Ethics Moral Values Wolf[1]

8/8/2019 Ethics Moral Values Wolf[1]

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Ethics and Moral ValuesEthics and Moral Values

Clark WolfClark Wolf

Iowa State UniversityIowa State University


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Philosophical approaches to ethicalPhilosophical approaches to ethicalchoice and reflectionchoice and reflection


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The problems of philosophy involve questions in whichThe problems of philosophy involve questions in whichwe are all (or should all be) deeply interested at thewe are all (or should all be) deeply interested at the

most basic level. They are important to us as we makemost basic level. They are important to us as we makedecisions about what to believe, and how to be criticaldecisions about what to believe, and how to be criticalof our own naively held beliefs. Philosophicalof our own naively held beliefs. Philosophicalinvestigation may help us to determine what kinds ofinvestigation may help us to determine what kinds ofchoices we should make, and what kind of person tochoices we should make, and what kind of person to

be. It may help us to understand and justify our beliefbe. It may help us to understand and justify our belief(or disbelief) in God. It may help us to form a rational(or disbelief) in God. It may help us to form a rationallife plan, and to better understand our own motiveslife plan, and to better understand our own motivesand fears. Philosophical questions are important to usand fears. Philosophical questions are important to usas we try to understand what we are and to determineas we try to understand what we are and to determine

our place in the scheme of things. And they areour place in the scheme of things. And they areimportant to us as we try to choose right actions in aimportant to us as we try to choose right actions in acomplicated and difficult world, and to find meaning incomplicated and difficult world, and to find meaning inour lives. These are not trivial projects.our lives. These are not trivial projects.


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Identifying Ethics:Identifying Ethics: Principles of ethicsPrinciples of ethics

should provide us guidance as we makeshould provide us guidance as we make

choices in a complicated world. Ideally, anchoices in a complicated world. Ideally, anaccount of ethics should help us to identifyaccount of ethics should help us to identify

moral principles and morally relevant featuresmoral principles and morally relevant features

of the choices we face.of the choices we face.


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There is no simple recipe for ethicalThere is no simple recipe for ethicaldecision making. Philosophical anddecision making. Philosophical andreligious theories about ethics do notreligious theories about ethics do notremove our need (obligation?) toremove our need (obligation?) toexercise deliberative judgment and toexercise deliberative judgment and to

evaluate alternative values that are atevaluate alternative values that are atplay in concrete cases.play in concrete cases.


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Values:Values: Values underlie ethicalValues underlie ethicalcodes. For any ethical code, we cancodes. For any ethical code, we canevaluate it by considering the valuesevaluate it by considering the valuesthat support it.that support it.


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Values and Wants:Values and Wants: The things weThe things wewant are usually among the things wewant are usually among the things we

value, but values and wants arevalue, but values and wants aredifferent. It is possible to want whatdifferent. It is possible to want whatone does not value, and possible toone does not value, and possible to

value what one does not want.value what one does not want.


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RoleofReligious Belief in Ethics:RoleofReligious Belief in Ethics: ForForthose of us who have religious beliefs,those of us who have religious beliefs,

often these beliefs are intimately tied to ouroften these beliefs are intimately tied to ourvalues and to the ethical principles wevalues and to the ethical principles weaccept. But it would be a mistake toaccept. But it would be a mistake tosuppose that ethical values are simplysuppose that ethical values are simply

religious valuesreligious valuesat least, the relationship isat least, the relationship ismore complex than people sometimesmore complex than people sometimesrealize.realize.


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Any time says that we should do XAny time says that we should do Xbecause it is what God wants us to do,because it is what God wants us to do,

it is appropriate to consider theit is appropriate to consider thereasons we have for thinking that thisreasons we have for thinking that thisis what God wants. Once we ask thisis what God wants. Once we ask this

question, were doing philosophy.question, were doing philosophy.


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Question:Question: Are Ethical JudgmentsAre Ethical JudgmentsRelative, Subjective, andRelative, Subjective, and

Incomparable?Incomparable?


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Relative:Relative: Different people makeDifferent people makedifferent judgments, and thedifferent judgments, and the

evaluative judgments people make areevaluative judgments people make arewholly relative to the values that theywholly relative to the values that theyhold.hold.


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Subjective:Subjective: Different people justDifferent people justhave different values, and there is nohave different values, and there is no

way to argue or reason about theway to argue or reason about theevaluative assumptions that lie behindevaluative assumptions that lie behinddifferent ethical judgments or choices.different ethical judgments or choices.

There are no evaluative facts in theThere are no evaluative facts in theway that there are facts about theway that there are facts about thephysical universe.physical universe.


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Incomparable:Incomparable: There is no way toThere is no way tocompare the judgments of differentcompare the judgments of different

people, and no one's evaluativepeople, and no one's evaluativejudgments are any better than thejudgments are any better than theevaluative judgments of anyone else.evaluative judgments of anyone else.


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Claim:Claim: If it were true that ethicalIf it were true that ethicalvalues are all relative, subjective, andvalues are all relative, subjective, and

incomparable, then talking aboutincomparable, then talking aboutethics would be useless.ethics would be useless.

Why might one believe this?Why might one believe this?

Is it true?Is it true?


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Claim:Claim: Because we have manyBecause we have manyvalues in common, discussions invalues in common, discussions in

ethics often involve appeals toethics often involve appeals tocommonly shared values.commonly shared values.


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Claim:Claim: Often discussions in ethicsOften discussions in ethicsinvolve appeals to values one believesinvolve appeals to values one believes

that others accept, or values onethat others accept, or values onebelieves that others havebelieves that others have reasonreason totoaccept.accept.


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Ethical argument and discussionEthical argument and discussionrequires an informed and sympatheticrequires an informed and sympathetic

understanding of other peoples valuesunderstanding of other peoples valuesand other peoples point of view. Weand other peoples point of view. Weget no where if we simply preach ourget no where if we simply preach our

own values without making an effortown values without making an effortto understand others.to understand others.


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Example: Robert Nozick onExample: Robert Nozick onVegetarianism. (HandVegetarianism. (Hand--out.)out.)


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Ethical ArgumentsEthical Arguments

Argument: A set of statements, someArgument: A set of statements, someof which serve asof which serve as premises,premises, one ofone of

which serves as awhich serves as a conclusion,conclusion, wherewherethe premises are intended to providethe premises are intended to provideevidenceevidence for the conclusion.for the conclusion.


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When presented with an argument,When presented with an argument,one may eitherone may either

1) Accept the premises and the1) Accept the premises and theconclusionconclusion

2) Reject the premises2) Reject the premises

3) Argue (or show) that the conclusion3) Argue (or show) that the conclusiondoes not follow from the premises.does not follow from the premises.

Ethical Arguments


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An Exampleofan EthicalAn Exampleofan Ethical

Argument:Argument: HandHand--out: Argument for Vegetarianism andout: Argument for Vegetarianism and

Limitations on Animal TestingLimitations on Animal Testing

Do you accept the premises? If not, whichDo you accept the premises? If not, which

premise do you reject or find questionable?premise do you reject or find questionable? Does the conclusion follow from theDoes the conclusion follow from the

premises?premises?


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Example: PeterSingerExample: PeterSinger

1) Suffering and death from lack of food, shelter,1) Suffering and death from lack of food, shelter,and medical care are bad.and medical care are bad.

2) Singer's Principle: Two versions.2) Singer's Principle: Two versions.

Version i) If it is in our power to preventVersion i) If it is in our power to preventsomething bad from happening, without therebysomething bad from happening, without therebysacrificing anything of comparable moralsacrificing anything of comparable moralimportance, we ought, morally, to do it.importance, we ought, morally, to do it.

Version ii) If it is in our power to prevent somethingVersion ii) If it is in our power to prevent somethingvery bad from happening, without therebyvery bad from happening, without therebysacrificing anything of moral significance, we ought,sacrificing anything of moral significance, we ought,morally to do it.morally to do it.


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Example for Singers Principle: If I'mExample for Singers Principle: If I'mwalking past a shallow pond, and I seewalking past a shallow pond, and I see

a child drowning in it, I ought to wadea child drowning in it, I ought to wadein and pull the child out.in and pull the child out.

COST: Muddy Clothing.COST: Muddy Clothing.

BENEFIT: Child's Life.BENEFIT: Child's Life.


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Extending the Argument:Extending the Argument:Whenever we spend on ourselves orWhenever we spend on ourselves or

our loved ones money we could use toour loved ones money we could use toaddress the more pressing moral issueaddress the more pressing moral issueof absolute poverty, we are violatingof absolute poverty, we are violating

a moral principle that we accept.a moral principle that we accept.


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Notice that Singers argument is anNotice that Singers argument is anappeal to ourappeal to our integrity.integrity. He is notHe is not

simply preaching his values andsimply preaching his values andapplying them (perhapsapplying them (perhapsinappropriately) to us.inappropriately) to us.


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Basic v. DerivativeBasic v. Derivative

ObligationsObligations Some obligations derive from otherSome obligations derive from other

more basic obligations. For example,more basic obligations. For example,

obligations of citizenship may beobligations of citizenship may bebased on our obligation to be fair,based on our obligation to be fair,responsible, and respectful of otherresponsible, and respectful of other

people with whom we interact.people with whom we interact.


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Basic and DerivativeBasic and Derivative

ObligationsObligations When obligations can be derived fromWhen obligations can be derived from

others, the more basic obligationsothers, the more basic obligations

have a kind ofpriority over thehave a kind ofpriority over thederived obligations.derived obligations.


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Basic and DerivativeBasic and Derivative

ObligationsObligations Question: Is there an identifiable setQuestion: Is there an identifiable set

of fundamental obligations, such thatof fundamental obligations, such that

all our real obligations can be derivedall our real obligations can be derivedfrom that set?from that set?


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Basic Values: The Josephson Proposal:Basic Values: The Josephson Proposal:

TrustworthinessTrustworthiness

RespectRespect

ResponsibilityResponsibility

FairnessFairness

CaringCaring CitizenshipCitizenship


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W.D. Rosss List of Prima Facie Duties:W.D. Rosss List of Prima Facie Duties:

1) Duties that rest on previous acts of my own1) Duties that rest on previous acts of my owna) Promises.a) Promises. b) Duty to rectify previous wrongs.b) Duty to rectify previous wrongs.

2) Duties that rest on previous acts of others (Duties2) Duties that rest on previous acts of others (Duties

of gratitude).of gratitude).3) Duties of justice (Ross interprets this as a duty to3) Duties of justice (Ross interprets this as a duty to

endeavor to bring the distribution of pleasure orendeavor to bring the distribution of pleasure orhappiness in line with merit.)happiness in line with merit.)

4) Beneficence4) Beneficence--D

uty to benefit others.D

uty to benefit others.5) Duty to improve one's own virtue or intelligence.5) Duty to improve one's own virtue or intelligence.

6) Duty not to injure others.6) Duty not to injure others.


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Joel Feinbergs List of Basic Obligations:Joel Feinbergs List of Basic Obligations:

1) Fidelity1) Fidelity-- Obligation to keep promises.Obligation to keep promises.2) Veracity2) Veracity-- Obligation to tell the truth, or (or betterObligation to tell the truth, or (or better---- not to tellnot to tell

lies).lies).3) Fair Play3) Fair Play-- Obligation not to exploit, cheat, or "free load" onObligation not to exploit, cheat, or "free load" on

othersothers4) Gratitude4) Gratitude-- Obligation to return favorsObligation to return favors

5) Nonmaleficence5) Nonmaleficence-- Obligation not to cause harm, pain orObligation not to cause harm, pain orsuffering to others,suffering to others,

6) Beneficence6) Beneficence-- Obligation to help others in distress, at leastObligation to help others in distress, at leastwhen this involves no great danger to oneself or to thirdwhen this involves no great danger to oneself or to thirdparties.parties.

7) Reparation7) Reparation-- Obligation to repair harms to others that areObligation to repair harms to others that are

one's fault.one's fault.8) Obligation not to kill others (except in self8) Obligation not to kill others (except in self--defense).defense).9) Obligation not to deprive others of their property.9) Obligation not to deprive others of their property.10) Obligation to oppose injustices, at least when this involves no10) Obligation to oppose injustices, at least when this involves no

great cost to oneself.great cost to oneself.11) Obligation to promote just institutions and to work toward11) Obligation to promote just institutions and to work toward

their establishment, maintenance, and improvement.their establishment, maintenance, and improvement.


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Finding an appropriate list of basicFinding an appropriate list of basicobligations may seem like aobligations may seem like a

philosophers game. But the businessphilosophers game. But the businessof making appropriate ethical decisionsof making appropriate ethical decisionsis not a game. One practical goal ofis not a game. One practical goal of

such a list is that it may help us tosuch a list is that it may help us tomake appropriate decisions inmake appropriate decisions incomplicated circumstances.complicated circumstances.


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What morebasic values are involved?What morebasic values are involved?

Helping out on your fatherHelping out on your father--inin--laws farm, youlaws farm, youdiscover that he has ceased to usediscover that he has ceased to use

appropriate environmental precautions. Hisappropriate environmental precautions. Hisplow patterns are leading to excessive soilplow patterns are leading to excessive soilerosion and excessive pesticide runerosion and excessive pesticide run--off.off.There is reason to believe that his unsafeThere is reason to believe that his unsafe

practices are significantly contributing topractices are significantly contributing togroundwater contamination, and thatgroundwater contamination, and thaterosion from his fields iserosion from his fields is


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Ethics and ethical decision making are notEthics and ethical decision making are notsimply the province of philosophers orsimply the province of philosophers orethicists. Our choices reveal our values toethicists. Our choices reveal our values to

the world. These values are eitherthe world. These values are eitherunreflective and shallow, or reflective andunreflective and shallow, or reflective anddeep.deep.

Philosophical deliberation should help us toPhilosophical deliberation should help us tomake our values and choices deep andmake our values and choices deep andthoughtful. Maybe this makes it more likelythoughtful. Maybe this makes it more likelythat our choices will be the right ones.that our choices will be the right ones.

Ethics Moral Values Wolf[1]

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