Ethnic group

“Ethnicity” and “Peoples” redirect here. For other uses,see Ethnicity (disambiguation) and Peoples (disambigua-tion).

An ethnic group or ethnicity is a socially defined cat-egory of people who identify with each other basedon common ancestral, social, cultural or nationalexperience.[1][2] Membership of an ethnic group tendsto be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry,origin myth, history, homeland, language and/or dialect,symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual,cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc.The largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hun-dreds of millions of individuals (Han Chinese being thelargest), while the smallest are limited to a few dozenindividuals (numerous indigenous peoples worldwide).Larger ethnic groups may be subdivided into smaller sub-groups known variously as tribes or clans, which overtime may become separate ethnic groups themselves dueto endogamy and/or physical isolation from the parentgroup. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities canmerge to form a pan-ethnicity, and may eventually mergeinto one single ethnicity. Whether through division oramalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic iden-tity is referred to as ethnogenesis.Depending on which source of group identity is empha-sized to define membership, the following types of ethnicgroups can be identified:

• Ethno-racial, emphasizing shared physical appear-ance based on genetic origins;

• Ethno-religious, emphasizing shared affiliation witha particular religion, denomination and/or sect;

• Ethno-linguistic, emphasizing shared language, di-alect and/or script;

• Ethno-national, emphasizing a shared polity and/orsense of national identity;

• Ethno-regional, emphasizing a distinct local sense ofbelonging stemming from relative geographic isola-tion.

In many cases – for instance, the sense of Jewish people-hood – more than one aspect determines membership.Ethnic groups derived from the same historical founderpopulation often continue to speak related languages andshare a similar gene pool. By way of language shift,

acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is pos-sible for some individuals or groups to leave one eth-nic group and become part of another (except for eth-nic groups emphasizing racial purity as a keymembershipcriterion).Ethnicity is often used synonymously with ambiguousterms such as nation or people.

1 Terminology

The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνοςethnos (more precisely, from the adjective ἐθνικός eth-nikos,[3] which was loaned into Latin as ethnicus). Theinherited English-language term for this concept is folk,used alongside the latinate people since the late MiddleEnglish period.In Early Modern English and until the mid 19th century,ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the senseof disparate “nations” which did not yet participate in theChristian oikumene), as the Septuagint used ta ethne (“thenations”) to translate the Hebrew goyim “the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews”.[4] The Greek term in early antiq-uity (Homeric Greek) could refer to any large group, ahost of men, a band of comrades as well as a swarmor flock of animals. In Classical Greek, the term tookon a meaning comparable to the concept now expressedby “ethnic group”, mostly translated as "nation, people";only in Hellenistic Greek did the term tend to becomefurther narrowed to refer to “foreign” or "barbarous" na-tions in particular (whence the later meaning “heathen,pagan”).[5]

In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the senseof “peculiar to a race, people or nation”, in a return to theoriginal Greek meaning. The sense of “different culturalgroups”, and in US English “racial, cultural or nationalminority group” arises in the 1930s to 1940s,[6] servingas a replacement of the term race which had earlier takenthis sense but was now becoming deprecated due to itsassociation with ideological racism. The abstract ethnic-ity had been used for “paganism” in the 18th century, butnow came to express the meaning of an “ethnic charac-ter” (first recorded 1953). The term ethnic group was firstrecorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictio-nary in 1972.[7] The term nationality depending on con-text may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, orsynonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state). Theprocess that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is

1

2 2 DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTUAL HISTORY

called ethnogenesis, a term in use in ethnological litera-ture since about 1950.

2 Definitions and conceptual his-tory

Ethnography begins in classical antiquity; after earlyauthors like Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus,Herodotus in ca. 480 BC laid the foundation of bothhistoriography and ethnography of the ancient world.The Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nationsbut had also developed a concept of their own “ethnic-ity”, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes.Herodotus (8.144.2) gave a famous account of what de-fined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumer-ating

1. shared descent (ὅμαιμον - homaimon, “of the sameblood”),[8]

2. shared language (ὁμόγλωσσον - homoglōsson,“speaking the same language”)[9]

3. shared sanctuaries and sacrifices (Greek: θεῶνἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι - theōn hidrumatate koina kai thusiai)[10]

4. shared customs (Greek: ἤθεα ὁμότροπα - ēthea ho-motropa, “customs of like fashion”).[11][12][13]

Whether ethnicity qualifies as a cultural universal is tosome extent dependent on the exact definition used. Ac-cording to “Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World:Science, politics, and reality”,[14] “Ethnicity is a funda-mental factor in human life: it is a phenomenon inherentin human experience.”[15] Many social scientists, such asanthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do not con-sider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard ethnic-ity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interac-tions, rather than an essential quality inherent to humangroups.[16]

According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of eth-nicity was dominated by two distinct debates until re-cently.

• One is between "primordialism" and"instrumentalism". In the primordialist view,the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, asan externally given, even coercive, social bond.[17]The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand,treats ethnicity primarily as an ad-hoc elementof a political strategy, used as a resource forinterest groups for achieving secondary goals suchas, for instance, an increase in wealth, power orstatus.[18][19] This debate is still an important pointof reference in Political science, although mostscholars’ approaches fall between the two poles.[20]

• The second debate is between "constructivism" and"essentialism". Constructivists view national andethnic identities as the product of historical forces,often recent, even when the identities are presentedas old.[21][22] Essentialists view such identities asontological categories defining social actors, and notthe result of social action.[23][24]

According to Eriksen, these debates have been super-seded, especially in anthropology, by scholars’ attemptsto respond to increasingly politicised forms of self-representation by members of different ethnic groups andnations. This is in the context of debates over multicultur-alism in countries, such as the United States and Canada,which have large immigrant populations from many dif-ferent cultures, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean andSouth Asia.[25]

Max Weber maintained that ethnic groups were kün-stlich (artificial, i.e. a social construct) because they werebased on a subjective belief in sharedGemeinschaft (com-munity). Secondly, this belief in shared Gemeinschaftdid not create the group; the group created the belief.Third, group formation resulted from the drive to mo-nopolise power and status. This was contrary to theprevailing naturalist belief of the time, which held thatsocio-cultural and behavioral differences between peo-ples stemmed from inherited traits and tendencies derivedfrom common descent, then called “race”.[26]

Another influential theoretician of ethnicity was FredrikBarth, whose “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries” from 1969has been described as instrumental in spreading the usageof the term in social studies in the 1980s and 1990s.[27]Barth went further than Weber in stressing the con-structed nature of ethnicity. To Barth, ethnicity wasperpetually negotiated and renegotiated by both externalascription and internal self-identification. Barth’s viewis that ethnic groups are not discontinuous cultural iso-lates, or logical a prioris to which people naturally be-long. He wanted to part with anthropological notions ofcultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordial-ist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface be-tween groups. “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries”, there-fore, is a focus on the interconnectedness of ethnic iden-tities. Barth writes: "... categorical ethnic distinctionsdo not depend on an absence of mobility, contact andinformation, but do entail social processes of exclusionand incorporation whereby discrete categories are main-tained despite changing participation and membership inthe course of individual life histories.”In 1978, anthropologist Ronald Cohen claimed that theidentification of “ethnic groups” in the usage of social sci-entists often reflected inaccurate labels more than indige-nous realities:

... the named ethnic identities we accept,often unthinkingly, as basic givens in the liter-ature are often arbitrarily, or even worse inac-

2.1 Approaches to understanding ethnicity 3

curately, imposed.[27]

In this way, he pointed to the fact that identification ofan ethnic group by outsiders, e.g. anthropologists, maynot coincide with the self-identification of the membersof that group. He also described that in the first decadesof usage, the term ethnicity had often been used in lieu ofolder terms such as “cultural” or “tribal” when referringto smaller groups with shared cultural systems and sharedheritage, but that “ethnicity” had the added value of be-ing able to describe the commonalities between systemsof group identity in both tribal and modern societies. Co-hen also suggested that claims concerning “ethnic” iden-tity (like earlier claims concerning “tribal” identity) areoften colonialist practices and effects of the relations be-tween colonized peoples and nation-states.[27]

According to Paul James, formations of identity were of-ten changed and distorted by colonization, but identitiesare not made out of nothing:Social scientists have thus focused on how, when, andwhy different markers of ethnic identity become salient.Thus, anthropologist Joan Vincent observed that ethnicboundaries often have a mercurial character.[29] RonaldCohen concluded that ethnicity is “a series of nestingdichotomizations of inclusiveness and exclusiveness”.[27]He agrees with Joan Vincent’s observation that (in Co-hen’s paraphrase) “Ethnicity ... can be narrowed orbroadened in boundary terms in relation to the specificneeds of political mobilization.[27] This may be why de-scent is sometimes a marker of ethnicity, and sometimesnot: which diacritic of ethnicity is salient depends onwhether people are scaling ethnic boundaries up or down,and whether they are scaling them up or down dependsgenerally on the political situation.

2.1 Approaches to understanding ethnicity

Different approaches to understanding ethnicity havebeen used by different social scientists when trying to un-derstand the nature of ethnicity as a factor in human lifeand society. Examples of such approaches are: primor-dialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, mod-ernism and instrumentalism.

• "Primordialism", holds that ethnicity has existed atall times of human history and that modern ethnicgroups have historical continuity into the far past.For them, the idea of ethnicity is closely linked tothe idea of nations and is rooted in the pre-Weberunderstanding of humanity as being divided into pri-mordially existing groups rooted by kinship and bi-ological heritage.

• "Essentialist primordialism" further holds thatethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence,that ethnicity precedes any human social inter-action and that it is basically unchanged by it.

This theory sees ethnic groups as natural, notjust as historical. It also has problems dealingwith the consequences of intermarriage, mi-gration and colonization for the compositionof modern day multi-ethnic societies.[30]

• "Kinship primordialism" holds that ethniccommunities are extensions of kinship units,basically being derived by kinship or clanties where the choices of cultural signs (lan-guage, religion, traditions) are made exactly toshow this biological affinity. In this way, themyths of common biological ancestry that area defining feature of ethnic communities are tobe understood as representing actual biologi-cal history. A problem with this view on eth-nicity is that it is more often than not the casethat mythic origins of specific ethnic groupsdirectly contradict the known biological his-tory of an ethnic community.[30]

• "Geertz’s primordialism", notably espoused byanthropologist Clifford Geertz, argues that hu-mans in general attribute an overwhelmingpower to primordial human “givens” such asblood ties, language, territory, and cultural dif-ferences. In Geertz' opinion, ethnicity is notin itself primordial but humans perceive it assuch because it is embedded in their experi-ence of the world.[30]

• "Perennialism", an approach that is primarily con-cerned with nationhood but tends to see nationsand ethnic communities as basically the same phe-nomenon, holds that the nation, as a type of so-cial and political organisation, is of an immemo-rial or “perennial” character.[31] Smith (1999) dis-tinguishes two variants: “continuous perennialism”,which claims that particular nations have existed forvery long spans of time, and “recurrent perennial-ism”, which focuses on the emergence, dissolutionand reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect ofhuman history.[32]

• "Perpetual perennialism" holds that specificethnic groups have existed continuouslythroughout history.

• "Situational perennialism" holds that nationsand ethnic groups emerge, change and van-ish through the course of history. This viewholds that the concept of ethnicity is basicallya tool used by political groups to manipulateresources such as wealth, power, territory orstatus in their particular groups’ interests. Ac-cordingly, ethnicity emerges when it is rele-vant as means of furthering emergent collec-tive interests and changes according to polit-ical changes in the society. Examples of aperennialist interpretation of ethnicity are alsofound in Barth, and Seidner who see ethnicity

4 3 ETHNICITY AND NATIONALITY

as ever-changing boundaries between groupsof people established through ongoing socialnegotiation and interaction.

• "Instrumentalist perennialism", while seeingethnicity primarily as a versatile tool thatidentified different ethnics groups and limitsthrough time, explains ethnicity as a mech-anism of social stratification, meaning thatethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical ar-rangement of individuals. According to Don-ald Noel, a sociologist who developed a the-ory on the origin of ethnic stratification, eth-nic stratification is a “system of stratificationwherein some relatively fixed group member-ship (e.g., race, religion, or nationality) is uti-lized as a major criterion for assigning so-cial positions”.[33] Ethnic stratification is oneof many different types of social stratifica-tion, including stratification based on socio-economic status, race, or gender. According toDonald Noel, ethnic stratification will emergeonly when specific ethnic groups are broughtinto contact with one another, and only whenthose groups are characterized by a high de-gree of ethnocentrism, competition, and dif-ferential power. Ethnocentrism is the tendencyto look at the world primarily from the per-spective of one’s own culture, and to down-grade all other groups outside one’s own cul-ture. Some sociologists, such as LawrenceBobo and Vincent Hutchings, say the originof ethnic stratification lies in individual dis-positions of ethnic prejudice, which relatesto the theory of ethnocentrism.[34] Continuingwith Noel’s theory, some degree of differen-tial power must be present for the emergenceof ethnic stratification. In other words, an in-equality of power among ethnic groups means“they are of such unequal power that one isable to impose its will upon another”.[33] In ad-dition to differential power, a degree of com-petition structured along ethnic lines is a pre-requisite to ethnic stratification as well. Thedifferent ethnic groups must be competing forsome common goal, such as power or influ-ence, or a material interest, such as wealth orterritory. Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutch-ings propose that competition is driven by self-interest and hostility, and results in inevitablestratification and conflict.[34]

• "Constructivism" sees both primordialist and peren-nialist views as basically flawed,[34] and rejects thenotion of ethnicity as a basic human condition. Itholds that ethnic groups are only products of humansocial interaction, maintained only in so far as theyare maintained as valid social constructs in societies.

• "Modernist constructivism" correlates the

emergence of ethnicity with the movementtowards nationstates beginning in the earlymodern period.[35] Proponents of this the-ory, such as Eric Hobsbawm, argue thatethnicity and notions of ethnic pride, such asnationalism, are purely modern inventions,appearing only in the modern period of worldhistory. They hold that prior to this, ethnichomogeneity was not considered an ideal ornecessary factor in the forging of large-scalesocieties.

Ethnicity is an important means by which people mayidentify with a larger group. Many social scientists, suchas anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf, do notconsider ethnic identity to be universal. They regard eth-nicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group inter-actions, rather than an essential quality inherent to hu-man groups.[16] Processes that result in the emergence ofsuch identification are called ethnogenesis. Members ofan ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuitiesover time, although historians and cultural anthropolo-gists have documented that many of the values, practices,and norms that imply continuity with the past are of rel-atively recent invention.[36]

Ethnic groups differ from other social groups, such assubcultures, interest groups or social classes, because theyemerge and change over historical periods (centuries) in aprocess known as ethnogenesis, a period of several gener-ations of endogamy resulting in common ancestry (whichis then sometimes cast in terms of a mythological nar-rative of a founding figure); ethnic identity is reinforcedby reference to “boundary markers” - characteristics saidto be unique to the group which set it apart from othergroups.[37][38][39][40][41]

3 Ethnicity and nationality

Further information: Nation state and minority group

In some cases, especially involving transnational migra-tion, or colonial expansion, ethnicity is linked to nation-ality. Anthropologists and historians, following the mod-ernist understanding of ethnicity as proposed by ErnestGellner[42] and Benedict Anderson[43] see nations andnationalism as developing with the rise of the modernstate system in the 17th century. They culminated in therise of “nation-states” in which the presumptive bound-aries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) withstate boundaries. Thus, in the West, the notion of eth-nicity, like race and nation, developed in the contextof European colonial expansion, when mercantilism andcapitalism were promoting global movements of popu-lations at the same time that state boundaries were be-ing more clearly and rigidly defined. In the 19th cen-tury, modern states generally sought legitimacy through

5

their claim to represent “nations.” Nation-states, however,invariably include populations that have been excludedfrom national life for one reason or another. Membersof excluded groups, consequently, will either demand in-clusion on the basis of equality, or seek autonomy, some-times even to the extent of complete political separationin their own nation-state.[44] Under these conditions—when people moved from one state to another,[45] or onestate conquered or colonized peoples beyond its nationalboundaries—ethnic groups were formed by people whoidentified with one nation, but lived in another state.Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two oppositeevents, either the recent creation of state borders atvariance with traditional tribal territories, or the recentimmigration of ethnic minorities into a former nationstate. Examples for the first case are found throughoutAfrica, where countries created during decolonisation in-herited arbitrary colonial borders, but also in Europeancountries such as Belgium or United Kingdom. Exam-ples for the second case are countries such as Germanyor the Netherlands, which were ethnically homogenouswhen they attained statehood but have received signif-icant immigration during the second half of the 20thcentury. States such as the United Kingdom, Franceand Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups fromtheir formation and have likewise experienced substan-tial immigration, resulting in what has been termed"multicultural" societies especially in large cities.The states of the New World were multi-ethnic from theonset, as they were formed as colonies imposed on exist-ing indigenous populations.In recent decades feminist scholars (most notably NiraYuval-Davis),[46] have drawn attention to the fundamen-tal ways in which women participate in the creation andreproduction of ethnic and national categories. Thoughthese categories are usually discussed as belonging to thepublic, political sphere, they are upheld within the pri-vate, family sphere to a great extent.[47] It is here thatwomen act not just as biological reproducers but alsoas 'cultural carriers’, transmitting knowledge and enforc-ing behaviours that belong to a specific collectivity.[48]Women also often play a significant symbolic role in con-ceptions of nation or ethnicity, for example in the notionthat 'women and children' constitute the kernel of a nationwhich must be defended in times of conflict, or in iconicfigures such as Brittania or Marianne.

4 Ethnicity and race

The distinction between race and ethnicity is consideredhighly problematic. Ethnicity is often assumed to be thecultural identity of a group, often based on language andtradition, while race is assumed to be a biological classifi-cation, based on DNA and bone structure. Race is a morecontroversial subject than ethnicity, due to its common

political use. It is assumed that, based on power relations,there exist 'racialized ethnicities’ and 'ethnicized races’.Ramán Grosfoguel (University of California, Berkeley)notes that 'racial/ethnic identity' is one concept and thatconcepts of race and ethnicity cannot be used as separateand autonomous categories.[49]

Before Weber, race and ethnicity were often seen astwo aspects of the same thing. Around 1900 and be-fore, the essentialist primordialist understanding of eth-nicity was predominant: cultural differences betweenpeoples were seen as being the result of inherited traitsand tendencies.[50] This was the time when “sciences”such as phrenology claimed to be able to correlate cul-tural and behavioral traits of different populations withtheir outward physical characteristics, such as the shapeof the skull. With Weber’s introduction of ethnicity asa social construct, race and ethnicity were divided fromeach other. A social belief in biologically well-definedraces lingered on.In 1950, the UNESCO statement, "The Race Ques-tion", signed by some of the internationally renownedscholars of the time (including Ashley Montagu, ClaudeLévi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc.), sug-gested that: “National, religious, geographic, linguisticand cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racialgroups: and the cultural traits of such groups have nodemonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Be-cause serious errors of this kind are habitually committedwhen the term 'race' is used in popular parlance, it wouldbe better when speaking of human races to drop the term'race' altogether and speak of 'ethnic groups’.”[51]

In 1982 anthropologist David Craig Griffith summed upforty years of ethnographic research, arguing that racialand ethnic categories are symbolic markers for differentways that people from different parts of the world havebeen incorporated into a global economy:

The opposing interests that divide the workingclasses are further reinforced through appealsto “racial” and “ethnic” distinctions. Such ap-peals serve to allocate different categories ofworkers to rungs on the scale of labor mar-kets, relegating stigmatized populations to thelower levels and insulating the higher echelonsfrom competition from below. Capitalism didnot create all the distinctions of ethnicity andrace that function to set off categories of work-ers from one another. It is, nevertheless, theprocess of labor mobilization under capitalismthat imparts to these distinctions their effectivevalues.[52]

According to Wolf, races were constructed and incorpo-rated during the period of European mercantile expan-sion, and ethnic groups during the period of capitalistexpansion.[53]

Writing about the usage of the term “ethnic” in the ordi-

6 6 ETHNIC GROUPS BY CONTINENT

nary language of Great Britain and the United States, in1977 Wallman noted that

The term 'ethnic' popularly connotes '[race]' inBritain, only less precisely, and with a lightervalue load. In North America, by contrast,'[race]' most commonly means color, and 'eth-nics’ are the descendants of relatively recentimmigrants from non-English-speaking coun-tries. '[Ethnic]' is not a noun in Britain. In ef-fect there are no 'ethnics’; there are only 'ethnicrelations’.[54]

In the U.S., the OMB defines the concept of race as out-lined for the US Census as not “scientific or anthropolog-ical” and takes into account “social and cultural charac-teristics as well as ancestry”, using “appropriate scientificmethodologies” that are not “primarily biological or ge-netic in reference.”[55]

5 Ethno-national conflict

Further information: Ethnic conflict

Sometimes ethnic groups are subject to prejudicial atti-tudes and actions by the state or its constituents. In the20th century, people began to argue that conflicts amongethnic groups or betweenmembers of an ethnic group andthe state can and should be resolved in one of two ways.Some, like Jürgen Habermas and Bruce Barry, have ar-gued that the legitimacy of modern states must be basedon a notion of political rights of autonomous individualsubjects. According to this view, the state should not ac-knowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but ratherinstead enforce political and legal equality of all individ-uals. Others, like Charles Taylor and Will Kymlicka, ar-gue that the notion of the autonomous individual is itselfa cultural construct. According to this view, states mustrecognize ethnic identity and develop processes throughwhich the particular needs of ethnic groups can be ac-commodated within the boundaries of the nation-state.The 19th century saw the development of the politicalideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of racewas tied to nationalism, first by German theorists includ-ing Johann Gottfried von Herder. Instances of societiesfocusing on ethnic ties, arguably to the exclusion of his-tory or historical context, have resulted in the justifica-tion of nationalist goals. Two periods frequently cited asexamples of this are the 19th century consolidation andexpansion of the German Empire and the 20th centuryNazi Germany. Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea thatthese governments were only acquiring lands that had al-ways been inhabited by ethnic Germans. The history oflate-comers to the nation-state model, such as those aris-ing in the Near East and south-eastern Europe out of the

dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Em-pires, as well as those arising out of the former USSR, ismarked by inter-ethnic conflicts. Such conflicts usuallyoccur within multi-ethnic states, as opposed to betweenthem, as in other regions of the world. Thus, the conflictsare often misleadingly labelled and characterized as civilwars when they are inter-ethnic conflicts in a multi-ethnicstate.

6 Ethnic groups by continent

6.1 Africa

Main article: Ethnic groups in Africa

Ethnic groups in Africa number in the hundreds, eachgenerally having its own language (or dialect of a lan-guage) and culture.Many ethnic groups and nations of Africa qualify, al-though some groups are of a size larger than a tribal soci-ety. These mostly originate with the Sahelian kingdomsof the medieval period, such as that of the Akan, deriv-ing from Bonoman (11th century) then the Kingdom ofAshanti (17th century).[56]

6.2 Asia

Main article: Ethnic groups in Asia

There are an abundance of ethnic groups throughout Asia,with adaptations to the climate zones of Asia, which canbe Arctic, subarctic, temperate, subtropical or tropical.The ethnic groups have adapted to mountains, deserts,grasslands, and forests. On the coasts of Asia, the eth-nic groups have adopted various methods of harvest andtransport. Some groups are primarily hunter-gatherers,some practice transhumance (nomadic lifestyle), othershave been agrarian/rural for millennia and others becom-ing industrial/urban. Some groups/countries of Asia arecompletely urban (Hong Kong and Singapore). The col-onization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th cen-tury, with national drives for independence and self-determination across the continent.

6.3 Europe

Main article: Ethnic groups in EuropeEurope has a large number of ethnic groups; Pan andPfeil (2004) count 87 distinct “peoples of Europe”, ofwhich 33 form the majority population in at least onesovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnicminorities within every state they inhabit (although theymay form local regional majorities within a sub-national

7

Some European ethnic groups, such as Basque people, do notconstitute a majority in any one country.[57]

entity). The total number of national minority popula-tions in Europe is estimated at 105million people, or 14%of 770 million Europeans.[58]

A number of European countries, including France,[59]and Switzerland do not collect information on the ethnic-ity of their resident population.Russia has over 185 recognized ethnic groups besides the80% ethnic Russian majority. The largest group are theTatars 3.8%. Many of the smaller groups are found in theAsian part of Russia (see Indigenous peoples of Siberia).

6.4 North America

Main articles: Ethnic origins of people in Canada, Ethnicgroups in Central America, Demographics of Mexicoand Ethnic groups in the United States

6.5 South America

Main article: Ethnic groups in South America

7 See also

• Ancestry

• Clan

• Diaspora

• Ethnic autonomous regions

• Ethnic cleansing

• Ethnic flag

• Ethnic nationalism

• Ethnic penalty

• Ethnicity and health

• Ethnocentrism

• Ethnocultural empathy

• Ethnogenesis

• Genealogy

• Genetic genealogy

• Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP)

• Identity politics

• Ingroups and outgroups

• Intersectionality

• Kinship and Descent

• List of ethnic groups

• List of indigenous peoples

• List of modern ethnic groups

• List of stateless ethnic groups

• Meta-ethnicity

• Minority group

• Multiculturalism

• Nation

• National symbol

• Passing (ethnic group)

• Polyethnicity

• Population genetics

• Race (classification of human beings)

• Race and ethnicity in censuses

• Race and ethnicity in the United States Census

• Stateless nation

• Transethnic

• Tribe

• Y-chromosome haplogroups by populations

8 8 REFERENCES

8 References[1] “ethnicity: definition of ethnicity”. Oxford Dictionaries.

Oxford University Press. Retrieved 28 December 2013.

[2] People, James; Bailey, Garrick (2010). Humanity: An In-troduction to Cultural Anthropology (9th ed.). WadsworthCengage learning. p. 389. In essence, an ethnic group isa named social category of people based on perceptionsof shared social experience or ancestry. Members of theethnic group see themselves as sharing cultural traditionsand history that distinguish them from other groups. Eth-nic group identity has a strong psychological or emotionalcomponent that divides the people of the world into op-posing categories of “us” and “them.” In contrast to socialstratification, which divides and unifies people along a se-ries of horizontal axes on the basis of socioeconomic fac-tors, ethnic identities divide and unify people along a se-ries of vertical axes. Thus, ethnic groups, at least theoreti-cally, cut across socioeconomic class differences, drawingmembers from all strata of the population.

[3] ἐθνικός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[4] ThiE. Tonkin, M. McDonald and M. Chapman, Historyand Ethnicity (London 1989), pp. 11–17 (quoted in J.Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), Oxford readers: Ethnic-ity (Oxford 1996), pp. 18–24)

[5] ἔθνος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[6] Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online versionas of 2008-01-12, “ethnic, a. and n.”. Cites Sir DanielWilson, The archæology and prehistoric annals of Scot-land 1851' (1863) and Huxley & Haddon (1935),We Eu-ropeans, pp. 136,181

[7] Cohen, Ronald. (1978) “Ethnicity: Problem and Focus inAnthropology”, Ann. Rev. Anthropol. 1978. 7:379-403;Glazer, Nathan and Daniel P. Moynihan (1975) Ethnic-ity – Theory and Experience, Cambridge, Mass. HarvardUniversity Press. The modern usage definition of theOxford English Dictionary is:

a[djective]

...2.a. Pertaining to race; peculiarto a race or nation; ethnological.Also, pertaining to or having com-mon racial, cultural, religious, orlinguistic characteristics, esp. des-ignating a racial or other groupwithin a larger system; hence (U.S.colloq.), foreign, exotic.b ethnic minority (group), a groupof people differentiated from therest of the community by racialorigins or cultural background,and usu. claiming or enjoying of-ficial recognition of their groupidentity. Also attrib.

n[oun]

...3 A member of an ethnic group orminority. Equatorians

(Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, online versionas of 2008-01-12, s.v. “ethnic, a. and n.”)

[8] ὅμαιμος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[9] ὁμόγλωσσος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, AGreek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[10] I. Polinskaya, “Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others:On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144”, in:R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.), Valuing others in ClassicalAntiquity (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 43-70.

[11] ὁμότροπος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, AGreek-English Lexicon, on Perseus)

[12] Herodotus, 8.144.2: “The kinship of all Greeks in bloodand speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices thatwe have in common, and the likeness of our way of life.”

[13] Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby, Nationalism and Eth-nosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Forma-tion of Nations, Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115

[14] in Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World: Science,Politics and Reality : Proceedings of the Joint Canada-United States Conference on the Measurement of Eth-nicity, April 1–3, 1992, Joint Canada-United States Con-ference on the Measurement of Ethnicity, Department ofCommerce, Statistics Canada, 1993

[15] ", a conference organised by Statistics Canada and theUnited States Census Bureau (April 1–3, 1992) StatisticsCanada

[16] Fredrik Barth ed. 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries:The Social Organization of Cultural Difference; Eric Wolf1982 Europe and the People Without History p. 381

[17] Geertz, Clifford, ed. (1967) Old Societies and New States:The Quest for Modernity in Africa and Asia. New York:The Free Press.

[18] Cohen, Abner (1969)Custom and Politics in Urban Africa:A Study of Hausa Migrants in a Yoruba Town. London:Routledge & Kegan Paul.

[19] Abner Cohen (1974) Two-Dimensional Man: An essay onpower and symbolism in complex society. London: Rout-ledge & Kegan Paul.

[20] J. Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (eds.), Oxford readers: Eth-nicity (Oxford 1996), “Introduction”, 8-9

[21] Gellner, Ernest (1983) Nations and Nationalism. Oxford:Blackwell.

[22] Ernest Gellner (1997) Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld& Nicolson.

[23] Smith, Anthony D. (1986) The Ethnic Origins of Nations.Oxford: Blackwell.

9

[24] Anthony Smith (1991) National Identity. Har-mondsworth: Penguin.

[25] T.H. Eriksen “Ethnic identity, national identity and inter-group conflict: The significance of personal experiences”in Ashmore, Jussim, Wilder (eds.): Social identity, inter-group conflict, and conflict reduction, pp. 42–70. Oxford:Oxford University Press’. 2001

[26] Banton, Michael. (2007) “Weber on Ethnic Communities:A critique”,Nations and Nationalism 13 (1), 2007, 19–35.

[27] Ronald Cohen 1978 “Ethnicity: Problem and Focus inAnthropology”, Annual Review of Anthropology 7: 383Palo Alto: Stanford University Press

[28] James, Paul (2015). “Despite the Terrors of Typologies:The Importance of Understanding Categories of Differ-ence and Identity”. Interventions: International Journalof Postcolonial Studies 17 (2): 174–195.

[29] Joan Vincent 1974, “The Structure of Ethnicity” in Hu-man Organization 33(4): 375-379

[30] (Smith 1999, p. 13)

[31] Smith (1998), 159.

[32] Smith (1999), 5.

[33] Noel, Donald L. (1968). “A Theory of the Origin ofEthnic Stratification”. Social Problems 16 (2): 157–172.doi:10.1525/sp.1968.16.2.03a00030.

[34] Bobo, Lawrence; Hutchings, Vincent L. (1996). “Per-ceptions of Racial Group Competition: ExtendingBlumer’s Theory of Group Position to a Multira-cial Social Context”. American Sociological Review(American Sociological Association) 61 (6): 951–972.doi:10.2307/2096302. JSTOR 2096302.

[35] (Smith 1999, pp. 4–7)

[36] Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983), The Invention of Tradi-tion, Sider 1993 Lumbee Indian Histories.

[37] Camoroff, John L. and Jean Camoroff 2009: EthnicityInc.. Chicago: Chicago Press.

[38] The Invention of Tradition, Sider 1993 Lumbee IndianHistories

[39] O'Neil, Dennis. “Nature of Ethnicity”. Palomar College.Retrieved 7 January 2013.

[40] Seidner,(1982), Ethnicity, Language, and Power from aPsycholinguistic Perspective, pp. 2–3

[41] Smith 1987 pp. 21–22

[42] Gellner 2006 Nations and Nationalism Blackwell Publish-ing

[43] Anderson 2006 Imagined Communities Version

[44] Walter Pohl, “Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early MedievalStudies”, Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings,ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Black-well), 1998, pp 13–24, notes that historians have pro-jected the 19th-century conceptions of the nation-statebackwards in time, employing biological metaphors ofbirth and growth: “that the peoples in the Migration Pe-riod had little to do with those heroic (or sometimesbrutish) clichés is now generally accepted among his-torians,” he remarked. Early medieval peoples werefar less homogeneous than often thought, and Pohl fol-lows Reinhard Wenskus, Stammesbildung und Verfas-sung. (Cologne and Graz) 1961, whose researches intothe “ethnogenesis” of the German peoples convinced himthat the idea of common origin, as expressed by Isidore ofSeville Gens est multitudo ab uno principio orta (“a peopleis a multitude stemming from one origin”) which contin-ues in the original Etymologiae IX.2.i) “sive ab alia na-tione secundum propriam collectionem distincta (“or dis-tinguished from another people by its proper ties”) was amyth.

[45] Aihway Ong 1996 “Cultural Citizenship in the Making”in Current Anthropology 37(5)

[46] Nira Yuval-Davis, “Gender & Nation” (London: SAGEPublications Ltd, 1997)

[47] Nira Yuval-Davis, “Gender & Nation” (London: SAGEPublications Ltd, 1997) pp. 12-13

[48] Floya Anthias and Nira Yuval-Davis “Woman-Nation–State” (London: Macmillan, 1989), p 9

[49] Grosfoguel, Ramán (September 2004). “Race andEthnicity or Racialized Ethnicities? Identities withinGlobal Coloniality”. Ethnicities. 315-336 4 (3): 315.doi:10.1177/1468796804045237. Retrieved 2012-08-06.

[50] Banton, Michael. (2007) “Weber on Ethnic Communities:A critique”,Nations and Nationalism 13 (1), 2007, 19–35.

[51] A. Metraux (1950) “United nations Economic and Secu-rity Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race”,American Anthropologist 53(1): 142-145)

[52] Griffith, David Craig, Jones’s minimal: low-wage labor inthe United States, State University of New York Press, Al-bany, 1993, p.222

[53] Eric Wolf, 1982, Europe and the People Without History,Berkeley: University of California Press. 380-381

[54] Wallman, S. “Ethnicity research in Britain”, Current An-thropology, v. 18, n. 3, 1977, pp. 531–532.

[55] “A Brief History of the OMB Directive 15”. AmericanAnthropological Association. 1997. Retrieved 2007-05-18.

[56] Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of WorldMigration. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 0-521-44405-5. Wickens, Gerald E; Lowe, Pat (2008). TheBaobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Aus-tralia. Springer Science+Business Media. 2008. p. 360.ISBN 978-1-4020-6431-9.

10 9 FURTHER READING

[57] Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. 2012. Spain. StevenL. Denver (ed.), Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclo-pedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues, Vol.3. Armonk, NY: M .E. Sharpe, pp. 674-675.

[58] Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil,Minderheitenrechtein Europa. Handbuch der europäischen Volksgruppen(2002). Living-diversity.eu, English translation 2004.

[59] (French) article 8 de la loi Informatique et libertés, 1978:“Il est interdit de collecter ou de traiter des données à car-actère personnel qui font apparaître, directement ou indi-rectement, les origines raciales ou ethniques, les opinionspolitiques, philosophiques ou religieuses ou l'appartenancesyndicale des personnes, ou qui sont relatives à la santé ouà la vie sexuelle de celles-ci.”

9 Further reading

• Abizadeh, Arash, “Ethnicity, Race, and a PossibleHumanity” World Order, 33.1 (2001): 23-34. (Ar-ticle that explores the social construction of ethnicityand race.)

• Barth, Fredrik (ed). Ethnic groups and boundaries.The social organization of culture difference, Oslo:Universitetsforlaget, 1969

• Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicol-ogy, The Key Concepts. London and New York:Routledge.

• Billinger, Michael S. (2007), “Another Look at Eth-nicity as a Biological Concept: Moving Anthropol-ogy Beyond the Race Concept”, Critique of Anthro-pology 27,1:5–35.

• Craig, Gary, et al., eds. Understanding 'race'andethnicity: theory, history, policy, practice (PolicyPress, 2012)

• Danver, Steven L. Native Peoples of the World: AnEncylopedia of Groups, Cultures and ContemporaryIssues (2012)

• Eriksen, T.H. 1993. Ethnicity and Nationalism:Anthropological Perspectives, London, Pluto Press.

• Eysenck, H.J., Race, Education and Intelligence(London: Temple Smith, 1971) (ISBN 0-85117-009-9)

• Hartmann, Douglas. “Notes on Midnight Basketballand the Cultural Politics of Recreation, Race andAt-Risk Urban Youth”, Journal of Sport and Social Is-sues. 25 (2001): 339-366.

• Hasmath, R. ed. 2011. Managing Ethnic Diversity:Meanings and Practices from an International Per-spective. Burlington, VT and Surrey, UK: Ashgate.

• Healey, Joseph F., and Eileen O'Brien. Race, ethnic-ity, gender, and class: The sociology of group conflictand change (Sage Publications, 2014)

• Hobsbawm, Eric, and Terence Ranger, editors, TheInvention of Tradition. (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1983).

• Thomas Hylland Eriksen (1993) Ethnicity and Na-tionalism: Anthropological Perspectives, London:Pluto Press

• Kappeler, Andreas. The Russian empire: A multi-ethnic history (Routledge, 2014)

• Levinson, David, Ethnic Groups Worldwide: AReady Reference Handbook, Greenwood PublishingGroup (1998), ISBN 978-1-57356-019-1.

• Merriam, A.P. 1959. “African Music”, in R. Bas-com and, M. J. Herskovits (eds), Continuity andChange in African Cultures, Chicago, University ofChicago Press.

• Morales-Díaz, Enrique; Gabriel Aquino; & MichaelSletcher, “Ethnicity”, in Michael Sletcher, ed., NewEngland, (Westport, CT, 2004).

• Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. Racial Forma-tion in the United States from the 1960s to the 1980s.(New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Inc., 1986).

• Seeger, A. 1987. Why Suyá Sing: A Musical An-thropology of an Amazonian People, Cambridge,Cambridge University Press.

• Seidner, Stanley S. Ethnicity, Language, and Powerfrom a Psycholinguistic Perspective. (Bruxelles:Centre de recherche sur le pluralinguisme1982).

• Sider, Gerald, Lumbee Indian Histories (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1993).

• Smith, Anthony D. (1987). “The Ethnic Origins ofNations”. Blackwell.

• Smith, Anthony D. (1998). Nationalism and mod-ernism. A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Na-tions and Nationalism. London – New York: Rout-ledge.

• Smith, Anthony D. (1999). “Myths and memoriesof the Nation”. Oxford University Press.

• Thernstrom, Stephan A. ed. Harvard Encyclopediaof American Ethnic Groups (1981)

• ^ U.S. Census Bureau State & County QuickFacts:Race.

11

10 External links• Race and Ethnicity in Advertising: America 1890-Today

• Ethnicity at DMOZ

• Ethnicity entry in the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyp-tology

• Downloadable article: “Evidence that a West-Eastadmixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as earlyas the early Bronze Age” Li et al. BMC Biology2010, 8:15. Biomedcentral.com

• Rian.ru

• American Psychological Association’s Office ofEthnic Minority Affairs

12 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Ethnic group Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group?oldid=676855951 Contributors: Derek Ross, The Anome, Slruben-stein, DanKeshet, Gianfranco, Ant, Stevertigo, Ubiquity, Jahsonic, Dcljr, Ahoerstemeier, Marteau, Bogdangiusca, Scott, Andres, NikolaSmolenski, Ike9898, Joy, Wetman, Jusjih, Anjouli, Frazzydee, Lumos3, Chrism, PBS, COGDEN, Merovingian, Academic Challenger,Tobias Bergemann, Adhib, Jpta~enwiki, Wilfried Derksen, Paploo, Robert Weemeyer, Jurema Oliveira, Mackeriv, Andycjp, Quadell,Beland, Mzajac, Al-Andalus, Zfr, Joyous!, Hillel, JamesTeterenko, Heegoop, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rama, Vsmith, EliasAlu-card, Trekie8472, Kostja, D-Notice, Dbachmann, SamEV, Bender235, Brian0918, RJHall, Bennylin, El C, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Jp-gordon, Bobo192, Yonghokim, Reinyday, Vortexrealm, Kappa, Giraffedata, Pearle, Espoo, Ranveig, Alansohn, Hektor, Foant, Atlant,Riana, SlimVirgin, SeanLegassick, Malo, Hohum, Snowolf, Stephan Leeds, Mikeo, Vuo, GabrielF, HenryLi, Red dwarf, Kenyon, Lupi-taº, PANONIAN, Velho, Woohookitty, Camw, Jersyko, Daniel Case, Bonus Onus, WadeSimMiser, Jeff3000, Tabletop, Dmol, John Hill,Tokek, G.W., BD2412, Fermin, Dpr, Mayumashu, Nightscream, Zinoviev, Tawker, Nneonneo, Klassykittychick, Ligulem, Molybdenum-blue, Yamamoto Ichiro, Wobble, Winhunter, Changchih228, Bmicomp, Chobot, Hatch68, Jersey Devil, Benlisquare, Adoniscik, RussBot,Peoplesunionpro, Anonymous editor, Pigman, Stephenb, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, DJ Bungi, Badagnani, Rjensen, Chooserr, Pylambert,Syrthiss, Jeargle, Botteville, Maunus, Black Falcon, Pawyilee, Paul Magnussen, Citynoise, Sam@mysite.com.my, Zzuuzz, Mappychris,Closedmouth, Dark Tichondrias, Shawnc, Fram, Ybbor, Moomoomoo, Elijahmeeks, Hide&Reason, Weiteck, Vulturell, Eog1916, Sar-danaphalus, Vanka5, Veinor, SmackBot, Twoheel, Astavrou, Triggtay, KAtremer, Ramdrake, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Pfaff9, Orser67,Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Hmains, Desiphral, Chris the speller, Aucaman, Kurykh, Unint, CKA3KA, Persian Poet Gal, Master of Puppets,Fplay, Kemet, DaveHM, BrendelSignature, Nbarth, Pertn, Aridd, Mladifilozof, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Dberryman, Rrburke, Inesit, UU, Arab Hafez, Khoikhoi, Answerthis, T-borg, Cordless Larry, Iblardi, Gidklio, Zero Gravity, Aaker, Lorn10, PandaDB, Epf, Kukini,Ricky@36, Ace ETP, Will Beback, Arnoutf, BrownHairedGirl, Kuru, UberCryxic, Siddharth srinivasan, Tazmaniacs, Ishmaelblues,Chodorkovskiy, Mgiganteus1, Ckatz, Zaparojdik, 16@r, JHunterJ, Pondle, Jimbojw, Muadd, Mr Stephen, Jhamez84, Meco, Ryulong,Dr.K., KJS77, Hu12, Alphaman11, Levineps, Wallstreethotrod, Iridescent, Tmangray, Lenoxus, HongQiGong, Gil Gamesh, Courcelles,Audiosmurf, Tawkerbot2, Ghaly, Belginusanl, DangerousPanda, Ale jrb, Alexey Feldgendler, Bonás, Alex Shih, CWY2190, R9tgokunks,AEF, Pseudo-Richard, Neelix, FilipeS, Vectro, Slazenger, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Gogo Dodo, Borislutskovsky, Red Director, 01011000, B, En-ergyfreezer, Robertsteadman, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Peter morrell, 23prootie, Keraunos, Mojo Hand, Louis Waweru, Marek69, John254,Merbabu, Omegared25, Pcbene, CharlotteWebb, Northumbrian, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Obiwankenobi, QuiteUnusual, Bull-Doser,Edokter, AaronY, Jj137, Dunnhaupt, Qwerty Binary, Crissidancer88, JAnDbot, Husond, Skomorokh, Legolost, Rentaferret, PhilKnight,Mr blobby, SiobhanHansa, Naval Scene, A12n, VoABot II, Tukes, JamesBWatson, Mbc362, Ling.Nut, Sodabottle, Paul111, JPG-GR,Sasha l~enwiki, Snowded, Fabrictramp, Catgut, Animum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, DerHexer, Philg88, Éponyme, Cricket02, NatureA16,S3000, Windymilla, PinkCake, MartinBot, Efoden, Lucibi and friends, Bus stop, R'n'B, Pomte, Wiki Raja, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wiz-ards, Diego M.C., Adog10909, Rpraskins, Jerdan~enwiki, ZGMF-X666S, Rccola666, Adavidb, OfficeGirl, Cop 663, AliceJMarkham,Mjb1981, Afaber012, Astrakan, 97198, NobleHelium, Flatterworld, Remember the dot, JudahBlaze, Guyzero, Ja 62, JavierMC, Davidcurley, Xiahou, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Kona123456, ACSE, Lights, Undress 006, Marshall111, 28bytes, TreasuryTag, Spider2468,Macedonian, HelloKevin, Markmark12, QuackGuru, Butseriouslyfolks, Moogwrench, Elfe49, Jonesey67, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Corvuscornix, C.Kent87, LeaveSleaves, Seb az86556, Kenshin, Wikiisawesome, Jeeny, Madhero88, Alborz Fallah, Billinghurst, Soulja nyn3,Warer~enwiki, Crispy park, Dark Tea, Cnilep, Master of the Oríchalcos, AlleborgoBot, Munci, Dylansmrjones, Educatedlady, M5891,SieBot, Sebastiancool, Hugh16, LeadSongDog, Radon210, Momo san, AlexWaelde, Oxymoron83, Ddxc, Avnjay, Hobartimus, Belligero,Bluesky26, Reneeholle, Fuddle, Dodger67, Ecthelion83, EveryDayJoe45, Denisarona, Sitush, Escape Orbit, Explicit, WordyGirl90, Ale-jandro.a, Apuldram, ClueBot, MizzMoo, The Thing That ShouldNot Be, Gawaxay, RashersTierney, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Arakunem, No-vaTabula, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, TheOldJacobite, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalismBot, Jonund, Blanchardb, Parkwells, Man-ishearth, Rebecita.angle, Jashemi, Yank10954, Dmyersturnbull, Singhalawap, Morel, SchreiberBike, Grrrlriot, Recordfreenow, Kssoc147,Kikos, Versus22, Antalope, Berean Hunter, Hotcrocodile, LeaW, Alexius08, Yuvn86, Minhhanguyen, Addbot, Willking1979, Theleft-orium, Ronhjones, Hattar393, Kman543210, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Duckie for broadway,Ccacsmss, PranksterTurtle, Buster7, Debresser, Bazaan, Green Squares, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Krano, ,ماني Gaybum76, Jessika Folkerts,Harro101, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Tempodivalse, Bryan.Wade, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Jim1138, IRP,Galoubet, Music+mas, Brilliant trees, Yachtsman1, Kneebn06, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Neurolysis, LilHelpa, Jack666145, Xqbot, Maulucioni, Turk oğlan, Magmagoblin, J04n, GrouchoBot, Sabrebd, Brutaldeluxe, Doulos Christos, Cookay569, Lycaon83,პაატა შ, FrescoBot, Neringasike, Dasds, Duzalash, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Vicenarian, Elockid, Coekon, A8UDI, Mnlk, Joaozinho10,MertyWiki, Fishstones, Koakhtzvigad, FoxBot, TobeBot, D climacus, Vietskoolboi1023, Lotje, AthinaiosPolitis, Danabodnar, Mum-mykins1961, Lkjhgfdsa 0, Balaram3, Reach Out to the Truth, Heygirlll3, Mindy Dirt, IANVS, Ripchip Bot, Supergiant111, Ionut Co-jocaru, SeanJones8191, EmausBot, Narcosis17, John of Reading, Heracles31, SteenvanJ, Sxoa, NotAnonymous0, Lindsaywinn, Sheeana,Cmiller7777, Dekker451, HiW-Bot, DiAyd, Jstriker, WeijiBaikeBianji, The Nut, Fernirm, SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Perozdero22, Aman-ton, Teksus, 55matahari, Isarra, Ubikwit, Δ, L Kensington, Shrigley, Donner60, Adhan24, Usb10, Nightgown22, ChuispastonBot, Neil P.Quinn, Mjbmrbot, Awewe, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Ezekiel63745, Vishwas reddy, This lousy T-shirt, Chrisminter, Brennand9,Frietjes, 123Hedgehog456, Castncoot, BigPrittyNipps, Widr, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bluetime2003, Metroxed, Festermunk, Ho-peandreason, Iamsparta1000, Wheatsing, CannotFindAName, Wiki13, Davidiad, Swi521, Gpyork, Wodrow, MisterCake, Assar, Meclee,ShanePersaud, Glacialfox, Quigley, Iloverussia, Feifei90802, Eduardofeld, 223fxt, AMS351996, JYBot, Kitteagirl, FonsScientiae, Lu-gia2453, 93, Kevin12xd, Unicorndick, Jonney2000, Schrauwers, Kelvinkasherwithpie, MohdRfus, Lovingoni, FiredanceThroughTheNight,Abrahamic Faiths, LGtan, DavidLeighEllis, Shellystander, Reiftyr, Netjeret, Mooch025, Duffit5, Karakatana, Skr15081997, Oxon123,Tátótát, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Trucksmonk24, HMSLavender, Luveha, Ellen.pilsworth, Roxy Goddard, KcBessy, Tryinhero, Nykteri-nos, AsberryA95, KasparBot, Domnic joerger234567 and Anonymous: 742

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