ETHICAL DECISION MAKINGETHICAL DECISION MAKING

Objectives• Understanding the emerging of ethical issues in business that relate to

legal compliance, decision making , and other functional business areas.• Practice problem solving skills in managing and resolving ethical dilemmas

in the workplace by analyzing cases, films, scenarios, simulations, and other exercises.

• Analyze individual factors that support (or that might not support) ethical decision making.

• Analyze organizational factors that support (or that might not support) ethical decision making.

• Examine the relationship between the legal environment and ethical compliance.

• Explore responsibilities and interests of various stakeholders in shaping ethics and compliance issues.

• in this course we will have the empirical literature in order to assess which variables are postulated as influencing ethical beliefs and decision making. The variables are divided into those unique to the individual decision maker and those considered situational in nature. Variables related to an individual decision maker examined in this review are nationality, religion, sex, age, education, employment, and personality. Situation specific variables examined in this review are referent groups, rewards and sanctions, codes of conduct, type of ethical conflict, organization effects, industry, and business competitiveness. The review identifies the variables that have been empirically tested in an effort to uncover what is known and what we need to know about the variables that are hypothesized as determinants of ethical decision behavior

Introduction:

Outlines:• What is Morality?• Where Does Morality Come From?• "Shared" Values• Points of Agreement• Room for Disagreement• The Meaning of Moral "Justification“

The Importance of Context• The Importance of Relationships• Moral Questions are not Distinct

• The Importance of Moral Theory• Moral Decision Making• acquiring Facts directly• The Importance of Moral Sensitivity• Sensitivity to Moral Aspects of Decisions• Sensitivity to a Range of Considerations• The Role of Discussion in Morality• Discussion as a Means of Consensus-Building• Discussion as a Way of Learning from Others• Guide to Moral Decision Making

Outlines:

What is Morality?

Generally, morality is a system of rules that modifies our behavior in social situations.

It's about acting good instead of evil , and it sets some standard of virtuous conduct.

• The first step is recognizing the decision as one that has moral importance, Important clues include conflicts between two or more values or ideals.

Central principles of ethics:• Reversibility – Would you want someone to do this to you?• Universality – Would you want everyone to do this?

Other questions…– Am I treating others with respect?– Am I violating the rights of others?– Am I treating others only as a means to achieve my goals?– Am I being honest with others and with myself?

What is Morality?

Where Does Morality Come From?

When asked about morality, many people respond like this: "Oh, that's all a matter of personal opinion anyway, right?" But if you look at the way by which moral values actually work in our

everyday lives, you'll see that:. Personal intuitions are important, of course. But morality generally comes

when people interact with each other. This suggests that morality is a system of "shared" values which "justify" actions. As such, morality is about deciding the best courses of action in all situations. As you'll see, there are quotation marks around the words "shared" and "justify" for a reason.

"Shared" Values

• Moral values are generally shared values. If we did not have any values in common, it would be exceedingly difficult to agree on any one course of action.

• But since there is often disagreement on what is the right thing to do in any situation, we realize that in fact, various values are shared to a great or less extent.

• On some values there will be nearly unanimous agreement. On others, there may be considerable disagreement.

Points of Agreement

There are a number of moral values on which the extreme wide agreement. As all cultures place value on truth-telling, and place strong restrictions on lying. As another example, all cultures have rules against doing unnecessary evil to other people (although they vary regarding what constitutes "unnecessary evil"). Other such shared values include (among many others) loyalty, justice, and promise- keeping.

Room for Disagreement

Of course, if everyone agreed on the importance of these values, there would be no problem. However, even if we all agree on which values are important, we may still disagree over the relative importance of the various values. For example, you and I may both agree that telling the truth and avoiding harming others are important.

• But which is more important, when conflict occurred? For example, if you lie to protect someone's feelings, which value should you take? we are differ than each other . Why don’t we just agree on difference? Well, as suggested above, morality is in some way social sense. As a result, we need to justify our actions to each other.

Room for Disagreement

The Meaning of Moral "Justification"

The word “Justification" is commonly used in two different senses, one positive and the other is negative.

The negative sense is that typically accompanied by an accusation were justifier is being insincere.

in this sense the fast-talkers are sometimes accused of being able to “Justify" anything and everything. This usage is typified by statements like, "Justify your behavior however you want... it's still wrong!" It suggests that the "justifier" is merely coming up with excuses for his/her behavior, excuses that even he/she doesn't believe.

• The positive sense of justification, involves bringing others to witness our reasonable actions. In this sense, a course of action is justified if there are better reasons favor it rather than been against. Preferably, these reasons should be agreed by other people. this sense of justification is important for morality. Moral justification,, means showing better moral reasons weighing for a course of action.

The Meaning of Moral "Justification"

The Importance of Context

• probably There is no general correct answer to a questions, "Which is more important, telling the truth or preventing harm?" it depends on context. In some cases, it is probably more important to tell the truth. In others, it is probably more important to prevent harm.

A number of factors that form the context, including factors of time and place, the type and nature of the relationships involved, other people's reasonable expectations, and the relevant history of the situation.

The Importance of Context

• A contrary case might be the following: Imagine that an acquaintance of yours reveals that she has committed manslaughter and that she's very remorseful about it. You are called into court to testify. You know that if you tell the truth, she will go to jail (i.e. suffer a harm). The remorse she shows suggests that she will never commit another crime if she is not sent to jail. Our instincts probably tell us that you should nonetheless tell the truth in such a case, even if it seems do more literal harm than good. This decision might be made on the ground ,truth telling is part of supporting a system of justice that we think about it. as it is fair and very valuable.

The Importance of Relationships

To a large extent, morality is about relationships. Our rights and obligations spring largely from the relationships which we have with people and institutions. These include (among others) our relationships to our family, friends, clients or patients, our students, our workplace, our profession, our religious or cultural traditions, our fellow citizens, and our nation. These relationships can give us important moral reasons for certain kinds of actions.

The Importance of Relationships

For example, your relationship with certain children -- your own children -- means that you have moral duties to them (namely to feed, sheathe and nurture them) ,you don't have to do towards other people's children. Another example might be an obligation, towards other members of one's professional group. It is important in this respect to think about the fact of a given relationship exists, but also about the nature and history of that relationship, and about the legitimate moral expectations that go along with it.

Moral Questions are not Distinct

Moral problems are not limited to any particular kind of situation. Morality is not a separate, special domain which needs to be consulted only on rare occasions. Moral issues surround us all the time. Many decisions we make have moral importance: often, the challenge is just a matter of recognizing that fact. Morality is best seen as involving the 'best choice overall‘ , once matters of prudence, economics and technical (e.g., medical) appropriateness have been taken into consideration, so it will balance against other values kinds.

The Importance and Place of Moral Theory

If morality is about 'shared values‘, then why do we need moral theory? Why should we care about philosophers calls? Why dont we take an opinion poll and figure out exactly what our shared values are?Moral theory seeks to introduce a degree of rationality and reason into our moral deliberations.

The Importance and Place of Moral Theory

Our moral sentiments on any given topic will be less convincing to others if they are based on poor reasoning or on inaccurate facts. Moral philosophers also attempt to single out moral beliefs which are either self-contradictory or mutually exclusive. We shouldn't say that “our moral beliefs must be strictly rational”, but our beliefs also must be considered, rather than knee-jerk reactions to individual issues.

There is also something been said “the process of theory-building”. Sitting down to work out a coherent theory that explains our moral beliefs can illuminate existing contradictions, and can help us to find patterns of moral stable thought that will be easier to learn and teach.

The Importance and Place of Moral Theory

Moral Decision Making

There is no formula or algorithm for moral decision making. It is not a process which can easily based on a determined set of rules. It is also important to see that good moral decision making involves more than acting on hunches or intuitions, though these are important. Good moral decision making involves

a) Knowing the facts of the situation, and b) Careful consideration of the moral values (some call these principles) that

are relevant to a given situation.c) Importantly, it involves sensitivity to the moral dimensions of everyday

situations, and awareness of interests range involved in specific decisions.

Am I Comfortable with this Decision?

• Sometimes your 'gut reaction' will tell you if you've missed something, Questions to be asked in this regard :

1) If I carry out this decision, would I be comfortable telling my family about it? My mentors? 2) Would I want children to take my behavior as an example? 3) Is this a wise decision that an informed, virtuous person would make? 4) Can I coupe with this decision?

Does this Decision Accord with Legal and Organizational Rules?

Some decisions are appropriately made based on legal considerations. If one option is illegal, we should at least think very seriously before taking that option.

Decisions may be affected by rules set by organizations of which we are members.

For example, most professional organizations have Codes of Ethics which are intended to guide individual decision making. Institutions (hospitals, banks, corporations) may also have policies which limit the options available to us.

Sometimes there are bad laws, or bad rules, and sometimes those should be broken. But usually it is ethically important to pay attention to laws & rules.

Does this Decision Accord with Legal and Organizational Rules?

Getting the Facts Straight

Any attempt to make a good decision has to begin with getting the facts of the situation straight. In some cases that seem at the first sight quite difficult, additional facts are enough to make the correct course of action apparent., for example ,If we wish to decide how much of our forests should be cut down now, and how much left for future generations, we need first to establish some facts about the rate at which forests regenerate. These facts might be ascertained through science, or just through the experiences of people who have observed forests over long periods of time.

The Importance of Moral Sensitivity

The primary skill involved in making good moral decisions is sensitivity to the moral issues involved in so many of our everyday activities. Quite often we may act in a morally questionable manner just because we were insensitive to the moral nature of the situation. Of course, sometimes we may do the right thing just by instinct, without reflecting all what we do.

The Importance of Moral Sensitivity

For any number of trivial decisions, this is entirely appropriate. For example, most of us do not require intensive moral deliberation to avoid lying in most cases. But that is not always the case. Often, making the right decision requires a real sensitivity to a situation moral dimension, as well as to the range of interests involved.

Sensitivity to Moral Aspects of Decisions

As it was suggested above, moral issues surround us all the time. Many decisions we make have moral importance: often, it’s just a matter of recognizing that fact. This is crucial, since the first step in problem solving is always identifying the problem.

Technical Based Decisions

Sometimes, due to the technical nature of a problem, we fail to recognize moral dimension. We may think that the decision can be made based on purely technical criteria, and therefore we may be blind to the moral significance of the situation. It is crucial to be sensitive to the fact of many technical questions have important moral components. The decision of which medicine to prescribe for a particular condition, involves making a technical decision about efficacy and a value judgment concerning the relative acceptability of various side effects and various risks.

Sensitivity to a Range of Considerations

Once a problem has been identified as having moral importance, the most important step in resolving the problem lies in identifying the range of considerations that should be taken into account. This includes various parties awareness that will be affected by the decision taken, sensitivity to the range of values or principles which might be applied to the question, as well as sensitivity to other contextual or historical factors which might influence the decision. Sometimes, laying all of these factors out explicitly can help to define or clarify the issue.

The Role of Discussion in Morality

If, we assume that , morality is primarily about shared values, then discussion takes a central place in moral decision making. We seldom make decisions in a vacuum. Other parties are generally involved, and there are reasons included in our decision making processes.

Discussion as a Way of Learning from Others

There are at least two ways we can learn from discussing moral questions with others. The first is a short-term gain of the considerations range. As they say, "two heads are better than one." Involving others in our moral decision means that these others can provide insight or experience which is different from our own.

The second way in which we learn from discussing moral questions with others is a long-term gain moral understanding. We can understand a general class of problems better by recognizing other people's points of view. As in any other kind of reasoning, we can improve the quality of our moral decision making by listening to the sorts of reasons provided by others. We can often learn much from wise persons, or as making particularly good moral decisions with some consistency.

Discussion as a Way of Learning from Others

A Guide to Moral Decision Making

• As stated above in Section, there is no formula for moral decision making. This should not be surprising: neither formula for making good medical diagnoses, or giving good legal advice. All of these involve significant elements of experience and sensitivity. However, it is possible to establish helpful guidelines that will aid us in the process.

• These steps absolutely will not guarantee making a good decision, but they should at least help to prevent some hasty decisions, or insufficient consideration of problem accuracy.

Ethical Decision MakingA. Recognizing the Ethical Dimension• The first step is recognizing the decision that has moral importance.

Important clues include conflicts between two or more values or ideals. B. Who Are the Interested Parties? What are their relationships?• Carefully identify who has a stake in the decision. In this regard, be

imaginative and sympathetic. Often there are more parties whose interests should be taken into consideration than is immediately obvious.

• Look at the relationships between the parties. Look at their relationships with yourself and with each other, and with relevant institutions. Do those relationships bring special obligations or expectations?

Ethical Decision MakingC. What Values are Involved?Think through the shared values that are at stake in making this decision. Is

there any trust? Can we consider personal autonomy ? Is there any kind of fairness? do we harm or help people ?

D. Weigh the Benefits and the BurdenszBenefits -- broadly defined -- might include such things as the production of

goods (physical, emotional, financial, social, etc.) for various parties, the satisfaction of preferences, and acting in accordance with various relevant values (such as fairness).

Burdens might include causing physical or emotional pain to various parties, imposing financial costs, and ignoring relevant values.

Ethical Decision MakingE. Look for Analogous CasesCan you think of other similar decisions? What course of action was taken?

Was it a good decision? How is the present case like the previous one? How is its difference?

F. Discuss with Relevant OthersThe merits of discussion should not be underestimated. Time permitting,

discuss your decision with many persons as they stake it. survey opinions, and ask for the reasons behind those opinions. Remember that your ability to discuss with others may be limited by the other people's expectations of confidentiality.

Ethical Decision MakingG. Does this Decision Accord with Legal and Organizational Rules?• Some decisions are appropriately based on legal considerations. If one’s

option is illegal, we should think seriously before taking that option. • Decisions may also be affected by rules set by organizations of which we

belong to. For example, most professional organizations have Codes of Ethics that guide individual decision making. Institutions (hospitals, banks, corporations) may also have policies which limit the options available to us.

• Sometimes there are bad laws, or bad rules, and sometimes those should be violated. But usually it is ethically important to pay attention to laws & rules.

Ethical Decision MakingH. Am I Comfortable with this Decision?• Sometimes your 'gut reaction' will tell you if you've missed something. • Questions to be asked in this regard :

1. If I carry out this decision, would I be comfortable telling my family about it? My clergyman? My mentors?

2. Would I want children to take my behavior as an example? 3. Is this decision was wise, informed, virtuous that would make a person take ? 4. Can I coupe with this decision? 5. Can you apply it on your self?

END

TRUE / FALSE

• Morality is about making the good instead of the bad. (T)

• Moral problems are always limited by certain organizations only (F)

• Morality is about “Shared values "and we don’t need to put any theories')

• Gaining personal benefits through making a decision is considered immorality? (T)

TRUE / FALSE

• Some technical problems has no ethical decision making .(f)

• Being compassionate in your decisions is not acceptable at all in making decisions. (F)

TRUE / FALSE

• A single decision can be differently accepted according to the recipient’s culture and back ground. (T)

• Making decisions is always an individual decision ,you need no one to share. (F)

TRUE / FALSE

TRUE / FALSE

• Morality is a system of "shared" values which "justifies" actions, for every one’s sake .(T)

Multiple Choice:

1-Being moral means……………• The rules modifies our behavior in

social situations.• whatever a decision you take, makes

you rich.• To be comfortable with the decision

only.•

Multiple Choice:

2-what makes people decide ,according to morals ……………….

• the law can force them to behave.• It is a personal intuition that is inherited• From their culture and personal experience.

Multiple Choice:

3- Moral values are genuinely………………• individual value. • separated value.• Shared value.

Multiple Choice:

• 4- The moral decisions are…………………….• Fixed codes that can never be changed.• It Is a decision taken according to accretion

context.• To be justified according to the personal points

of view.

Multiple Choice:

5- To make a trustful moral decision you need to…………………• Make the decisions that apply all kind of

organizations and sectors.

• To know what values are involved • To make the decision applied sacredly that

should never been discussed.