and halons all have long
tropospheric lifetime and are transported to the stratosphere. The release of CFCs, Halons, CH3Br
and other ozone depleting substances has caused significant global depletion of stratospheric ozone
and the phenomenon known as the “ozone hole” over Antarctica in spring identified in the last
quarter of the 20th century. This resulted in the United Nations Vienna Convention on Ozone
Depleting Substances and its Montreal Protocol in 1987, which banned the production of ODS. The
parties to the Montreal Protocol have committed themselves to the assessment of the state of
atmospheric ozone by experts selected by WMO and UNEP ozone. The most recent of the ozone
assessments were published by the UNEP and the WMO in 2011 and 2015.
1.7 Impact of industrialisation on climate, biodiversity and desertification Global climate change is now recognised as one of the key scientific issues and societal challenges of
the 21st Century. The greenhouse effect was first discussed by Fourier and Tyndall in the 19th
century. Gases such as water vapour, H2O, carbon dioxide, CO2, CH4, N2O and sulphur hexafluoride,
SF6, which absorb strongly in the thermal infrared but are relatively transparent in the solar spectral
region, comprising parts of the longer wavelength ultraviolet, visible and near infrared, are termed
greenhouse gases. The presence of current amounts of H2O in the earth’s atmosphere results in the
surface temperature on earth being approximately 40 K higher than the temperature of the earth
observed from space. Arrhenius around the turn of the 19th century calculated that a doubling of CO2
would produce an increase of about 4 K at the surface.
After some early inaccurate measurements of the mixing ratio of CO2, accurate ground based
measurements of CO2 at selected locations began in the International Geophysics Year, IGY in 1957.
These were first made at Mauna Loa. The plot of the mixing ratio of CO2 versus time from this site is
known as the Keeling curve in honour of C. D. Keeling who, supported by R. Revelle initiated the
measurements. Later CH4 and a list of other greenhouse gases have been added to the targeted
gases. Highly precise measurements of these species are now made by a sparse in situ measurement
network.
The observed increase of greenhouse gases was considered to be a result of the use of fossil fuel
combustion for energy. This led to scientific discussion and public concern. As a result, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, was created in 1988. It was set up by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) to
prepare, based on available scientific information, assessments on all aspects of climate change and
its impacts, with a view of formulating realistic response strategies. The initial task for the IPCC as
outlined in UN General Assembly Resolution 43/53 of 6 December 1988 was to prepare a
comprehensive review and recommendations with respect to the state of knowledge of the science
of climate change; the social and economic impact of climate change, and possible response
strategies and elements for inclusion in a possible future international convention on climate. Today
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 14 / 66
the IPCC's role is as defined in Principles Governing IPCC Work, "...to assess on a comprehensive,
objective, open and transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information
relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential
impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. IPCC reports should be neutral with respect to
policy, although they may need to deal objectively with scientific, technical and socio-economic
factors relevant to the application of particular policies."
The scientific evidence, described in the first IPCC Assessment Report of 1990, underlined the
importance of climate change as a challenge requiring international cooperation to tackle its
consequences. It therefore played a decisive role in leading to the creation of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the key international treaty to reduce global
warming and cope with climate change.
The UNFCCC is a “Rio Convention”, i.e. one of three measures adopted at the “Rio Earth Summit” in
1992: the other two being the Conventions on Biological Diversity and to Combat Desertification.
The three are intrinsically linked. It is in this context that the Joint Liaison Group was set up to boost
cooperation among the three Conventions, with the ultimate aim of developing synergies in their
activities on issues of mutual concern. This now also incorporates the Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993. It
has 3 main objectives:
i) The conservation of biological diversity
ii) The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity
iii) The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources.
Established in 1994, UNCCD is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment
and development to sustainable land management. The Convention addresses specifically the arid,
semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, known as the drylands, where some of the most vulnerable
ecosystems and peoples can be found. In the 10-Year Strategy of the UNCCD (2008-2018) that was
adopted in 2007, Parties to the Convention further specified their goals: "to forge a global
partnership to reverse and prevent desertification/land degradation and to mitigate the effects of
drought in affected areas in order to support poverty reduction and environmental sustainability".
The UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. Today, it has near-universal membership. The
195 countries that have ratified the Convention are called Parties to the Convention.
1.8 The ACCENT Plus Project and the PRESCRIBE Workshop Recently a group of scientists have reviewed our understanding of the impact of emissions from
mega cities on the air pollution and climate for the Global Atmosphere Watch, GAW, of the World
Meteorological Organisation, WMO, and the International Global Atmospheric Chemistry, IGAC,
Project of the international Geosphere Biosphere Programme, IGBP, (Zhu et al 2012). The prediction
that by 2050 the earth population will rise to 9-10 billion is coupled with the expectation that the
urban population will then be 75%. Thus the emissions from megacities and urban conglomerations
will increase.
The remote sensing of tropospheric composition from passive and active remote sensing
instrumentation on satellite platforms is particularly challenging. It is a fairly new science and its
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 15 / 66
evolution has recently been described elsewhere (Burrows et al 2012). Briefly since the dawn of the
space age, scientists have been developing and using remote sensing instrumentation for the study
of the earth’s atmosphere, its surface, and its interior. The development of the remote sensing of
tropospheric gases was initiated in earnest by the proposals of the SCIAMACHY (SCanning Imaging
spectroMeter for Atmospheric CHartographY) Project for ESA Envisat (Burrows et al 1995 and
Bovensmann et al 1999), which later comprised the spin off GOME (Global Ozone Monitoring
Experiment, Burrows et al 1999) on ESA ERS-2, a descoped version of SCIA-mini, and the follow on
GOME-2, which flies on the three EUMETSAT/ESA Metop series of platforms, and the CSA/NASA
Mopitt (Drummond and Mand 1996) for NASA Aura in 1989. These built on the heritage of NASA
TOMS and SBUV, which focussed on stratospheric O3 but were also used for the detection of SO2 and
the Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites (MAPS) experiment, which flew on STS-2 in
November 1981 and on STS-41G in October 1984 and STS-68 in 1994. Later the OMI experiment,
which spun out of the SCIAMACHY project, was provided by The Netherlands to the NASA AURA.
The nadir sensing instruments AIRS on NASA AQUA and TES on NASA AURA also focussed on
tropospheric retrieval of trace constituents by using thermal infrared radiation. These were later
complemented by the ESA/EUMETSAT operated Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer IASI
which represents a significant advance in the quality of the measurements injected into
meteorological models but also provides measurements of many trace gases. It uses original
technologies for a new European contribution to polar meteorology.
The successes of SCIAMACHY and GOME and later IASI have placed Europe at the forefront of the
development of atmospheric, and in particular tropospheric, composition measurements from
space. This was complemented by the scientific Project TROPOSAT, essentially a bottom up initiative,
which focussed on the exploitation of the European remote sensing data for tropospheric data
products. This facilitating instrument was supported initially by ESA, and then became part of
European Union, EU, project EUROTRAC. From 2004 to 2010, the Project Troposat 2 became project
within ACCENT (Atmospheric Composition Change European Network) and known as AT-2. This
project facilitated much collaboration on data products and the further development of passive
remote sensing data for use in tropospheric science and applications.
ACCENT brought together the atmospheric science community engaged in global change and air
pollution studies. ACCENT Plus is a smaller effort and aims to reach out to the policy community,
facilitating the transfer of research results into policy/decision making. The success of ACCENT and
AT-2 led to a remote sensing theme becoming part of the ACCENT Plus project. The ACCENT-Plus
project builds on the successful efforts of the EU (Network of Excellence).
ACCENT Plus has several motivations to hold a focussed workshop on the influence of megacities on
tropospheric chemistry, air pollution and science, which are listed below:
1) The need for continuity and evolution of the earth observation system.
In general the success of the first pioneering phase of the remote sensing of
tropospheric constituents from space has highlighted that the lessons learned need to
be documented and an optimisation undertaken for the development of a global
observation system.
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2) The re-evaluation of the needs for global measurements of atmospheric composition.
As articulated in for example the CEOS (Committee on Earth Observation Satellites) -
IGOS (Integrated Global Observing Strategy) – IGACO (Integrated Global Atmospheric
Chemistry Observations) document
http://www.eohandbook.com/igosp/Atmosphere.htm), these needs aimed at the
provision of data for chemical weather and numerical environmental prediction, require
re-evaluation. This evolving measurement system is required to provide
a. the data needed by scientists to understand better the earth system and its
response to change in the anthropocene
b. an improved predictive capability of our earth system models, with respect to air
quality, tropospheric pollution, and climate change
c. the evidence base for the development of international environmental policies
designed to minimise the impact of man and help to achieve sustainable economic
activity.
3) The recognition of the role of urban conglomerations and megacities in global pollution,
as highlighted for example by the recent EU research project CityZen, which was a 3-year
research project focusing on the impacts of megacities and emission hot spots. It ran
from September 2008 to August 2011, including the preparation of some policy
documents and was funded like ACCENT by the European Commission through
Framework Programme 7.
4) The end of a pioneering age and the need for transition to an evolving and innovative
operational global observing system. A pioneering age of discovering how to make
atmospheric observation from space is coming to an end. Technologies have been
successfully tested and the first global decadal or longer data sets of atmospheric
composition have been made.
5) Future measurements
It has long been recognised that the requirements for the measurement of tropospheric
composition include the observation of diurnal variation. The GeoSCIA and GeoTROPE
concepts and proposals, which were developed between 1997 and 2005, in response to
the calls for the ESA Explorer Missions and national German missions will now be
realised in part through the EU/EUMETSAT/ESA Sentinel 4 on the EUMETSAT Meteosat
Third Generation from 2018 onwards. The in orbit configuration will consist of two
parallel positioned satellites, the MTG-I imager (a 3-tonne satellite with 16 nominal
channels) and the MTG-S sounder. MTG-I satellites will fly the Flexible Combined Imager
(FCI) and an imaging lightning detection instrument the Lightning Imager (LI). The MTG-S
will include an interferometer the Infrared Sounder (IRS), with hyper-spectral resolution
in the thermal spectral domain, and the Sentinel-4 instrument, the high resolution
Ultraviolet Visible Near-infrared (UVN) spectrometer. Technologies continue to evolve in
particular in the big data aspects.
6) Recent loss of atmospheric observations and plans to evolve the system
The sudden and unexpected loss of ESA Envisat in April 2012 means that there will be a
significant lack of data over the next decade. The European nadir remote sensing from
space in the near infrared and shortwave infrared spectral regions from 800 to 2400 nm
and limb remote sensing in the solar and thermal infrared are lost with currently no
follow-on planned. The NASA AURA is now well beyond its planned lifetime. This shows
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how little redundancy exists in the current generation of sensors and the shortcomings
of the plans of the space agencies for atmospheric trace constituent measurements.
For the above reasons a dedicated meeting to review the previous and current capability and to
assess the needs for the measurement of the impact of evolving mega cities and urban
conglomeration in the next phase of the anthropocene was required. As part of the European Union,
EU, sponsored network of excellence called ACCENT Plus Project and scientifically sponsored by the
international Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Pollution (iCACGP also abbreviated
CACGP), as a European led ICACGP activity, a workshop was held in Bremen, Germany on the 15th
and 16th of May 2013, entitled “Pollution studied by REmote Sensing of Conurbations/megacities
and Retrieved from observations made by Instrumentation on space BasEd platforms – PRESCRIBE”.
2 Objectives and Scope of PRESCRIBE The objective of the PRESCRIBE workshop was to establish the status of current and planned
measurements, the development of retrieval algorithms and their data products, as well as our
understanding of the needs for the research community and policymakers.
The Workshop built on three decades of international efforts to understand the impact of megacities
on tropospheric chemistry, and specifically on remote sensing research, which has pioneered the
study of tropospheric trace constituents and aerosols from space. The latter comprises the initiation
and development of TOMS, MOPITT, GOME, SCIAMACHY, GOME-2, IASI, OMI, TES, SeaWiFS, MERIS,
MODIS, POLDER, ATSR-2, AATSR, small satellite constellations and the use of their data products. It
also includes the work done in a series of successful European research projects including
TROPOSAT, ACCENT TROPOSAT II, CITYZEN and MEGAPOLI.
The scope of the PRESCRIBE covered both existing measurement and retrieval capabilities and the
needs for a fit for purpose future observing system. At the workshop, the current status of research
was reviewed, the successes were assessed. Some key requirements, which will guide the future
evolution of space based observations of pollutants of both numerical environmental prediction,
monitoring environmental and climate change, and the verification of international environmental
policy, were established. Specifically, the following were reviewed:
the relevant observational capabilities available in the past, present and in the near future
from planned missions; some outstanding achievements thus far in terms of measurement
and quantification of the outflow and increasing emissions of pollutants and trace
constituents (gases, aerosol, and cloud);
the current status of pollution / tropospheric chemistry observations from space
instrumentation;
the use of satellite data for attribution of pollution sources and their changes
the potential global and regional impacts resulting from further industrialisation,
urbanisation, land use change etc.
In the following sections, a brief summary is given of the main outcomes of the workshop. All
presentations given at the workshop can be found at
http://www.doas-bremen.de/prescribe_2013.htm
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 18 / 66
3 Instrumentation for space-borne observations of megacity pollution
Over the last three decades the science and technology of space based remote sensing for
atmospheric observations has been transformed. Early in this period, the notion that we had the
capability to study the lower atmosphere was treated with suspicion and sensors were optimized to
study the stratosphere. Since then, instruments for studying the troposphere have been launched
and have seen widespread validation resulting in an evolving observing system with capabilities for
studying some of the most pressing issues facing humankind, especially climate change and air
pollution. In addition, we are developing the capacity to address fundamental science questions
about the composition of atmosphere, for example, describing and explaining the role of lightning
and convection on the distribution of gases and aerosol or understanding other natural sources of
organic molecules and nitrogen oxides.
With improving spatial resolution and coverage, data from these sensors is becoming applicable to
studies of large urban areas and their specific problems of pollution and air quality. However, much
higher temporal and spatial sampling than currently available is required to constrain adequately our
knowledge of the emissions from such regions.
In the following we first describe some of the scientific highlights obtained using existing space
based sensors in combination with a multifaceted ground-based and aircraft observing program and
a suite of modelling tools ranging from simple conceptual models to the most sophisticated coupled
chemistry climate models available today. We then discuss opportunities for research and needs for
the development to produce new scientific breakthroughs and new day-to-day operational
capabilities in the future. We emphasize the role of megacities since urban centres are the places,
where most of humanity is now living and are the locations responsible for the majority of human
emissions but we also include significant advances in our understanding of the global background
and its variability for context.
3.1 Recent Scientific Highlights
3.1.1 Carbon Monoxide
The MOPITT instrument on board the Terra satellite launched in 1999 has provided scientists and
policy-makers with a long-term (14+ years) dataset on carbon monoxide. From this dataset we have
come to understand the global aspects of pollution fuelled by local sources. In the case of carbon
monoxide these sources, principally uncontrolled combustion in fires, are somewhat random in
both space and time making each annual cycle unique and prediction, other than in very general
terms, very difficult. Using the significant lifetime of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere which
allows tracking of plumes over large distances, we have visualised the transport of pollution
between continents which has highlighted the need to include transport in and out of study regions
for any regional pollution studies. Trend analysis has been enhanced by the care taken with both
calibration within the instrument and validation using external comparisons such as in situ aircraft
measurements. The MOPITT data set is still being extended and is complemented and continued by
observations from the European IASI instrument operating on the MetOp satellite series and other
instruments.
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On individual observations and under favourable thermal conditions, CO boundary layer
concentrations in and around pollution hotspots can be accurately measured. A typical example
includes IASI observations during the severe pollution event of January 2013 that occurred in the
North China Plain showed high concentrations of key trace gases including CO (see Figure 3 – left).
By examining the averaging kernels (AK) within the plume (see Figure 3 – right), which represents
the IASI sensitivity to a given altitude, we clearly see that IASI measurements are more sensitive to
the surface than to the FT (see red curve), which is due the presence of a large negative thermal
contrast (−10 K). These findings demonstrate the ability of thermal infrared instrument such as IASI
to monitor boundary layer CO, which can support air quality evaluation and management.
Figure 3: (left) Spatial distribution of IASI nighttime retrievals of CO total columns on January 12th, 2013. (right) IASI averaging kernels (AK) obtained for a pixel located in the pollutant plume. The colored dots correspond to the retrieval altitude levels. From Boynard et al. (2013).
3.1.2 Nitrogen dioxide
NO2 observations from space performed over the last 16 years have not only provided detailed
global spatial distributions of this short lifetime marker for pollution but also shown rapid and
systematic changes in pollution levels over just a few years. Analysis of measurements from GOME,
SCIAMACHY, OMI, and GOME-2 shows strong and significant increases over China and the rest of the
emerging world (Asia, India, Middle East, Northern Africa, Central and Southern America). While NO2
columns over eastern China have more than tripled since 1996, most emission inventories fail to
show an increase in NOx emissions before 2002. This is in contrast to the satellite measurements
(see Fig. 1 in Hilboll et al., 2013 see Figure 4). On the other hand NO2 columns over the developed
world were shown to strongly decline, with decreases over the eastern U.S. reaching 40% relative to
1996. This means that both the effect of economic growth and the success of emission control
legislation can be observed from space. These changes have also been shown to be influenced by
targeted emission control strategies, such as installation of more effective catalytic convertors on
passenger vehicles and introduction of control measures on heavy duty trucks and power plants,
regionally targeted emission reduction measures (such as in Beijing during the Olympics). The
amount of NO2 also changes with the amount and type of fuel used as economies grow or shrink
(e.g. Greek recession period, Vrekoussis et al., 2013) and also technologies for shifting energy
production from coal to natural gas emerge.
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Figure 4: Slope of a linear fit to changes of tropospheric NO2 in a combined data set of GOME and SCIAMACHY observations from 1996 – 2011 at 0.25° x 0.25° resolution. From Hilboll et al., 2013.
In some locations NO2 columns show distinct weekly patterns which reveal information on the
relative contributions of different types of anthropogenic sources (e.g. cars vs. trucks) for the region.
Specific identification of individual sources including power plants, international shipping lanes, and
flaring at oil and gas production facilities has been examined. Some preliminary studies have been
performed on investigating diurnal patterns in atmospheric NO2 chemistry and NOx emissions using
instruments in morning and afternoon orbits (SCIAMACHY and OMI), but current platforms cannot
provide a good sampling of the diurnal cycle.
Figure 5: Relative trend of tropospheric NO2 for the period 2002 to 2012 over the world's 66 largest urban agglomerations as derived from SCIAMACHY data. Based on the methodology described in Schneider and van der A (2012).
In combination with atmospheric models, the NO2 data has been inverted to produce spatial maps of
emission strengths by sector and their change over time at resolutions of the order of 1° x 1°. Both
emission estimates and temporal trends have also been derived on city level as shown in Figure 5,
but current sensors do not have enough spatial resolution to fully resolve individual megacities.
More information on the N-cycle is added by the NH3 distributions retrieved from IASI observations
(Clarisse et al., 2009), highlighting the effects of intense agriculture and livestock breeding. While not
specific to megacities, these observations are relevant to understand the overall anthropogenic
impact on the N-cycle.
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3.1.3 Sulphur Dioxide
Observations of SO2 from space using TOMS, GOME, SCIAMACHY, OMI, GOME-2 and IASI provide
unique information on SO2 emissions from volcanoes, both from eruptive events and from
degassing. The transport of SO2 can be tracked over time, providing information about SO2 emissions
and lifetime. Using the strong UV absorption, the synergy between UV and IR observations or
backward modelling, vertical profiles of SO2 can be retrieved which can be relevant information in
support of aviation safety during volcanic eruptions.
With respect to anthropogenic emissions, long-term observations (monthly to annual averages) of
SO2 performed with UV sensors also show pollution from large coal fired power plants and smelters
and their change over time. Examples include expanding tar oil mining in Canada, the increasing use
of coal in China and the introduction of flue gas desulphurization, first in Europe and the US and
later in China, leading to significant reductions in SO2 levels. In case of large pollution and favourable
thermal contrast situations, infrared instruments have recently also shown potential for measuring
SO2 from anthropogenic activities. This was demonstrated for instance by measuring daily SO2
concentrations around the industrial complex of Norilsk in the Arctic cycle, exploiting the large
temperature inversions persisting there throughout the winter, or during an intense smog event in
China. With the development of more sophisticated retrieval approaches, it is anticipated that such
observations could be extended to SO2 pollution hotspots around the globe, complementing the
observations from the UV sounders.
3.1.4 VOCs and OVOCs
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) play a significant role in several important environmental issues
such as photochemical smog, the production of ozone (O3) and the secondary organic aerosol (SOA)
formation thus impacting quality of life and human health. Studying VOCs is a particularly difficult
task as these organic compounds are numerous and their chemistry is complex. The oxidation of
both anthropogenic and biogenic VOCs species gives different yields of oxygenated products
(OVOCs) and ultimately carbon monoxide (CO).
Over the last few years, significant progress has been made in retrieving the global distribution of
two of the key members of the OVOC family, namely formaldehyde (HCHO) and glyoxal (CHOCHO)
from four satellite instruments GOME, SCIAMACHY, GOME2 and OMI (Wittrock et al., 2006,
Vrekoussis et al., 2009,2010, Lerot et al., 2010, Alvarado et al., 2014). It was found, for the first time
that HCHO and CHOCHO (see Figure 6) present their highest levels over the tropical and sub-tropical
regions, associated with high biological activity and the plumes from vegetation fires. The regions
with enhanced amounts of HCHO and CHOCHO, the photochemical active hot-spots, are
characterized by a well-defined seasonality with the highest values being observed during the warm
and dry periods. This is another indication of their main source, the biogenic emissions, of primarily
isoprene, and biomass burning from natural and man-made fires. Interestingly, regions influenced by
strong anthropogenic pollution also encounter enhanced amounts of formaldehyde and glyoxal and
notably over China an increase in glyoxal values has been recorded for the period 2003 to 2007
(Vrekoussis et al., 2009).
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Figure 6: Multiannual composite map of the glyoxal vertical column densities retrieved from the radiance measurements from the SCIAMACHY instrument. The largest amounts of CHO.CHO are found over the tropical and subtropical latitudes which are characterized by vegetation and fire emissions of volatile organic compounds. Due to the short lifetime of CHO.CHO of about 2–3 h, these high values are expected to originate mostly from regional sources of the precursor VOCs.
Based on modelling studies, Myriokefalitakis et al., (2008) and Fu et al., (2008) found that around
55% of glyoxal is produced from the various biogenic precursors (mainly by isoprene), 20% from
biomass burning, 17% from biofuel use, and 8% from other anthropogenic emissions. More recently,
model simulations of the above measurements revealed a large unknown source of CHOCHO over
China (Liu et al. (2012)). This missing source is most likely caused by substantially underestimated
aromatics emissions in the VOC emission inventories over China used in current regional and global
models.
These data have been used to infer biogenic isoprene emissions, their seasonality and spatial
patterns. For example, the impact of humidity and temperature was analysed during the European
heat wave and long-term changes were identified, linking VOC levels and their changes to
anthropogenic emissions, biomass burning and climate.
Thermal infrared measurements have in addition allowed provided global distributions of methanol
(CH3OH), formic acid (HCOOH) and more recently acetylene (C2H2), which have provided new insights
onto biogenic and pyrogenic emissions (Razavi et al., 2011, Stavrakou et al., 2011, Duflot et al.,
2013). For fire emissions specifically, IASI IR observations of a larger number of VOCs enabled
process studies of the composition and temporal evolution of plumes as they are transported away
from the sources, for example during recent fire events in Greece.
3.1.5 Ozone (O3)
Infrared sounders, such as IASI, are shown to be able to detect the tropospheric O3 column seasonal variation globally as well as around cities since high thermal contrast and thus more information in the boundary layer, is usually associated with the photochemical pollution events (Eremenko et al., 2008).
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Figure 7: Seasonal distribution of the IASI 0-8 km tropospheric O3 in selected urban regions. Results are shown for the period 2008-2011. The shaded regions show the minimum and maximum values recorded during this period. (From Safieddine et al., 2013)
Figure 7 shows the seasonal variation of tropospheric (0-8 km) O3 column over nine cities of the Northern Hemisphere for the period 2008-2011. IASI depicts a typical seasonal behavior of tropospheric O3, with a first maximum reached in late spring because of stratospheric intrusion mainly, and a continuous rise till summer because of the anthropogenic based ozone production. Over the East Asian cities (panel b), a decrease in the O3 tropospheric column is detected during monsoon period.
3.1.6 Methane (CH4)
Methane is an important anthropogenic greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming.
SCIAMACHY on ENVISAT permitted to retrieve near-surface-sensitive column-averaged mole
fractions of methane denoted XCH4. As an example, Figure 8 shows annual and seasonal global maps
and time series as a function of latitude. Clearly visible are strong methane source regions such as
China (e.g., rice paddy emissions), Siberia (e.g., wetland emissions) and parts of the US (e.g.,
emissions from natural gas exploitation, coal mining and wetlands). These data can be used to derive
emissions via inverse modelling schemes (e.g., Bergamaschi et al., 2013, and references given
therein). As can be concluded from Figure 8 and similar figures (e.g., Schneising et al., 2011),
methane increases by about 7-8 ppb/yr since 2007 after years of stability. At the end of 2005, a
SCIAMACHY detector in the spectral region used for methane retrieval after being impacted by a
solar proton has much higher noise. This results in higher noise in the CH4 data after 2006. The
reason for the unexpected recent increase after this period have been investigated (Schneising et al.,
2011). According to Bergamaschi et al., 2013, the main reason appears to be increasing
anthropogenic emissions with wetlands and biomass burning emissions being primarily responsible
for significant year-to-year variations.
Since 2009, the SCIAMACHY methane time series is being continued with GOSAT (e.g., Buchwitz et
al., 2013b, 2013c, and references given therein) and in the near future with Sentinel-5 Precursor.
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Figure 8: Multiannual composite global maps (top left and right) and latitude-time-series (bottom left) of column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of atmospheric methane, XCH4, and as retrieved from SCIAMACHY on ENVISAT (Schneising et al., 2012).
Recently the emissions of CH4 from fracking in selected sites in North America have been identified
from SCIAMACHY measurements (Schneising et al. 2014b). This article shows that the amount of CH4
lost to the atmosphere (leakage rate) is of the order of 10%.
Figure 9: Image of nighttime lights assembled from data acquired by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite on board the Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership satellite in 2012 overlaid with changes of methane anomalies during the periods 2006–2008 and 2009–2011 over the continuously growing oil and gas production regions Bakken, Eagle Ford, and Marcellus derived from the measurements of the SCIAMACHY satellite instrument on Envisat (Schneising et al., 2014b).
3.1.7 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas (e.g., Ciais et al., 2014,
and references given therein). SCIAMACHY on ENVISAT permits to retrieve near-surface-sensitive
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column-averaged mole fractions of CO2, denoted XCO2. Several algorithms have been developed to
retrieve XCO2 from SCIAMACHY (e.g., Schneising et al., 2011, 2012, 2013, and Reuter et al., 2010,
2011). The corresponding data products have been compared with ground-based retrievals from the
TCCON network, with global models and with GOSAT satellite data (e.g., Buchwitz et al., 2013b,
2013c, Reuter et al., 2013, and references given therein). The SCIAMACHY and GOSAT XCO2 data
products have been used to address a number of scientific applications related to natural (e.g.,
Schneising et al., 2014a, and Basu et al., 2013) and anthropogenic (e.g., Schneising et al., 2013,
Figure 10) applications. An overview about major achievements is given in Buchwitz et al., 2013c.
The SCIAMACHY/ENVISAT time series ends early April 2012 with the loss of ENVISAT. Currently (since
2009) the SCIAMACHY XCO2 time series is being continued with GOSAT and with OCO-2, launched in
2014 and hopefully later with CarbonSat (Bovensmann et al., 2010, Buchwitz et al., 2013a).
Figure 10: Regional maps of SCIAMACHY XCO2 (left) for three major anthropogenic source regions (from top to bottom: Central Europe, US East Coast, China) compared with anthropogenic CO2 emissions from EDGAR (v4.2, middle). On the right, the corresponding regional enhancements are shown for individual years during 2003-2009 (black: SCIAMACHY, red: EDGAR). The enhancement trend is shown at the bottom. As can be seen, the trends derived from EDGAR agree with the satellite data within the error bars of the satellite retrievals. As can also be seen, the CO2 trend is close to zero for Europe and the US East Coast but approximately +10%/year for the Yangtze River Delta region in China (from: Schneising et al., 2013).
Recently Reuter et al 2014 could show that the ratio of NO2 to CO2 has changed in recent years over
the Beijing Mega city region. This is attributed to changing NOx to CO2 ratio in the fossil fuel
combustion. This observation is most likely explained by changing traffic and power station
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technologies with perhaps lower NOx emissions. In the same manuscript the interesting observation
was made that whilst North America and Europe show a clear weekly cycle in the amounts of NO2
and CO2, with a minimum on Sundays, in the selected region of East Asia no such weekly cycle is
found.
3.1.8 Aerosols
Satellite observations of aerosol parameters have greatly improved over the last decade, with a
series of instruments using both passive and active techniques. Passive sensors include instruments
designed to observe aerosol and cloud parameters using multi-spectral observations (MODIS)
combined with multiple viewing angles (MISR) and both of these combined with polarization
measurements (POLDER / PARASOL). In addition instruments primarily designed for other purposes
(ocean, land surfaces, etc.) which spectral (MERIS, SeaWIFS) and viewing information (ATSR-2,
AATSR) matching that of the dedicated instruments. Together these instruments span a period of
almost two decades (starting with ATSR-2 in 1995) of daily global aerosol and cloud observations
with a high utility for climate studies, complementing and improving earlier data from AVHRR and
TOMS/OMI which go back to the early 1980’s. Algorithm development has been progressing over
the same time period and satellite-retrieved information has significantly improved. Today, aerosol
products from several sensors are of similar quality in a statistical sense based on validation versus
ground-based observations. For similar overpass times, information from different instruments
could potentially be used to reduce the uncertainties of the measurements from single satellite
instrument. Figure 11 is an example of integration use of several AOD datasets as well as PM2.5 data
to study a series of wildfires broke out in western Russia starting in late July of 2010. The results
show that the PM2.5 concentration is 3–5 times the normal amount based on both satellite data and
in situ values with peak daily mean concentrations of approximately 500 μgm−3. Also, the visibility
of many parts of Russia, even Moscow, was less than 100m; in some areas, the visibility was less
than 50m. Additionally, the possible impact on neighbouring countries due to the long-transport
effect was also analysed during 31 July and 15 August 2010. A comparison of the satellite aerosol
products and ground observations from the neighbouring countries suggests that wildfires in
western Russian have had little impact on most European and Asian countries, the exceptions being
Finland, Estonia, Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan. However, a possible impact on the Arctic region was also
identified; such an effect would have a serious influence on the polar atmospheric environment and
on animals such as polar bears.
Some of these data have been used with different degree of success for trend analysis over
megacities. Progress is being made to use satellite data for measurement-based estimates of the
aerosol direct radiative effect on climate and the effect of assumptions used in the retrievals are
being evaluated. An important issue, and one of the largest unknowns in climate studies, is the
indirect radiative effect of aerosols, i.e. the effect of aerosol particles on cloud radiative properties
and the hydrological cycle. Methods using satellite information are being developed and used to get
a better handle on these. Multiple viewing angles allow for the retrieval of plume height and extent,
such as for forest fires and volcanic ash plumes. The additional polarization information from
PARASOL is being used to develop high-quality aerosol information over ocean and over land,
including information on size distribution and chemical composition which offers unprecedented
possibilities to obtain such information on global scale with spatial resolution similar to that of
current AQ models (on the order of 10 km).
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Figure 11: AOD (at 0.55 μm) distribution over the study area for the period from 31 July to 15 August 2010. The AOD was obtained from integration of the AOD retrieved from three different methods as described in the text by Mei et al. 2012
Satellite aerosol remote sensing over urban areas is still a difficult task because of the high
reflectance of the underlying surface. Many aerosol retrieval algorithms are appropriate for ‘dark’
pixels and provide aerosol products with low resolutions. Li et al. (2012) presented a new aerosol
retrieval algorithm that applies the synergetic use of small satellite data and Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data (see Figure 12). The algorithm was applied to data from
the China HJ-1A/1B of the Environment and Disasters Monitoring Microsatellite Constellation
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) camera and Terra MODIS data. By applying this algorithm to aerosol
retrieval over Beijing City, they obtained the aerosol optical depth (AOD) with a 100m x 100m
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resolution. The algorithm could potentially be useful for other small satellite constellation data.
High-resolution AOD is very useful and powerful for urban air quality monitoring and other
applications.
A drawback of passive sensors is the lack of height information (except for plumes as indicated
above). This gap is in part filled by active sensors (LIDAR), such as CALIOP which, in addition to height
information, also provide information on aerosol type. The disadvantage of LIDAR is the narrow
swath which prevents global coverage at any reasonable time scale and makes it hard to find
collocated measurements with megacities, instruments on different platforms, or ground-based
observations. However, when such collocations occur, a wealth of 3D information is available.
Figure 12: Satellite RGB images and AOD maps over the Beijing area on April 5, 2010. (a) 500 m x 500 m Terra MODIS RGB image (R: Band 2, G: Band 1, B: Band 4); (b) 10 km x 10 km AOD from the MOD04_L2 product; (c) HJ-1 CCD RGB image (R: Band 4, G: Band 3, B: Band 2); (d) 100 m x 100 m AOD retrieved by the model. The regions in (c) and (d) are contained in (a) and (b) and are shown by a red block in (a) and (b). This Figure is taken from Li et al., 2012.
Satellite observations of aerosol properties have been used to provide information on health effects.
This works through a semi-empirical relation between AOD and PM 2.5 which however varies
between different locations. Van Donkelaar et al. (2010) evaluated these relations and used them to
provide global PM 2.5 maps which in turn were related to health effects.
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Aerosol information is needed to correct for atmospheric effects on observations of land or ocean
surface properties using UV-VIS-NIR wavelengths, the retrieval of atmospheric trace gases, for
atmospheric chemistry studies (with the stratosphere as an important application area which is hard
to sample with other than satellite instruments). In addition, satellites can provide useful
information on aerosol transport and deposition to land (e.g. black carbon on snow leading to
albedo changes) or ocean (e.g. desert dust deposition contributing to acidification) surfaces. Satellite
observations are used to constrain atmospheric transport models by data assimilation, can be used
to infer source strengths of aerosols with high temporal resolution (as opposed to inventories) or to
provide information on parameters forcing sea spray aerosol production and thus improving
estimates of these particles which govern aerosol direct radiative effects on a global scale as well as
play a role in many other over-ocean processes. An important issue for natural aerosol particles is
that they are often formed from their precursor gases but these new particles are too small to be
observed by electro-optical instruments. Hence proxies are being developed to provide information
on such particles which constitute the natural background in the remote atmosphere over land, such
as over the boreal forest.
In summary, satellite observations of aerosols and their physical and chemical properties have
strongly evolved in the last two decades with instruments launched in Europe and the USA,
accompanied by algorithm development and new and exciting applications providing a wealth of
information contributing to scientific understanding as well as policy-related issues.
3.2 Optimising the observing system In addition to these measurement and analysis highlights, it is important to recognize that we have
learned much about how to build the comprehensive observing system needed to take optimal
advantage of space-based observations, which could then be used for studies of megacities. This
system, developed by combining satellite based observations with a mix of ground-based and
aircraft-based instruments has been essential to the successes described above and will continue to
be key to maximizing return on investments in space-based sensors in the future. The observing
system works best when space-based sensors are combined with a long-term measurement vision
and with focused shorter term experimental campaigns (at the surface and/or from aircraft) that
both provide direct ground truth for evaluation of the satellite observations and contextual data to
help interpret them. It is also essential that sensors with different principles of detection be
employed to identify biases in interpretation of the space based (or ground based) measurements.
However, there also are weaknesses in the currently available space borne observing system,
particularly in view of the increasing needs for monitoring and understanding changing air
composition in large conurbations.
Most importantly, the best spatial resolution of current sensors (~10 km) is not yet adequate for
observations of individual cities and pollution sources, whose spatial scales are ~1km and smaller.
This severely limits our ability to identify and quantify pollution sources and hot-spots as well as
their impact on public health. Technical benefits of higher spatial resolution include an increase in
the fraction of cloud free observations which leads to lower uncertainties and the ability to better
resolve non-linear plume chemistry (for example for NO2).
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Temporal resolution is another limitation of the current system – only early morning and early
afternoon measurements are available. Thus it is not possible to constrain the complex interaction
of diurnal variations in emissions, chemistry, and dynamics in heavily polluted environments and
their impact on the population.
Synergies between space instruments covering the IR and the UV/visible spectral ranges have been
demonstrated, but so far mainly in theoretical studies. By better integrating such instruments from
the design phase to operations and data analysis, the theoretical benefits should be realised. The
results will be improved vertical resolution and accuracy. The same holds true for the improvement
of the integration of ground-based and space borne measurement systems. This is often hindered by
the disjointed nature of funding for both types of missions and projects.
Most of the advances in satellite remote sensing over the last two decades have focused on global
and regional aspects of atmospheric science. In the coming decade, new instruments in low earth
orbit and for the first time ones that will be launched to geostationary orbit will provide the spatial
and temporal resolution that will create capabilities to observe cities at an unprecedented level of
detail. These will include the European instruments Sentinel 5-Precursor, Sentinel 4, Sentinel 5, and
the EE8 proposed mission, CarbonSat. The higher spatial resolution and the continuous observations
open the possibility of obtaining new insights into the role of megacities in the chemistry and
climate of the Earth’s atmosphere. There may also be value in tailoring a satellite platform to the
requirements for complete urban monitoring and management. This platform would address issues
of land use, surface temperature, and local meteorology, in addition to atmospheric composition,
climate and local air quality. Careful measurement of the temporally-variable surface properties
which in turn will assist with understanding variations in surface emissions is of key significance to
this new topic-specific mission agenda.
3.2.1 Definition of needs for an integrated global observing system
The development of space based remote sensing of atmospheric constituents and parameters, one
of the areas of earth observation, is a relatively new science. It began with measurements in the
exosphere of the van Allen belts by the first earth observation experiments by NASA in 1958. It has
in part been driven by
a) the operational needs for accurate near real time data for numerical weather prediction.
b) Scientific curiosity of the workings of the earth system.
Over the first four decades following the start of the space age in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik,
exploration of the atmosphere from space had a large technology aspect and was driven by the need
to identify which species and parameters can be measured. It thus often had a technological focus.
The improvement of technology remains a driver, as this enhances the capability of space based
measurements. However, as the result of the rapid growth of human population and its standard of
living in the new geological epoch Anthropocene, a new driver is to understand and assess the
impact of man on the atmosphere, environment, and climate.
There has been a consistency in the requirements given by the user community to the space
agencies, when asked. For example the User Consultation meeting organised by ESA in 1991, the
issues of continuity of data sets and accuracy were clearly raised.
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In the past two decades there have been a number of international efforts to define the needs for a
global observing system. One of the first was the WMO GAW report 140 (WMO report 140)
WMO/CEOS REPORT on a strategy for integrating satellite and ground based observations of Ozone
published in January 2001. This dealt for the first time with global requirements for atmospheric
trace gas measurements, focussing on O3 but also taking all relevant trace gases into account. “The
recommendations contained in the report make specific proposals for remedying the missing
components of the upcoming systems. They also describe improvements that are required in existing
systems and current procedures. The following is a summary of these recommendations:
Establish a co-ordinated validation activity that extends over the entire lifetime of satellite
sensors that encompasses all elements of the IGOS system and takes maximum advantage of
concurrent national validation activities.
Extend the coverage of ground-based (WMO-GAW and NDSC) systems particularly in the
tropics and the Southern Hemisphere and designate a carefully selected subset thereof as
permanent, long term ground "truthing" facilities.
The space agencies that require validation data must provide sustained support for the
ground networks to insure data availability and quality.
Improve and/or provide additional measurements resulting from a survey of existing and
planned measurements. There is a particular need for measurements in the lower
stratosphere and troposphere.
The validation process is iterative and resources for reprocessing data must be made
available to ensure that users have access to the highest quality data.
Standardise data formats and encourage the synergistic use of data supported by accessible
archives and proper provision for reprocessing.
Improve national radiometric standards and sensitise the user community to calibration
issues.
Encourage international co-operation in the development of algorithms employed by similar
instruments and pool knowledge of radiative transfer physics.
Establish a body of scientists, engineers and managers to provide technical support to
funding agencies to ensure compatibility and completeness of the systems.
There is also a practical incentive for swift action. Several satellite missions with ozone instruments
on board are scheduled for launch during this decade. The recommendations in this report attempt to
co-ordinate these missions and to remedy those areas that remain deficient in the present and
planned observing systems. Data collected following this approach will have the necessary quality to
enable the state of the atmosphere to be reliably monitored and changes understood, thereby
providing a basis for formulating sound environmental policies.” (WMO report 140)
The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites, CEOS, was established in 1984 following a G7
economic summit of industrial nations, which recognized the multidisciplinary nature of space-based
Earth observations and the value of coordinating international earth observation efforts to benefit
society. One of its activities was the creation of the Integrated Global Observing Strategy, IGOS. This
produced theme documents. IGOS approved the following themes: Global Carbon Cycle,
Geohazards, Ocean Water Cycle and Atmospheric Chemistry. In addition the following were in
preparation: Coastal observations, Coral Reefs Sub-Theme, Land, and Cryosphere. The two most
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relevant documents from the theme studies for this report are the atmospheric chemistry and global
carbon cycle.
The report of the atmospheric chemistry theme was entitled “an integrated global atmospheric
chemistry observation theme for the IGOS partnership” and was published by WMO GAW in
December 2004. The objective of this report was “to initiate a process leading towards a globally
coordinated development of future observation and integration programmes, whose components are
either in place or, with careful planning, can be implemented within the next 10 years. The report
identifies the current major societal and scientific issues associated with atmospheric
composition change;
establishes the requirements for observations of atmospheric composition and their analysis,
integration and utilisation;
reviews the existing observational systems, including data processing and distribution, and
validation programmes vis-à-vis these requirements;
proposes an implementation plan to adapt the systems to meet the identified requirements.
The emphasis of the report is on the need for long-duration integrated observations and their societal
and scientific applications. The focus will therefore be on operational systems providing continuity
and reliability, and on setting priorities, in order to establish a technically and programmatically
feasible long-term solution. It should be noted that the report addresses the needs for a global
observation system and the value-added benefit that comes from integration. The schedule for
implementation is divided into short- and long-term actions. One thing is clearly evident: with the
lead times for deploying satellites and for developing ground stations and routine aircraft
programmes, planning for funding and implementation of both stages has to begin immediately if
the aims of the report are to be fulfilled. “
The iGACO report went on to make the following general recommendations:
“GR1 Establishment: an Integrated Global Atmospheric Chemistry Observation System (IGACO)
should be established for a target list of atmospheric chemistry variables and ancillary
meteorological data.
GR2 Continuity: the data products from satellite and non-satellite instruments, which are to be
integrated into a global picture by IGACO, must have assured long-term continuity.
GR3 Management of IGACO: the responsibility for the co-ordination and implementation of the
IGACO should rest with a single international body. International and national agencies responsible
for aspects of IGACO should be committed partners and agree on their appropriate responsibilities.
GR4 Gaps in observational coverage: for each target species and variable, the present gaps in the
current spatial and temporal coverage should be filled by extending the existing measurement
systems.
GR5 Long-term validation of satellite observations: in order to ensure the accuracy and consistency of
satellite measurements, sustained quality-assurance measures, over the entire lifetime of satellite
sensors, are essential.
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GR6 Validation of vertical profile data from satellite observations: a set of high-performance
scientific instruments using ground, aircraft and balloon platforms, possibly operated on campaign
basis, must be maintained to provide the crucial validation data.
GR7 Comparability: the ability to merge observations of different types must be ensured by insisting
that appropriate routine calibration and comparison activities linking diverse measurements together
are part of an individual measurement programme.
GR8 Distribution of data: universally recognised distribution protocols for exchange of data on
atmospheric chemical constituents should be established.
GR9 Multi-stake holder World Integrated Data Archive Centres (WIDAC) should be established for the
targeted chemical variables.
GR10 Storage for raw data should be established so that they can be re-interpreted as models and
understanding improve.
GR11 The development of comprehensive chemical modules in weather and climate models with
appropriate data assimilation should be an integral part of IGACO.
GR12 Strong coordination with the meteorological services is essential so that the ancillary
meteorological data, required by IGACO, is accessible.”
The report defined two groups of trace gases and parameters comprising stratospheric and
tropospheric constituents for both remote sensing form space based platforms and also for
measurements by sub orbital aircraft or balloon platforms:
Group 1: H2O, O3, CH4, CO2, NO2, CO, BrO, ClO, HCI CFC-12
Group 2: NO C2H6 CH3Br Halons, HNO3 ClONO2 HCHO SO2, UVA j(NO2) UVB j(O1D).
It did not consider aerosol and cloud although recognising their importance for atmospheric
chemistry. The report went on to make specific recommendations (SR1 to SR7) for the
implementation of IGACO:
“SR 1 Establishment of an IGACO system for selected Group 1 species encompassing data collection,
harmonisation, QA/QC, data archiving and model-based integration.
Aerosol optical properties, stratospheric and tropospheric O3 and water vapour are ripe for
demonstration projects in this regard since many components already exist. For the remaining Group
1 species, observational system gaps are considerably greater and recommendation SR4 should be
implemented first.
SR2 Initiate immediately the planning and implementation of a network of satellite platforms to be
launched in the long term, with consideration of geostationary as well as enhanced low-Earth-orbit
capabilities. To address climate-chemistry interaction in the UT/LS and stratospheric ozone depletion,
high-vertical resolution profiles are obtained, using the limb sounding technique which requires a low
Earth-orbit. Two satellites are sufficient to achieve 12-hour time sampling. For air quality, oxidising
efficiency and climate, observations of the troposphere down to the surface are made. This is
achieved in nadir viewing geometry which provides total-column information or low resolution
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profiles. These measurements are required with much better temporal and horizontal resolution than
any existing atmospheric chemistry satellite data.
In the long term, three to four geostationary satellites or, alternatively, a number of polar-orbiting
satellites will be needed. The trade-off between the two options is determined by the performance
with respect to temporal resolution, geographical coverage, horizontal resolution, signal-to-noise
ratio, pointing stability, and necessarily by technical and cost considerations.
SR3 Develop the necessary data-harmonisation, quality/control and data-exchange protocols using
the demonstration projects in SR1.
SR4 Upgrade the missing ground-based (in situ, total column, active and passive profiling, and
balloon sonde) measurements to measure the Group 1 variables, and, where feasible, some of those
from Group 2.
SR5 Develop a sustainable routine aircraft measurement programme based on the considerable
experience obtained in ongoing projects.
Most of the existing aircraft programmes are operated as short-term research projects and have no
secure future. In order to develop the required capacity for a global routine aircraft programme, it is
necessary to expand the fleet of aircraft appreciably, so as to provide global coverage;
measurements are particularly needed for the Pacific and the southern hemisphere.
This requires the development and the certification of smaller instrumentation packages under
aeronautical rules, both for implementation on civil aircraft and for the maintenance in an
operational system. The current suite of measurements should be extended as much as possible, in
particularly for NOx (NO and NO2), aerosol and H2O in the lower stratosphere.
SR6 Develop the necessary algorithms and associated calibration/validation procedures to retrieve
operationally, total-column and vertical-profile concentrations from existing and planned satellites
for as many of the Group 1 and 2 variables as possible.
SR7 Develop chemical transport modelling and data assimilation so as to accommodate data from
the various measurement components.”
The report by the Integrated Global Carbon Observation Theme was entitled “A Strategy to Realize a
Coordinated System of Integrated Global Carbon Cycle Observations” and was finalised in April 2005.
The entire Carbon Cycle is a broad field involving measurements of land, ocean and atmospheric
parameters. For this ACCENT Plus report the focus is on the determination of the surface fluxes of
carbon dioxide, CO2, and methane, CH4, and their atmospheric amounts and distributions.
The objectives and activities of the IGOS Theme teams are now being pursued within the framework
of the Group on Earth Observation, GEO: http://www.earthobservations.org/cop.shtml. Building on
the IGOS theme report, GEO published the GEO Carbon Strategy in 2010. This calls for an Integrated
Global Carbon Observing system (IGCO) to meet pressing needs for policy-relevant scientific
information about the carbon cycle. Carbon observations deserve very special attention because the
increasing concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 play a central role in driving global climate
change. Carbon cycling is also fundamental to the Earth system because of its intimate coupling
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across the land, oceans and inland waters, and atmosphere domains, and with earth’s climate. As
the nations of the world experience the impacts of climate change and act in response to those
changes, their needs will include observations and monitoring of the effects of their actions – and
the knowledge to distinguish the effects of those actions (“anthropogenic”) from those of other
changes (“natural”) in the system. In no area is this more evident than in global carbon cycling.
Information about carbon cycle changes will be absolutely essential for climate policy development,
implementation, and verification.
The GEO Carbon Strategy clearly explains the limitations of our current knowledge of the global
carbon cycle and explains why improved scientific understanding will be essential to underpinning
societal responses to global climate change. The report unequivocally states that “a key reason for
our lack of understanding of the global carbon cycle is the dearth of global observations,” and calls
for “an increased, improved and coordinated observing system for observing the carbon cycle as a
prerequisite to gaining that understanding.” CEOS recognizes that the GEO requirements for carbon
observations from space are well judged and technically feasible, but challenging in terms of a
complete, sustained and coordinated response.
At its 24th plenary meeting in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 2010, CEOS charged its Carbon Task Force
(CTF) to develop a response to the GEO Carbon Strategy, describing the approach CEOS will take in
meeting the GEO requirements for space-based observations of carbon. In response the report
entitled “CEOS Strategy for Carbon Observations from Space: The Committee on Earth Observation
Satellites (CEOS) Response to the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) Carbon Strategy” was
published in 2014. It details the adequacy of past, present, and planned satellite measurements of
carbon in the land, oceans and inland waters, and atmosphere domains to support GEO, and it
identifies important challenges that CEOS must face and actions CEOS and its agencies must take to
meet needs for carbon observations from space. This report was written by an international team of
scientists from a range of research institutions and CEOS agencies that were recruited by the CEOS
CTF. In directly responding to the GEO Carbon Strategy, the authors felt it important to provide
updates on scientific developments and measurement capabilities that occurred since the 2010
publication of the GEO Carbon Strategy and to anticipate the carbon information needs for climate
policy (e.g., United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)). This report also takes account of, and attempts
to be consistent with, the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Implementation Plan and its
requirements for Essential Climate Variables (ECVs).
The authors of this report have identified high-priority needs for decisions, resources, and actions
that go well beyond the scope of what CEOS alone can do and that exceed the mandates and current
capacities of many of its agencies. The relevant CEOS Actions recommended are summarized as
follows:
“Ensure the continuity of satellites and established time series data records for carbon-
related measurements of land surface properties, ocean colour and related physical
properties, coastal and inland water properties, and atmospheric column measurements of
carbon dioxide and methane. (5 CEOS Actions)
Develop and deploy new missions to acquire high priority measurements for carbon science
and policy, including new observations to estimate aboveground biomass and its carbon
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content, geostationary observations of carbon-containing constituents in coastal ocean
waters, improved resolution ocean salinity measurements, and measurements of
atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane from complementary Low Earth Orbit (active and
passive) and geostationary (passive) satellite constellations. (5 CEOS Actions)
Improve satellite data products, including establishment of standard formats and protocols,
enhanced validation, securing access to essential in situ data, merger of data from multiple
sensors and platforms into enhanced products, and rigorous intercomparison of data
products. (9 CEOS Actions)
Produce new data products from existing missions, including maps of wetlands, inundated
areas and small water bodies, ocean colour products for inland water bodies, ocean carbon
pool products, river discharge and sediments, and anthropogenic emissions of carbon. (4
CEOS Actions)
Improve the accessibility and utility of the satellite data and carbon data products derived
from them, including transparency in data processing procedures, complete documentation,
long-term archive, and provision of products in forms scientists and policy makers will use. (1
CEOS Action)
Continue and enhance calibration and validation activities, including expanded quality
assessments, cross-calibrating additional sensors (e.g., for carbon dioxide and methane),
securing access to essential in situ validation data, expanding the number of land variables to
be validated, and establishing an ocean product validation subgroup. (10 CEOS Actions)
Improve institutional arrangements, communications, and joint activities with the carbon
community and organizations with carbon interests. (3 CEOS Actions, plus numerous
references to such linkages in other actions)
Improve or establish CEOS Mechanisms to implement this report’s recommendations or to
engage in the future planning activities called for in it.”
In addition to the above documents, the National Research Council, NRC of the national Academies
published a report by its Committee on Earth Science and Applications from Space entitled “A
Community Assessment and Strategy for the Future” in 2007. This document had a national focus
but many of the missions planned reflected the strategy outlined in the IGACO report. In years since
the publication of the strategy NASA and NOAA have made progress to meet the needs but few of
the new planned missions have been manifested as yet.
Overall the increasing influence of man on the earth’s system in the Anthropocene has been
recognised. After 5 decades of pioneering development in earth observation since the start of the
space age, the national, European and international expert bodies, have specified the requirements
to achieve an adequate integrated global observing system. These systems are feasible with current
technologies but the decision to provide the resources to realise and implement a global observing
system, having an adequate space segment, has not been yet made.
3.2.2 The evolution of European GMES/Copernicus and the Sentinels
As a result of reconstruction after the Second World War, Europe started to develop earth
observation later than the USA or the Soviet Union (see Chapter 1 of Burrows et al 2012). In 1964
the European Launcher Development Organisation, ELDO, and the Space Research Organisation
ESRO were created. The European Space Agency formed by merging these two organisations in
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1976. An early focus was the successful development of the observations required for Numerical
Weather Prediction. In parallel national space agencies in Europe continued their own programmes.
The European institutions involved in the development of space activities in Europe gave birth to the
Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) programme through a declaration known as
the "Baveno Manifesto" in May 1998. This Manifesto called for a long-term commitment to the
development of space-based environmental monitoring services, making use of, and further
developing, European skills, and technologies. The EU, ESA and EUMETSAT and the national space
agencies in Europe participated in GMES.
As part of this activity and of relevance to this report, the EU GMES Working group 4 on atmospheric
composition recommended the manifestation of a geostationary UV visible NIR sensor on the
EUMETSAT Meteosat Third Generation. This became the EU supported ESA developed Sentinel 4
which will fly on MTG form 2021.
In October 2010, the programme entered a new phase with the adoption of the Regulation
911/2010 on GMES and its Initial Operations, which provided for an initial operational governance
framework and funds (EUR 107 million). This Regulation paved the way for the evolution of
GMES/Copernicus to a fully operational programme from 2014.
Copernicus has ground based and space segments. ESA is currently developing six types of new
satellites called Sentinel to meet the needs of the Copernicus programme. The Sentinel missions
include radar and super-spectral imaging for land, ocean and atmospheric monitoring. The Sentinel
missions will have the following objectives:
Sentinel-1 will provide all-weather, day and night radar imaging for land and ocean services.
The first Sentinel-1A satellite was launched on 3 April 2014, by an Arianespace Soyuz, from
the Guyana Space Centre;
Sentinel-2 will provide high-resolution optical imaging for land services (e.g. imagery of
vegetation, soil and water cover, inland waterways and coastal areas). Sentinel-2 will also
provide information for emergency services. The first Sentinel-2 satellite is planned for
launch in 2015;
Sentinel-3 will provide ocean and global land monitoring services. The first Sentinel-3
satellite is planned for launch in 2015;
Sentinel-4, embarked as a payload upon a Meteosat Third Generation Satellite, will provide
data for atmospheric composition monitoring. It will be launched in 2021;
Sentinel-5 will also provide data for atmospheric composition monitoring. It will be
embarked on a post-EUMETSAT Polar System (EPS) spacecraft and launched in 2021.
Sentinel-6 is the intent to sustain high precision altimetry missions following the Jason-2
satellite.
For the atmospheric composition and global pollution research Sentinel 4 and Sentinel 5 are the
most important elements, with Sentinel 3 providing some unique observations of aerosols and
clouds. The sounding part of MeteoSat Third Generation, MTG-S is the first geostationary
measurements of atmospheric composition and comprises
(http://www.eumetsat.int/website/home/Satellites/FutureSatellites/MeteosatThirdGeneration/inde
x.html) :
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The Infrared Sounding (IRS) mission focusing on operational meteorology (water vapour
tracking & profiling, and temperature profiling), with some relevance to atmospheric
chemistry as a secondary application (thanks to the UVN contribution);
The UV/VIS/NIR sounding (UVN) mission (also called Sentinel 4) dedicated to atmospheric
chemistry and air quality.
In combination with the IRS, the UVN mission will complement the atmospheric chemistry mission
needed by the users. The UVN instrument targets its observations of the upwelling solar radiation at
the top of the atmosphere in latitude range 30° N/65°N, longitude 30°o W/45° E with a repeat cycle
of 0.5 hour as a goal and 1 hour as the threshold. Unfortunately measurements of Africa cannot be
performed simultaneously. It may be possible when the second MTG is launched, provided that the
instrumentation on the first MTG is in good health to reposition the first MTG to make observations
over Africa. Alternatively in the future a geostationary constellation can be built.
The Sentinel 5, which flies as part of MetOp Second generation builds on the heritage of GOME,
SCIAMACHY and OMI. The current atmospheric component of the Sentinel programme, whilst being
an important step forward, does not make adequate fit for purpose measurements of the
greenhouse gases and does not have any limb observations. One key area of tension in the current
Copernicus is the role of research. Whilst there has been an important strong emphasis within
Copernicus on the generation of operational systems and services, these require an adequate,
continuing and evolving research base to improve the technology to exploit optimally the
observations and to develop and educate the human capacity needed to be able to implement and
evolve an adequate global observation system. At present the provision of the necessary research
base to ensure the success and evolution of Copernicus has not been identified.
3.2.3 The UVN instrument Sentinel-4 and MTG-IRS
The Copernicus Sentinel-4 UVN instrument, scheduled to be launched in 2021 on board EUMETSAT’s
MTG, is an imaging spectrometer designed to monitor air quality over Europe hourly from
geostationary orbit (http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus/
Sentinels_-4_-5_and_-5P). Sentinel-4 UVN is being built under ESA lead as part of the core payload
of the Meteosat Third Generation, MTG, which is the next generation operational meteorological
satellite system managed by EUMETSAT. The Sentinel-4 UVN instrument builds on the heritage of
the Low Earth Orbit instrumentation SCIAMACHY (Burrows and Chance 1991, Burrows et al 1995,
Bovensmann et al., 1999), GOME on ERS-2 (Burrows et al 1999) and the GeoSCIA and GeoTROPE
concepts (see, e.g. Bovensmann et al., 2002, 2004, Burrows et al 2004, and Flaud et al 2004).
The Sentinel-4 mission comprises an Ultraviolet Visible Near-infrared (UVN) spectrometer and data
from Eumetsat's thermal Infrared Sounder (IRS), both embarked on the MTG-Sounder (MTG-S)
satellite. After the MTG-S satellite is in orbit, the Sentinel-4 mission also includes data from
Eumetsat's Flexible Combined Imager (FCI) embarked on the MTG-Imager (MTG-I) satellite.
The main purpose of the Sentinel-4 mission is to monitor the air quality by measurements of
tropospheric O3, NO2, SO2, HCHO, CHO.CHO and aerosol quantities. The Copernicus Sentinel-4
mission will consist of two instruments, the first one to be launched in 2019 on board the MTG-S1
satellite. In combination with the second instrument to be launched around 2026 on MTG-S2 it is
planned to cover a period of 15 years. Similar to Sentinel-5P, UVN will use 2-dimensional CCD
detectors. It measures direct as well as backscattered solar irradiance in two spectral bands, the UV-
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VIS (305–500 nm, spectral resolution 0.5 nm) and the NIR (750–775 nm, spectral resolution 0.12
nm). The long side of the instrument slit is oriented in N–S direction. Continuous scans in E–W
direction are performed to obtain a spectrally resolved image of Europe on an hourly scale – i.e. they
will be able to record temporal (~hourly) changes during the sunlit period of the day. The typical
UVN ground pixel size over Europe is 8×8km2, which is considerably smaller than currently
operational similar Earth atmosphere observation instrumentation in low-earth orbits and of the
same order as Sentinel-5P and Sentinel-5 described in the next section. In addition to its unique
standalone measurement capabilities, Sentinel-4 will also profit from synergies utilising data from
the other sensors on the MTG system, namely the Infrared Sounder (IRS) on the same platform as
well as the Flexible Combined Imager (FCI) and the Lightning Imager (LI) on the MTG Imager (MTG-I)
platforms.
Sentinel-5 mission together with Sentinel 4 is dedicated to monitoring the composition of the
atmosphere for Copernicus Atmosphere Services. Both missions will be carried on meteorological
satellites operated by Eumetsat. Sentinel 5 builds on the heritage of SCIAMACHY, GOME and the
GOME-2, which is currently flying on the first MetOp series of platforms. It will fly on the polar-
orbiting MetOp Second Generation satellite. The Sentinel-5 mission overall comprises an Ultraviolet
Visible Near-infrared Shortwave (UVNS) spectrometer and data from Eumetsat's IRS, the Visible
Infrared Imager (VII) and the Multi-viewing Multi-channel Multi-polarization Imager (3MI).
The Sentinel-4 and -5 missions will provide information on atmospheric variables in support of
European policies. Services will include the monitoring of air quality, stratospheric ozone and solar
radiation, and some aspects of climate monitoring. However Sentinel 4 does not measure Carbon
dioxide, CO2, or methane, CH4. ESA has decided not to give the measurements of CO2 on Sentinel 5,
the highest priority as a result of budget limitations.
The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI), which is the aeronautics and space agency of South
Korea, is developing the geostationary orbit GEO-KOMPSAT-2 satellite. This satellite is planned for
launch in 2018 as twin satellites, 2A as weather and 2B as atmospheric environment and ocean
satellite, with a 16-channel AMI (Advanced Meteorological Imager), a UV-Visible scanning
spectrometer, GEMS (Geostationary Environment Spectrometer), and GOCI-2 (Geostationary Ocean
Color Imager-2). GEMS measurements will yield data products such as O3, aerosol and their
precursors including NO2, and SO2. Synchronous measurements of atmospheric composition
together with the meteorological variables and ocean colour information are expected to contribute
to better understanding of the distribution and transboundary transportation of air pollution, and of
interactions between meteorology and air chemistry in the Asia-Pacific region.
Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring of Pollutions, TEMPO was selected in 2012 by NASA as the first
Earth Venture Instrument, for launch circa 2018. It will measure atmospheric pollution for greater
North America from space using ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy. TEMPO plans to measure from
Mexico City to the Canadian tar sands, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, hourly and at high spatial
resolution (~2 km N/S×4.5 km E/W at 36.5°N, 100°W). TEMPO provides a tropospheric measurement
suite that includes the key elements of tropospheric air pollution chemistry.
The constellation of the GeoKOMPSAT with the NASA (TEMPO) over North America and the ESA
Senteniel-4 UV-Visible-NIR (UVN) over Europe in 2020 - 2025 period offers synergistic opportunities.
Unfortunately, even if fully deployed, these instruments will cover only a limited part of the tropics.
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 40 / 66
Thus, a great opportunity is to be missed for the investigation of predominantly tropical key
phenomena such as biomass burning or lightning. Nevertheless the combination of these three
sensors will cover significant parts of the globe (save for the Polar Regions) from geostationary orbit
and together with instruments on the LEO satellites will provide unique insights into the diurnal
variability of tropospheric composition and the transport and transformation of pollution.
3.2.4 The Sentinel 5 Precursor
The Sentinel 5 Precursor (S5P), scheduled for launch in mid-2016, is the first of the sentinel satellite
series dedicated to monitoring of atmospheric composition. The main application areas of the
mission are air quality, climate and the ozone layer. The single payload of the S5P mission is the
TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) (Veefkind et al., 2012). TROPOMI is a nadir
viewing spectrometer that will measure in the UV-visible wavelength range (270-500 nm), the near
infrared (710-770 nm), and the shortwave infrared (2314-2382 nm). TROPOMI will have a spatial
resolution of about 7x7 km2 at nadir. The spatial resolution is combined with a wide swath to allow
for daily global coverage. The TROPOMI/S5P geophysical (Level 2) data products include nitrogen
dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone (total column, tropospheric column & profile), methane, sulphur
dioxide, formaldehyde and aerosol and cloud parameters.
The improved spatial resolution serves two goals: (1) emission sources can be detected with more
accuracy and (2) the number of cloud-free ground pixels will increase substantially. Both these
aspects will contribute to the monitoring of megacities from space, as illustrated in Figure 13 which
shows an OMI observation in the zoom-in mode which has a spatial sampling of 12x13 km2. It is
noted that TROPOMI will have a three times better spatial sampling and also a higher signal-to-noise
ratio. Figure 13 covers several highly urbanized regions, including the Po Valley, the Rotterdam-
Antwerp region, the Ruhr area, and Paris. It provides a preview of the amount of detail on source
regions as well as transport of pollutants that is expected from the TROPOMI observations.
Sentinel-5 Precursor flies in an orbit with an equator crossing time of 13:30. This is similar to the
NASA AURA orbit. In comparison GOME, SCIAMACHY, and the GOME-2 instruments fly in the early
morning orbits with equator crossing times of 10:30, 10:00, and 09:30, respectively. The Sentinel-5
instruments on the Metop Next Generation polar system, to be launched in 2021, will also be in the
early morning orbit. This will result in a long time series of comparable measurements of
tropospheric composition going back to the launch of GOME in 1995 and including the SCIAMACHY
data sets.
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Figure 13: Spatially variability of the NO2 columns (molecules/cm2) over Europe for 12 September 2006, measured by
OMI in the spatial zoom mode. In this measurement mode the ground pixels are approximately 13x12 km2 (along x
across track) at nadir. The white areas in the figure have too much cloud contamination for accurate NO2 retrieval. The absolute NO2 columns are likely to be underestimated, because a single NO2 profile shape was used in the retrieval.
3.2.5 Sentinel-5 and IASI-NG
EUMETSAT is currently preparing the next polar-orbiting program (EPS-SG) with the MetOp-SG
satellite series that should be launched around 2020. On the first of the two envisaged platforms,
the UVNS/Sentinel-5 will be operating, an imaging UV/vis/NIR/SWIR spectrometer that will have
similar capabilities as the S5P Precursor with daily global coverage, a spatial resolution of 7x7 km2
and spectral coverage facilitating retrieval of O3, NO2, HCHO, CHOCHO, SO2, H2O, CO, CH4, and
aerosols.
Also in this framework, CNES is studying the concept of a new instrument, the IASI-New Generation
(IASI-NG), characterized by an improvement of both spectral and radiometric characteristics as
compared to IASI (Clerbaux et al., 2013; Crevoisier et al., 2013), with three objectives: (i) continuity
of the IASI/MetOp series; (ii) improvement of vertical resolution; (iii) improvement of the accuracy
and detection threshold for atmospheric and surface components. An improvement of spectral
resolution and radiometric noise fulfill these objectives by leading to (i) a better vertical coverage in
the lower part of the troposphere, thanks to the increase in spectral resolution; (ii) an increase in the
accuracy of the retrieval of several thermodynamic, climate and chemistry variables, thanks to the
improved signal-to-noise ratio as well as less interferences between the signatures of the absorbing
species in the measured radiances.
3.2.6 CarbonSat
The CarbonSat and CarbonSat Constellation concepts were developed in the 2008 to 2010 period at
the University of Bremen together with academic, industrial and agency partners. This building on
the heritage of SCIAMACHY, which was the first instrument to deliver measurements of the up
welling radiation in the near and short wave infrared spectral regions of an adequate precision to
enable accurate measures of the dry mole fractions of methane, XCH4 and carbon dioxide XCO2 to be
delivered. The CarbonSat mission (Bovensmann et al. 2010) aims to deliver highly accurate XCO2
and XCH4 column mixing ratios at a high spatial resolution of 2x3 km2 and with good spatial coverage
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 42 / 66
via continuous imaging across a 240 km swath width (goal: 500 km). In 2010 the CarbonSat and FLEX
proposals were selected for Phase A B1 studies by ESA for its 8th Earth Explorer Mission.
The imaging of XCO2 and XCH4 distributions above strong source regions (megacities, volcanoes,
strongly emitting industrial areas, etc.) enables the determination of the source strength of those
targets by using inverse-modelling techniques. This has been demonstrated by aircraft
measurements using the MaMap (Methane and carbon dioxide Mapper), which was also developed
at the University of Bremen (Gerilowski et al., 2011, Krings et al., 2011, 2013).
On local regional and global scales, the CarbonSat data, when coupled with knowledge of wind, yield
the CO2 and CH4 fluxes down to the seasonal and even monthly time scale. CarbonSat is planned to
fly in sun-synchronous orbit with an equator crossing time around 11:30 a.m. This equator crossing
time was decided on the basis of a trade-off between maximising the measurements and cloud free
conditions. The latter maximise in the early afternoon around 10:00 hrs. CarbonSat’s main
observation mode will be nadir, but solar spectra will also be obtained as well as observations in
(near) sun-glint mode. The CarbonSat imaging spectrometer will cover three spectral bands to
accurately determine XCO2 and XCH4: NIR (O2 A-band) 747 – 773 nm at 0.1 nm spectral resolution,
SWIR-1 (weak CO2 and CH4) 1590 – 1675 nm at 0.3 nm spectral resolution, and SWIR-2 (strong CO2
and H2O) 1925 – 2095 nm at 0.55 nm spectral resolution. Sensitivity studies (Buchwitz et al. 2013a)
indicate that systematic errors are mostly (~85% of all scenes) below 0.3 ppm for XCO2 (< 0.5 ppm:
99.5%) and below 2 ppb for XCH4 (< 4 ppb: 99.3%) with single measurement precision of typically
around 1.2 ppm for XCO2 and 7 ppb for XCH4 (1-sigma). This data quality will allow the quantification
of city emissions with errors on the order of 10%-20% for single overpasses, as estimated in a case
study for Berlin (Buchwitz et al. 2013a).
The selection for the Earth Explorer 8 Mission is planned by ESA for 2015 with a launch planned for
around 2020. The limitation of a single CarbonSat is that it will have only 10 day coverage at the
equator. The selection of CarbonSat is an important and essential step forward in the establishment
of an adequate global observing system. As surface fluxes vary significantly from day to day and
during a day, a constellation of CarbonSat satellites is required to achieve daily coverage or twice
daily coverage. This is the spatial and temporal sampling and coverage, which meets the
requirements of the Carbon Task Force (2010) and the CEOS strategy for carbon observations from
Space (CEAS 2014).
3.3 Geophysical Validation of Satellite Data Remote sensing uses both passive and active sources of radiation. Geophysical data products from
satellite based remote sensing are generated by mathematically inverting observations made at the
top of the atmosphere of solar radiance, infrared or microwave emission. The mathematical
inversion utilises algorithms, which utilise parameters measured in the pre-flight and in-flight
characterisation and calibration of the instrument. In addition as these algorithms are often ill
defined mathematically and thus use a priori information to constrain the values of the data
products.
Verification is the process by which the algorithms are tested. This uses both synthetic and real data.
Geophysical validation is the process by which the satellite data products are compared to an
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 43 / 66
independent data set. These have preferably an accuracy that is higher than the satellite data and is
produced by instruments using different measurement principles.
In North America, the need for extensive verification and validation was established with the
development of the ozone, trace gas and aerosol data products from the measurements of BUV
(Backscattered UltraViolet Spectrometer) on Nimbus 4 and the Atmospheric Explore E, SBUV (Solar
backscattered Ultraviolet Spectrometer) and TOMS (Total Ozone mapping Spectrometer) on Nimbus
7, SBUV-2 on board NOAA-9, NOAA-11, NOAA-16, NOAA-17, and NOAA-18, the SAMII (Stratospheric
Aerosol Measurement II) on Nimbus-7, SAGE (Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment) -I, -II and
III series of occultation instruments, which flew on Flew on the Explorer 60 satellite, the Earth
Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), and Meteor-3M, the LIMS infrared sounder and also with the data
products from the instruments aboard, and trace gas and radiation measurements made from the
UARS (Upper Atmospheric Research satellite) payload: Halogen Occultation Experiment HALOE,
Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES), High-Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI),
Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS), Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS), Particle
Environment Monitor (PEM), Solar-Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE), Solar
Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), Wind Imaging Interferometer (WINDII).
In Europe the template for the calibration and characterisation, data algorithm development, and
verification and validation of atmospheric data products was established in the 1990s within the
selection of SCIAMACHY and GOME for flights on ENVISAT and ERS-2. Verification and Validation
requirements documents were written, establishing the approach. These documents identified the
needs for level 1 and level 2 data products. These documents described in detail all aspects of
validation. In summary the need for four phases of activity was established:
i) Pre-flight activity involving instrument calibration and characterisation and retrieval
algorithm development;
ii) Commissioning phase, where the level 1 and level 2 products are initially verified and
validated;
iii) Main Phase of Validation, where the objective is to achieve a validation of all level 1 and
level 2;
iv) Long term Validation, which addresses the degradation of the instrument and eh
changes in calibration parameters during flight in space.
These resulted in extensive commissioning phase and main phase activities. For example the DLR in
Germany invested over 11 M€ for the SCIAMACHY in the period 2002 to 2008.
There has been an evolution from the need for stations measuring stratospheric constituents to
those measuring tropospheric composition. This is reflected in the evolution of the Network for the
Detection of Stratospheric Change, NDSC, to the Network for the Detection Atmospheric
Composition Change, NDACC (see http://www.ndsc.ncep.noaa.gov/ and all related sites). The WMO
Global Atmosphere Watch GAW is another important source of data for long term validation
(http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/gaw/gaw_home_en.html).
An area of particular difficulty is with respect to long term validation. The specific issue is the
maintenance of adequate ground based capability for long term measurements and who pays for
this. At present the national and international space agencies typically pay for added costs,
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associated with validation, but use data from existing long term measurements stations without
contributing to their upkeep and maintenance.
In recent years several validation campaigns have been performed (e.g. Brinksma et al, 2008; Piters
et al., 2012), however most of the effort was put on background conditions and clear skies, a
consequence of the need to compensate for the very different spatial sampling of the satellite and
ground-based systems. For the upcoming space missions that are primarily driven by requirements
for tropospheric monitoring and research, it is essential that validation is performed under more
realistic and thus more challenging conditions. In the U.S.A. the DISCOVER-AQ campaigns
(http://discover-aq.larc.nasa.gov/science.php) are an important step in that direction.
There are many new challenges of emission from mega cities and urban conglomerations. In the
future validation of satellite data will be needed within urban environment where it is known that
concentrations of trace gases are variable, inhomogeneous and are coupled with high aerosol
loadings. It is important to note that ground-based networks, which are essential for long-term
validation, are under threat worldwide, because of a lack of funding for these activities. As satellite
data without continuous validation is of unknown accuracy and thus of limited use, a sustained
effort in realistic validation exercises is needed as integral part of the future observing system.
3.4 Scientific Exploitation of the Sentinel Programme and beyond Although the Sentinel 4/5/5P programme is primarily driven by operational and monitoring
requirements, it will also deliver answers to many science questions. To exploit this, adequate
funding is needed to develop new retrieval techniques focussing on synergy between different
observations (e.g. combinations of shortwave and thermal infrared), and interpretation of different
trace gases and aerosol parameters simultaneously.
While we anticipate tremendous progress using the new Sentinel instruments, the long lead time for
developing new capabilities requires that we already begin to look to a next generation of satellite
instruments now. We recognize four primary opportunities for significant scientific advances in the
future:
1) The capability for observing the vertical structure of the troposphere remains extremely
limited. The development of LIDAR and DIEL instrumentation, targeted for selected trace
gases and aerosol and multi-angle viewing for aerosol would be an important potential
advance.
2) Observing greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) with high spatial resolution and complete daily
global coverage are not possible today but are of great importance for climate science and
policy.
3) Air pollution and tropospheric research needs data with high spatial resolution to pin-point
down local sources and identify and understand transformation processes.
4) Understanding unique aspects of the tropics, where many of the emerging megacities are
located.
3.5 Scientific Missions Over the past decades there has been a trend towards more expensive satellite missions with longer
lead times. This has a number of drawbacks including
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i) the inability to include new technology in instrumentation,
ii) the resultant lack of overlap between missions to provide continuity to datasets and the
increased probability of gaps in the datasets through instrument failures or satellite
launch delays.
The pressure on Satellite payload development is for smaller and more affordable missions, while at
the same time improving the science output. However, even for this scenario the launch
opportunities are limited and need to be increased. Another approach that can be followed is to
launch constellations of smaller instruments instead of large missions.
However, different types of missions are clearly needed to fulfil different needs. These comprise
a) rapid, dedicated, and more experimental missions designed to address specific questions
and to accelerate technological and scientific progress and
b) long-term missions built and operated to provide consistent long-term data sets and
foundation to our increased understanding.
The experience of the past decade is that agencies have are not being granted by government the
strategically important combination of both.
3.6 Platforms Traditionally the choice for regional and global remote sensing of the atmosphere has been
dedicated scientific payload space on LEO or GEO platforms. However, new opportunities may
appear as instruments are reduced in scale for constellations of smaller satellites, piggyback
opportunities on larger private and government platforms, or sub-orbital vehicles. Many synergies
will be available between these new platforms and more traditional platforms, including the areas of
data interpretation, nested spatial scales and validation.
3.6.1 The International Space Station
One option for additional space instrumentation in the near future is the International Space Station
(ISS). Its low orbit would allow measurements with unprecedented spatial resolution. The ISS is in a
51.6 degree inclination orbit. Of the top 1000 cities by population (total 1.33 billion) 930
representing 95% of the population lie directly under the ISS track. With a 550km (~60 degree) cross-
track-scan this rises to 985 cities and 99% of the city population. The station is not perfectly stable in
orbit altitude or orientation, but this should not pose too much of a problem for nadir sounders with
appropriate hardware or software compensation. There is potential to place a number of
instruments simultaneously on the ISS in various locations and these instruments could be large by
current standards. The major restriction on instruments is in operation time: there will be scheduled
times when the instrument will not be operational and it is intended that instruments should only
operate for an agreed mission time. Some instrumentation has already been placed on the station
including the Japanese SMILES instrument.
One important aspect of the ISS orbit is the large inclination which results in gradual changes of the
local overpass time. This can be seen as both, an advantage and a disadvantage. In the short run, the
change in overpass time complicates interpretation of tropospheric measurements of short lived
species as both emissions and photochemistry vary with time. On the other hand, a drifting orbit
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 46 / 66
allows successive sampling of tropospheric composition at all local times providing insight into the
diurnal variability.
3.6.2 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
In addition to traditional satellite platforms, alternative carriers such as high altitude UAVs have
great potential for efficient and high-spatial monitoring of megacities and regions with many
urbanized regions like Europe. However, such platforms currently put severe limitations on
instrument size and power and also face difficult problems with respect to flight acceptance over
regions with civil or military air traffic.
4 Current achievements of remote sensing of areas of high population density and their emissions from space and our interpretative capability
During the past two decades several high quality satellite products have been made available for
tropospheric chemistry and climate studies. In parallel, significant advances have been made in the
field of air pollution and climate modelling and the use of satellite products. Satellite observations of
the troposphere and of surface characteristics have pushed forward our understanding of
atmospheric composition changes (e.g. observations of trends due to human activities). Satellite
data are now routinely used to improve input data for climate and chemistry-transport models. They
are also used for model evaluations, or assimilated in models for weather and air pollution
forecasting and in inverse modelling techniques to estimate emissions. All these applications have
advanced greatly in recent years.
The major areas of synergistic use of models and retrievals from satellite observations can be
classified in three main categories: Forward modelling, data assimilation, and inverse modelling (see
Kanakidou et al. (2011) for a short summary of synergistic use of satellite data with models for
tropospheric studies).
4.1 Forward Modelling Climate/chemistry/transport models use (pre- or online calculated) emissions to compute the
distribution of atmospheric constituents and their impact on air quality and climate. Satellite
observations are used to improve the input data to these models (e.g. surface characteristics,
vegetation types, chlorophyll-a content, temperature – Figure 14) or for model evaluation (Figure
15. In particular significant advances have been made with regard to the observation of trends of
atmospheric constituents and the ability of the models to reproduce these. Models have also moved
from a climatological (static) representation of the atmosphere to time/case specific simulations and
the description of gas and aerosol chemistry has been improved.
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Figure 14: Synergistic use of satellite observations and forward modelling
Satellites and models now provide a consistent description of global pollutant distributions. They can
also provide information on emission inventory deficiencies (inverse modelling, see below).
As models achieve higher and higher resolution to resolve features on smaller scales down to the
size of individual cities, the spatial resolution and temporal sampling of the data products from
space based remote sensing instrumentation must keep pace and improve in order to be optimally
exploited and to constrain our understanding of surface fluxes and transport and transformation of
pollution.
Figure 15: Comparisons of SCIAMACHY observations of NO2 vertical columns (left) with WRF/CMAQ mesoscale model results (right) over Europe for 2008. Differences point to the shipping tracks in the West Mediterranean (not shown in the observations) and to anthropogenic emission hot spots at the coast of the East Mediterranean (not shown in the observations), indicating problems in used emission data or other representations in the model. Figure from Im et al., 2014.
4.2 Data Assimilation Data assimilation techniques have for many years been used in numerical weather prediction modelling to improve the quality of weather forecasts. During the last decade also air quality forecasting has evolved significantly. Especially in the European projects GEMS, MACC and MACC-II, satellite observations of chemical species have been further developed and are now routinely used in chemical weather forecasts (http://macc-raq-op.meteo.fr/). Figure 16 shows the production chain
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 48 / 66
of the EMEP MSC-W model, which is part of the MACC-II air quality forecasts. Meteorology is retrieved from ECMWF automatically each morning (1st column), then the air quality model is run without data assimilation (2ndcolumn) and with assimilation of satellite data (3rd column - analysis) and the results are further processed placed on the MACC-II data server (4thcolumn). This chain proceeds daily and operationally for MACC-II. The quality of forecasts improves through assimilation of observed data in the models as this brings the initial state of the atmosphere (at the start of the model run) closer to reality. When dealing with air quality forecasts the need for real time emissions is evident. Such data are rarely available, but can be improved through satellite observations and inverse modelling techniques, as mentioned in the next section.
Figure 16: Work flow in the EMEP chemical weather forecasting chain (Alvaro Valdebenito, Norwegian Meteorological Institute). Up to now NO2 columns from OMI, in situ NO2 observations, and AOD from MODIS have been assimilated in the system. The chemical weather forecast done by the model can thus start from an initial state of the atmosphere, which is closer to reality than in those cases where only climatological data sets are used.
For this important application of satellite data in chemical weather forecasts, near-real time
provision of data and high spatial and temporal resolution are important. In real-world applications,
the use of satellite data will be complemented by in situ observations to allow for finer resolutions
and to fill gaps when satellite observations are not available i.e. when surface air pollution is masked
by clouds).
In the context of emission data, there is an ESA project called GLOBEMISSION
(http://www.globemission.eu/) that aims to provide fast emissions for weather forecast. This could
be extended to provide constituent emission data for ingest into these forecasting schemes.
4.3 Inverse modelling Long term satellite measurements are required for studies of the evolution of emissions for areas
where emission inventories are unreliable or out of date. This is important information for policy
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 49 / 66
makers and numerical prediction of air pollution and chemical weather. Emissions, however, cannot
be observed directly. A chemical transport model is used to deduce the emissions from the
concentration data. The differences between observed and simulated concentrations contain
information on how to update the underlying emissions.
Figure 17: The nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions over Beijing are estimated using OMI and GOME-2 observations of tropospheric NO2. The drop in emissions before and during the 2008 Olympic Games shows the effectiveness of the air quality measures taken by the local authorities. After the Olympic events, however, NOx emissions started to rise again gradually. (Bas Mijling, KNMI, figure from Mijling, B. and R.J. van der A (2012))
The inverse modelling technique (see Burrows et al 2012 ACCENT-AT2 book - Chapter 9) is a method
for estimating the emissions of atmospheric pollutants, by adjusting the emission fields used in a
chemistry-transport model in order to minimize the discrepancy between the model predictions and
a set of atmospheric observations. The adjustment requires defining the emission parameters to be
optimized, and to minimize a scalar function of these parameters, often termed as “cost function”,
which quantifies the discrepancy between the model predictions and the observations. This
approach relies on the assumption that the model adequately describes the relation between
emissions and distributions, so that the model/data differences can be mostly attributed to errors in
emissions rather than to errors in the model or the data itself. For that, state-of-art knowledge
about the physical and chemical processes of the atmosphere should be included in the models and
updated to account for the latest developments. Inverse modelling applications concern the
emissions of NOx (Figure 17), CO, CH4, CO2, which are compounds directly observed from satellite.
Furthermore, HCHO and CHOCHO satellite retrievals have been used to derive VOC emission
estimates (Figure 18), while NO2 retrievals have been used to infer emissions of some species co-
emitted with nitrogen oxides. For this later application, the relationship between the investigated
pollutant and the proxy species has to be established by using measurements, a model or an
emission inventory.
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 50 / 66
Figure 18: Left panel : GOME-2 and modelled HCHO columns before and after inversion in July 2008. Right panel: GOME-2 derived isoprene emission estimates in July 2008. Emissions are freely distributed at http:// www.globemission.eu.
In particular, satellite NO2 measurements can be used to infer multiannual changes in CO2 emissions
Figure 19). Thus tropospheric NO2 measurements provide useful (indirect) information about
anthropogenic CO2 emission sources collocated with the sources of NOx emissions. Satellite
measurements confirm the accelerating and strongly nonlinear CO2 emission trend in China, which is
manifested by the emission inventory data. However, strong quantitative differences are revealed
between the top-down and bottom-up emission estimates for the first time period (1996-2001)
evaluated. These differences may be indicative of major flaws in the emission inventories.
Figure 19: NO2 measurement-based estimates of the multi-annual trends in CO2 emissions for the different variants (A, B and C) of the estimation procedure in comparison with corresponding bottom up CO2 emission data of the EDGAR, GCP and PKU emission inventories. Figure from Berezin et al. (2013).
Early inverse modelling methods addressed either inert (CO2) and long-lived gases (CH4), or
compounds exhibiting weak non-linearities between their atmospheric abundances and their
emissions (e.g. CO). However, the techniques developed for those gases were no longer exact when
applied to reactive trace gases, like NOx and HCHO, due to their short lifetime and presence of
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 51 / 66
strong chemical feedbacks. New, more powerful schemes were thus developed to account for
chemical dependencies between species, and, in particular, the impact of the predicted emissions
changes on the chemical lifetime of the compound, which was usually neglected. Multi-compound
inversions have been performed using different species sharing common sources in a way that
observations for a given compound can help constrain the sources of other compounds that are
emitted but not necessarily observed. An important advance in inverse modelling, eased by the
increase in computational resources becoming available, was to switch from “big-region” inversions,
where only the emission strength was optimized in large, predefined world areas, but not the spatial
distribution of the source inside the areas, to “grid-based” inversions, where the updated emissions
are inferred at the resolution of the underlying model. More recently, innovative methods enable re-
allocation of sources together with improvements in the determination of emission strength (Figure
20).
Figure 20: Emission inventories of nitrogen oxides (NOx) of the populated and industrialized Highveld area in South Africa projected on a 0.25 degree grid. Emissions are dominated by coal-fired power plants, indicated by the yellow markers. The EDGAR v4.2 emission inventory is generally wrong in location and strength of these hot-spots (left panel). Emission estimates with the using NO2 observations from the OMI instrument relocate the emissions to a more plausible position (right panel). (Bas Mijling, KNMI)
The inferred emission estimates depend on the quality and resolution of the satellite observations.
New satellite missions with better signal-to-noise ratios and higher spatial and temporal resolution
are expected to further improve emission estimates.
Beirle et al. (2011) applied a novel interpretation of satellite NO2 data to derive emission estimates.
This is applicable to strong point sources inside a low NO2 background region. From the analysis of
the downwind decay of NO2 columns, the effective lifetime and the emissions of NOx can be
determined simultaneously (see Figure 21). Such estimates can be improved with geostationary
satellites with regional focus. In addition, observations with improved spatial resolution will allow for
investigations of non-linear chemistry inside the pollution plume.
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 52 / 66
Figure 21: NOx emissions and effective lifetimes for the considered megacities and power plants estimated by Beirle et al (2011) based on OMI NO2 observations and comparison with the EDGAR emissions. (EDGAR version 4.1. http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/)
Concerning our knowledge of ship emissions of NOx, during the past decade, ship tracks have been
identified from space. However, the strength of NO2 column detected from space in the ship tracks is
lower than that modelled. In addition to uncertainties in our knowledge of shipping emissions, these
differences can be related to the presence of clouds or to the direction of the wind over the shipping
tracks as well as to the non-linear behaviour of chemistry in the shipping plumes that is not
accurately reproduced by the models. Higher spatial and temporal resolution studies, involving both
modelling and satellite observations are need to resolve this issue. Figure 15 shows the issue and the
inability of current models to determine shipping NOx. In summary this issue is an important
research question, which addresses the impact of shipping on both coastal and pristine marine
regions. In summary it shows the current limitation of either models or measurements.
4.4 Identifying gaps - making recommendations for the way forward
4.4.1 Model improvements
Chemistry: Recent studies point to flaws in the current mechanisms regarding the representation of
NOx and VOC chemistry in models. In particular, modelling work has shown limitations in
reproducing the oxidant levels in the troposphere due to missing or not sufficiently represented
chemistry (e.g. isoprene/biogenic volatile organic chemistry and HOx, heterogeneous reactions,
NO/NO2 reactions). The importance of these model deficiencies differs in space and in time due to
the spatial variability of emissions and the non-linearity in chemistry. Recent developments in
understanding of oxidant chemistry have a direct impact on the accuracy of the inverse modelling
estimates. In addition, expected future model chemistry improvements will be achieved by focusing
on heterogeneous/multiphase chemistry.
Emissions: Isoprene is one of the major sources of uncertainty in models. Arneth et al. (2011)
reported strong sensitivity in current estimates of global isoprene emissions (factor of 3-4),
depending mostly on the isoprene emission algorithm used. Accurate knowledge of the vegetation
coverage is also required to improve these emission estimates. Langner et al. (2012) reported that
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 53 / 66
four different state-of-the-art regional models give very large differences in seasonality and strength
of isoprene emissions. Yet, isoprene is critical for oxidant concentrations, as illustrated in Figure 22.
Inversion schemes constrained by satellite HCHO observations have proved their capabilities to
constrain isoprene emissions in a number of past studies (e.g. Palmer et al. 2003, Stavrakou et al.
2009, Marais et al. 2012). At high northern latitudes, however, current satellite observations have
larger errors and data gaps, and therefore, provide weaker constraints on isoprene emissions over
boreal forests, which are nevertheless believed to be strong emitters of biogenic compounds.
Furthermore, only very few isoprene flux measurement data are available at these latitudes.
Figure 22: Left: Isoprene emissions in July calculated with MEGAN model (Muller et al., 2008) expressed in 1010
molec.cm
-2 s
-1. Right: Boundary layer OH concentration predicted by the IMAGESv2 model (Stavrakou et al. ACP, 2010).
Surface OH concentrations are strongly depressed over isoprene-rich areas.
4.4.2 Specific modelling needs from satellite data products
The requirements for satellite data products are often case study i.e. molecule or parameters
specific for particular events. The creation in late 2014 by the EU of the next phase of its Copernicus
Atmospheric Monitoring Service and the Climate Change Service, which are to be managed by
ECMWF, is a statement of intent. To meet the ultimate goals of this system much improved
observations from ground and space segments are required. In particular global measurements of
short lived and long lived atmospheric constituents (trace gases, aerosol and clouds) from the local
to the global scale. These are needed to improve our understanding of surface fluxes and the
transport and transformation of pollutants, stratospheric tropospheric exchange and both dry and
wet deposition.
Below we make an indicative list of the satellite data and ancillary information required for air
quality and climate studies required for assessing the impact and predicting of the emission from
large megacities and urban agglomerations. These are prioritised at this stage.
1. Operational near-real time satellite observations of temperature, wind, and composition for
data assimilation. Improved emissions estimates (mainly anthropogenic) for weather and air
pollution forecasts.
2. Error estimates of satellite retrievals and averaging kernels, spatially and temporally resolved.
3. Long term continuity of satellite datasets with careful handling of the handover between one satellite and the next.
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 54 / 66
4. Information on horizontal vertical profiles of pollutants and aerosol properties at locations of megacities to incorporate into models to improve their predictions.
5. Information on the diurnal variation of short-lived chemical species for air quality studies
and monitoring - geostationary satellites would greatly improve this, or a constellation of
low orbiting satellites. Improves our understanding of short timescale events.
6. Higher spatial and temporal sampling/resolution of most constituents to the spatial scale of a city and a temporal scale of fractions of hours. Allows more realistic assessment of current conditions and better input to predictive models.
7. Reliable satellite retrievals of HCHO/CHOCHO at high northern latitudes, since biogenic organic compounds are strongly emitted by boreal ecosystems. Correct estimation of biogenic VOCs and, in particular, isoprene, play also an important role for climate studies, due to the feedbacks between warming climate and biogenic aerosols (Paasonen et al. (2013)). This requires high signal-to-noise from the instrumentation.
8. Integrated approach to measurements including laboratory, surface, local, sub-orbital and orbital measurements. Allows effective use and increases reliability of all the assets.
9. Need to train a new generation of scientists to face new challenges - new instruments bring better resolution but also new challenges (do we have enough modelling tools to exploit/interpret the upcoming data? Consider computational/storage issues)
10. Geostationary observations for the tropics where there is significant lightning and biomass burning emissions and regions that are the drivers of global tropospheric chemistry which then influences regional issues. To date all the planned geostationary observations focus on the Northern Hemisphere (Europe, N America, Korea) with limited coverage of the equatorial regions
11. Improved spatial resolution and temporal sampling of trace gases, aerosols and cloud parameters: specifically horizontal resolutions of ~ 1km or better and as much vertical profile information ideally separating the planetary boundary layer form the free troposphere: temporal sampling of the order of 20 minutes are required to match the most significant tropospheric processing times. This yields improved knowledge of the following
deposition on ecosystems and BVOC emissions, land use, vegetation types, 1-5 km of resolution to better constraint the models
fields of air pollutant measurements for urban scale air pollution forecasting:
resolving aerosol/clouds interactions specifically addressing such issues as the invigoration or suppression of cloud etc., precipitation rates etc.
Table 1 shows a list of chemical species and parameters that were identified as important for
megacity studies at the PRESCRIBE workshop. The list is not exhaustive.
Table 1: Molecules and parameters that are considered essential to observe from space
Gases: O3, NO2, CO, CH4, HCHO, CHOCHO, CH3COCHO, CH3OH, HONO, halogens, SO2, NH3, HNO3, organic acids (HCOOH, CH3COOH), vertically resolved measurements of primary gaseous species
Aerosols: AOD, extinction coefficients, absorbing aerosol, BC, SSA, vertically resolved size distribution, polarisation measurements, aerosol speciation
Atmospheric Structure: boundary layer height (preferably with the same resolution and coverage as the trace gas measurements)
Surface characteristics: BRDF, vegetation types, chlorophyll-a, plankton types, spatial & temporal resolution (pollen emissions)
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 55 / 66
5 Conclusions The ACCENT Plus Prescribe meeting was very successful. It enabled an international team of experts
to come together and assess
i) the relevant observational capabilities available in the past, now, and in the near future
from planned missions,
ii) the achievements thus far in terms of measuring and quantifying the outflow and
increasing emissions of pollutants and trace constituents (gases and aerosols),
iii) the current state of pollution / tropospheric chemistry observations from space
instrumentation,
iv) the use of satellite data for attribution of pollution,
v) the potential global and regional impacts resulting from further industrialisation,
urbanisation, land use change etc.,
vi) retrieved data products of trace atmospheric constituents,
vii) the needs for improved assessment of the contributions of anthropogenic activity and
natural phenomena to atmospheric pollution and climate change;
viii) the specific needs for the improvement of our knowledge of the impact of mega cities
and large urban agglomerations on air quality and climate change.
The dramatic improvement of tropospheric remote sensing from space, since the launch of the
GOME instrument was documented with some recent highlights being reported.
It was recognised that the past three decades have been a golden age of development of passive
and active remote sensing of atmospheric constituents. The challenge now is to achieve an adequate
fit for purpose global observing system for the future. In principle the ground work and definition of
needs has been developed under the auspices of the WMO. The main challenge is to achieve an
adequate temporal sampling at adequate spatial resolution, resulting in a clear need for new
satellite platforms driven by the scientific needs and for the development of the new and improved
remote sensing instrumentation required for future generations of observation systems. The latter
are needed for example to meet the objectives of the EU Copernicus programme. In this context the
specific use of the International space station, ISS, as an international Atmospheric Observatory from
the ISS, iAOBISS, was recommended.
With respect to the observation of the emissions from megacities, urban conurbations, and
agglomerations, the group identified that the current and planned systems with their limited spatial
resolution and sampling have significant limitations. In summary, much higher spatial and temporal
sampling is required. To achieve the high spatial (~ 1km) and temporal (~ 20 minutes) sampling and
global coverage, constellations of instruments in LEO and GEO will be required.
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 56 / 66
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PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 63 / 66
7 Agenda of the PRESCIBE Workshop Day 1, 15th May 2013
09:00 – 09:30 Arrival, Registration, Coffee
09:30 – 10:00 Opening, Welcome and Introduction
10:00 – 10:30 Overarching Objectives of the Workshop
- Presentation (John P. Burrows)
- Formation of the two working groups
- Discussion
10:30 – 11:00 Coffee Break
Block 1: Status of Current Space Based Research on Atmospheric Composition of
Conurbations / Megacities
11:00 – 11:20 J. Drummond: Insights from Long Term Measurements of CO from Space
11:20 – 11:40 A. Boynard: How able is IASI for tracking pollution?
11:40 – 12:00 G. de Leeuw: Aerosol retrieval using satellite data
12:00 – 12:20 Y. Xue: Multi-scale AOD Retrieval from Satellite Data for Beijing Air Pollution Study
12:20 – 12:40 M. Vrekoussis: On the impact of the economic recession on urban air quality:
Trends in air pollution levels
12:40 – 13:00 P. Valks: GOME-2 observations of air quality in Chinese Megacities
13:00 – 14:00 Lunch Break
Block 1 continued
14:00 – 14:20 U. Platt: Ground truth for flux measurements from Urban Areas
14:20 – 14:40 P. Schneider: A global SCIAMACHY-based trend analysis of tropospheric NO2 over
megacities
14:40 – 15:00 A. Hilboll: Changes in tropospheric NO2 over megacities: A multi-instrument approach
15:00 – 15:20 S. Beirle: From columns to emissions - how much a-priori do we need?
15:20 – 15:40 T. Wagner: The potential of cloud slicing to derive profile information from Nadir looking instruments
15:40 – 16:00 Coffee Break
Block 2: Perspectives for future Space Based Research on Megacities
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 64 / 66
16:00 – 16:20 R. Cohen: A Space Based Perspective on Urban Emissions and Photochemistry:
Winds, Spatial Resolution and perspectives on Future progress
16:20 – 16:40 R. Leigh: Remote sensing of NO2: Integrating slant column measurements into
operational air quality management systems.
16:40 – 17:00 J.P. Veefkind: TROPOMI on the Sentinel 5 Precursor: global urban-scale monitoring
of air quality and climate
17:00 – 17:20 H. Bovensmann: Hourly geostationary observations of key constituents to constrain air pollution and tropospheric chemistry at the Urban scale: GMES Sentinel-4
17:20 – 17:40 M. Buchwitz: Carbon gases (CO2, CO) over anthropogenic source regions: From
SCIAMACHY to CarbonSat
17:40 – 18:30 Wrap-up session, Day 1
Teaming of the Break out Working Groups:
20:00 Dinner
Day 2, 16th May 2013
Block 3: Use of Remote Sensing for Megacity Observations coupled with Models
08:20 – 08:40 M. Gauss: Use of satellite observations in EMEP modelling
08:40 – 09:00 M. Kanakidou: Synergistic use of chemistry-transport modelling and satellite
observations for air pollution control.
09:00 – 09:20 B. Mijling: Fast emission estimates in China and South Africa constrained by
satellite observations
09:20 – 09:40 T. Stavrakou: Addressing the role of major chemical uncertainties on top-down
NOx and VOC emission estimates
09:40 – 10:00 I. Konovalov:Using satellite NO2 measurements to infer multiannual changes in
CO2 emissions in China
10:00 – 10:30 Discussion
10:30 – 11.00 Coffee Break
11:00 – 12:30 Block 4: Working Groups
- A Requirements for evolution of Instrumentation
- B Requirements for Modelling and Inversion
12:30 – 13:30 Lunch Break
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 65 / 66
13:30 – 14:30 Block 4 continued
14:30 – 15:00 Presentation from working groups
15:00 – 15:15 Coffee Break
15:15 – 16:00 Planning of the review
Assignment of writing tasks
16:00 End of meeting
PRESCRIBE workshop Bremen, May 15 –16, 2013 66 / 66
8 Participants of the PRESCRIBE workshop Lola Andrés Hernández, IUP Bremen, Germany
Steffen Beirle, MPI Mainz, Germany
Heinrich Bovensmann, IUP Bremen, Germany
Anne Boynard, LATMOS/IPSL, France
Michael Buchwitz, IUP Bremen, Germany
John Burrows, IUP Bremen, Germany
Ron Cohen, UC Berkeley, USA
Gerrit de Leeuw, FMI, Finland
James Drummond, Dalhousie University, Canada
Michael Gauss, MetNo, Norway
Andreas Hilboll, IUP Bremen, Germany
Maria Kanakidou, University of Crete, Greece
Alexander Kokhanovsky, IUP Bremen, Germany
Igor Konovalov, Institute of Applied Physics RAS, Russia
Annette Ladstätter-Weißenmayer, IUP Bremen, Germany
Roland Leigh, University of Leicester, UK
Bas Mijling, KNMI, The Netherlands
Enno Peters, IUP Bremen, Germany
Ulrich Platt, IUP Heidelberg, Germany
Andreas Richter, IUP Bremen, Germany
Cornelia Schlundt, IUP Bremen, Germany
Philipp Schneider, NILU, Norway
Trissevgeni Stavrakou, IASB, Belgium
Pieter Valks, DLR Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
Pepijn Veefkind, KNMI, The Netherlands
Mihalis Vrekoussis, The Cyprus Institute, Cyprus
Thomas Wagner, MPI Mainz, Germany
Folkard Wittrock , IUP Bremen, Germany
Yong Xue, London Metropolitan University, UK
Jongmin Yoon, MPI Mainz, Germany