Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea ... · of evaporation and wind speed is...

JKAU: Mar. Sci., Vol. 23, No. 1, pp: 77-89 (2012 A.D. / 1433 A.H.)

DOI : 10.4197/Mar. 23-1.6

77

Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea

Based on the AVHRR Sea Surface Temperature Data

Abdullah M. Al-Subhi

Faculty of Marine Science, King Abdulaziz University

Jeddah – Saudi Arabia

[email protected]

Abstract. Dalton's equation is used to study the evaporation in the

southern Red Sea. Evaporation is estimated for three regions; (A)

Jeddah, (B) Jazan and (C) Hodeidah (Yemen). The annual averages of

evaporation for Jeddah, Jazan and Hodeidah are 2.04, 1.29 and 1.25

m/yr respectively. In Jeddah region, the evaporation rate is higher than

those of Jazan and Hodeidah. Evaporation is higher in Jeddah during

November, December and January, while it is higher in Hodeidah

region in the month of October. In Jazan evaporation rate is higher in

July. The correlation between the humidity gradient (ew-e

a) and

monthly average of evaporation is strong in all regions being

approximately 0.8, whereas the correlation between monthly average

of evaporation and wind speed is about 0.5. The main cause of higher

evaporation is the humidity gradient (ew-e

a) i.e. higher humidity

gradient. In Jeddah region higher annual average evaporation is

observed during 2000 and 2006 with lower values in 2004 and 2005.

In Jazan evaporation is higher in 1999 and lower in 2002 whereas in

Hodidah the higher values are observed in 2006 and the lower values

in 1999. These variations are related to the changes in humidity and

the wind speed at these locations.

Keywords: Southern Red Sea, Evaporation rate, AVHRR SST.

Introduction

The Red Sea, being geographically located between tropical and

subtropical regions, provides a classic example of the interaction between

Monsoon (seasonal) meteorological conditions at the sea surface and the

thermohaline circulation of the basin. It is a long narrow basin lies

78 Abdullah M. Al-Subhi

between latitudes 12oN and 28

oN. Its north-south extent is about 2300km

and the average width about 280km. The Red Sea mainly exchanges

water with the Gulf of Aden through the strait of Bab el Mandeb with a

small amount via the Suez Canal.

The Red Sea is characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation

which controls the properties of the Red Sea and the flow exchange

through the Strait of Bab el Mandeb (Thunellet al.,1988; Rohlinget

al.,1998; Siddallet al.,2004 and Arzet al.,2007). The average annual

evaporation is about 2 m/yr (Morcos, 1970; Behairyet al., 1981; Ahmad

and Sultan, 1987, 1989; Al-Barakati, 2005; and Matdoukaset al., 2007).

Osman (1984) estimated the evaporation rate near the coast of Port Sudan

as 2.04 m/yr. The computed annual average evaporation in the Red Sea

presented in Sofianos et al.(2002) and Siddallet al.(2003) is about

2.06±0.22 m/yr.

The air temperature over the Red Sea is usually relatively low in

the northern part (Morcos, 1970 and Edwards, 1987) and increases

southward. The warmest region over the Red Sea is between 20oN and

16oN (Edwards, 1987). The average air temperature during February is

approximately 18oC in the northern part. It increases gradually toward

southern part and reaches about 26oC. In August, the average air

temperature increases from 29oC in the north to 33

oC in southern

part(Ahmad and Sultan, 1989). Monthly average sea surface temperature

in the southern Red sea is high compared to the northern part (Morcos,

1970 and Siddallet al., 2004). The amplitude of annual temperature

variation in coastal water is greater than those of open water due to the

impact of the land, and shallow coastal waters (Morcos, 1970). The wind

in southern part of the Red Sea reverses direction with monsoon system

over the Indian Ocean. This system controls the water circulation and the

exchange of water with the Gulf of Aden (Neumann and McGill, 1962;

Phillips, 1966; Siedler, 1969 and Patzert, 1974). The flow of water from

the Gulf of Aden to the Red Sea during winter is greater than that during

summer (Neumann and McGill, 1962 and Rohlinget al., 1998). In winter

along the northeast coast strong wind leads to increase the evaporation

and heat loss (Jiang et al., 2009). The possible maximum extent and

differences associated with these strong flows along the axis of the Red

Sea is associated with a strong decline in limits of relative humidity by

both increase of temperature and reducing specific humidity (Eshel and

Heavens, 2007).

Estimation of Evaporation Rates in the Southern Red Sea Based on the … 79

Studies of evaporation process in the southern part of the Red Sea

are scarce in comparison with the northern part of the sea. So, the present

work is one of the few investigations carried out for estimating the

evaporation rate from the southern part of the Red Sea based on

meteorological data taken during the period 1999-2007. In addition, it

compares SST data collected from satellites for Jeddah region with

results obtained in previous studies carried out in the region.

Data and Method of calculation

The standard meteorological measurements such as; air

temperature, relative humidity and wind speed for the study regions A

(Jeddah; 18.50-20°N, 39.70-41.66°E) and B (Jazan; 15-18.50°N, 41.50-

42.90°E) were taken from the Presidency of Meteorology and

Environment (PME) of Saudi Arabia. For region C (Hodeidah; 12-15°N,

41.60-42.60°E) the data were taken from the Civil Aviation and

Meteorological Authority in Yemen. The SST data are from Physical

Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC) on

(URL:http://poet.jpl.nasa.gov). Figure 1 illustrates the locations of the

study areas. The water vapor pressure is estimated from daily

observations of SST and air temperature for the period 1999-2007.

The mean Evaporation is estimated using the bulk aerodynamic

method given by (Dalton, 1802) as follows:

E = K(ew – ea)w (1)

Where;

E = evaporation (mm/day),

K = 10.137×10-2

(Osman, 1984),

w = wind speed (m/sec),

ew = saturated vapor pressure at water temperature (mb), and

ea= water vapor pressure of air (mb)

The saturated vapor pressure at water temperature (ew) and vapor

pressure at air temperature (ea) are calculated from the following

equation (Csanady, 2001):

ew = 6.112 × exp (17.67T/273.15 + T) (2)


whereew is the saturation vapor pressure in mb, T is the temperature in

°C. The vapor pressure at air temperature is estimated using the

following equation:

ea=ew × relative humidity (3)

Fig. 1. The southern Red Sea and locations of the study regions A, B, and C.

The plots of monthly SST and meteorological data from 1999 to

2007 for the three regions are shown in Fig. 2 (a to e). The composite

gird of the monthly SST is about (0.043945° × 0.043945°) with spatial

resolution of 4 km.


( a ) ( b )

( c ) ( d )

( e )

Fig. 2. Monthly sea surface temperature and meteorological data along with computed

monthly values of (ew-e

a) in Jeddah, Jazan, and Hodeidah for the study period (1999-

2007).

Based on monthly values of SST, air temperature and relative humidity, the humidity gradient (ew-ea) was calculated and the monthly values of humidity gradient from 1999 to 2007 for the three regions are given in Table 1 and plotted in Fig. 2(e). The monthly climatology of SST, air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and humidity gradient (ew-ea) for the three regions constructed from monthly values for eight years (1999 to 2007) are given in Table 2. The computed monthly


values of evaporation from 1999-2007 are given in Table 3 also and plotted in Fig. 3. In addition, the monthly climatology values of the computed evaporation are given in Table 4 and plotted in Fig. 4.

Table 1. Monthly values of (ew-e

ain mb) from 1999 to 2007 for Jeddah, Jazan, and

Hodeidah.

Monthly values of (ew-eain mb)

Years Region Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1999

Jeddah 16.83 11.78 15.06 14.32 10.78 14.37 16.25 12.38 12.65 15.44 19.83 18.91

Jazan 9.82 8.56 9.70 10.09 11.73 11.58 13.65 14.32 15.93 17.09 16.65 14.99

Hodeidah 7.83 7.32 6.12 6.93 2.82 4.03 0.23 5.76 11.06 11.07 12.14 10.35

2000

Jeddah 19.67 16.49 14.33 15.37 17.52 14.52 13.64 12.74 14.38 18.34 18.16 19.64

Jazan 10.65 8.58 8.50 11.00 8.65 9.11 14.00 12.97 14.35 16.64 14.74 11.60

Hodeidah 9.52 7.95 5.77 6.72 5.43 4.50 5.41 5.69 9.90 13.14 9.59 10.83

2001

Jeddah 17.35 15.39 13.44 14.79 16.59 16.59 29.56 11.24 13.57 16.45 21.79 17.50

Jazan 10.68 7.37 7.16 9.11 9.67 12.44 14.45 10.85 14.81 17.62 16.82 12.99

Hodeidah 10.81 7.20 5.86 4.82 7.33 7.21 8.25 8.75 11.47 12.84 11.43 10.91

2002

Jeddah 18.21 12.63 14.47 13.72 13.92 12.01 13.54 12.71 12.53 17.37 18.22 20.35

Jazan 9.61 8.25 7.54 8.38 10.84 9.73 9.58 13.90 15.10 18.50 13.69 12.41

Hodeidah 8.55 8.48 5.10 6.76 9.67 9.91 7.86 10.39 15.38 11.15 8.16 6.45

2003

Jeddah 16.54 15.55 14.84 13.73 11.99 11.65 14.46 12.06 11.57 14.19 15.57 15.29

Jazan 10.25 6.94 7.02 9.35 10.84 8.90 14.09 13.38 13.02 16.97 14.04 10.62

Hodeidah 8.44 5.66 6.18 6.16 5.81 5.76 4.63 6.24 10.26 11.53 12.18 9.40

2004

Jeddah 15.13 14.13 11.29 13.44 12.82 11.91 12.53 12.79 10.58 14.47 19.05 16.11

Jazan 9.78 8.62 9.20 10.14 8.56 9.83 13.52 13.10 13.99 15.16 11.80 10.65

Hodeidah 6.98 9.46 7.39 6.35 7.29 8.53 8.17 11.57 13.82 14.80 7.40 10.69

2005

Jeddah 16.28 12.30 11.88 10.11 14.46 10.22 15.63 14.15 14.22 15.78 18.44 18.32

Jazan 8.95 8.13 7.28 9.30 12.28 8.05 11.93 15.96 16.07 18.21 15.06 13.47

Hodeidah 9.52 6.79 3.77 5.50 7.69 5.90 6.82 8.37 11.33 16.87 12.30 10.95

2006

Jeddah 16.65 15.42 15.37 15.50 15.65 11.01 18.41 14.46 11.10 13.98 19.16 21.44

Jazan 9.93 8.92 9.24 11.43 12.60 7.02 11.90 11.93 13.41 17.46 12.88 10.62

Hodeidah 7.23 6.21 6.45 8.57 10.68 9.80 10.89 12.13 16.52 21.16 12.91 10.83

2007

Jeddah 17.42 15.53 14.83 14.25 16.00 14.76 16.45 16.34 13.29 16.61 18.48 16.81

Jazan 9.60 9.01 9.86 11.30 13.52 12.27 16.18 16.67 15.06 18.51 16.60 14.29

Hodeidah 9.15 6.67 7.46 7.80 9.21 3.66 7.11 10.29 9.19 11.69 8.49 10.49

Table 2. Monthly average of Sea Surface temperature (SST),air temperature, wind speed,

humidity gradient (ew-e

ain mb) and relative humidity for Jeddah, Jazan and

Hodeidah from 1999 to 2007.

Months

SST

(oC)

Air Temperature

(oC)

Wind Speed

(m/sec)

humidity gradient

ew-ea (mb)

Relative

Humidity (%)

Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod Jed Jaz Hod

Jan 26.61 26.51 25.63 23.11 26.21 24.93 3.87 2.84 4.41 17.1 9.9 8.6 62.69 74.8 76.9

Feb 26.09 26.37 25.56 24.02 27.06 26.33 3.78 2.82 4.57 14.2 8.3 7.4 64.92 74.64 73.96

Mar 26.29 26.97 26.3 25.46 28.44 28.13 4.06 2.98 3.93 13.8 8.4 5.8 62.14 71.7 74.59

Apr 27.4 28.36 27.8 28.14 30.6 30.2 3.76 2.8 4.06 13.9 10 6.5 59.22 66.73 71.87

May 28.76 29.77 29.54 30.53 32.43 31.83 3.89 2.8 3.27 14.2 11 7.1 58.2 65.14 72.64

Jun 28.92 29.99 30.41 31.47 33.47 32.77 4.15 3.11 3.44 12.8 9.9 7.0 58.23 64.4 73.48

Jul 30.32 30.81 30.38 33.08 33.63 33.57 3.7 3.47 3.96 16.7 13.3 6.5 54.56 61.67 70.91

Aug 31.07 31.44 30.8 33.15 33.35 33.12 3.74 3.32 3.9 12.8 13.7 8.6 62.87 65.19 70.74

Sep 31.1 32.02 31.8 31.7 32.89 32.3 3.52 2.84 3.39 12.6 14.63 12.5 68.98 68.28 71.45

Oct 31.25 31.9 30.46 29.91 31.37 29.62 2.93 2.56 3.44 15.7 17.4 14.1 69.75 68.15 70.96

Nov 30.02 29.88 27.96 27.5 29.26 27.6 3.3 2.59 3.99 18.8 14.7 10.8 66.19 70.3 72.98

Dec 28.32 28.1 26.61 24.93 27.24 25.86 3.44 2.72 4.21 18.4 12.4 10.1 64.04 73.35 74.34


Fig. 3. Monthly values of evaporation(mm/month) in Jeddah, Jazan, and Hodeidah for the

study period (1999-2007).

Fig. 4. Monthly climatology of evaporation(m/year) for Jeddah, Jazan and Hodeidah

regions based on data from 1999 to 2007.


Table 4. Monthly averages of evaporation (m) based on data from1999 to 2007.

Months Jeddah Jazan Hodeidah

Jan 0.2018 0.0889 0.1212

Feb 0.1528 0.0664 0.0973

Mar 0.1759 0.0787 0.0725

Apr 0.1574 0.0854 0.0806

May 0.1742 0.0961 0.0733

Jun 0.158 0.0947 0.0749

Jul 0.1924 0.1463 0.0798

Aug 0.1495 0.1421 0.1058

Sep 0.1327 0.1266 0.1324

Oct 0.1492 0.1393 0.1487

Nov 0.1871 0.116 0.1299

Dec 0.2063 0.1067 0.1343

Annual (m/yr) 2.0373 1.2872 1.2507

The annual average evaporation for the three regions from 1999 to

2007 is given in Fig. 5. Table 5 gives the correlation coefficients between

evaporation and the controlling parameters; wind speed and humidity

gradient.

Fig. 5. Annual averages of evaporation (m/year)for Jeddah, Jazan, and Hodeidah regions

based on data from 1999 to 2007.

Table 5. Correlation coefficients between evaporation, wind speed and humidity gradient

for Jeddah, Jazan and Al-Hodeidah regions.

Jeddah Region Jazan Region Hodeidah Region

Correlation P-value Correlation P-value Correlation P-value

Wind speed 0.494 0.000 0.513 0.000 0.472 0.000

(ew-e

a) 0.723 0.000 0.831 0.000 0.847 0.000


Results and Discussion

The meteorological measurements over the study area indicated

that, air temperature during winter is less than sea surface temperature in

all regions, while in summer it is higher, the opposite (Fig. 2). The wind

speed varies from one season to another; the highest value of wind speed

is recorded in Hodeidah region. Based on monthly values of SST, air

temperature and relative humidity, the monthly humidity gradient (ew-ea)

was calculated from 1999 to 2007 for the three regions and given in

Table (1) and Fig. 2(e). From the table it was clear that, a gradual

increase in the differences (ew-ea) occurred from Hodeidah to Jeddah

region, as a result of high relative humidity from Jeddah to Hodeidah.

The monthly climatology of SST, air temperature, wind speed, relative

humidity and humidity gradient (ew-ea) for the three regions constructed

from monthly values for eight years (1999 - 2007) are given in Table 2.

The computed monthly values of evaporation from 1999-2007 are

given in Table (3) and Fig. 3. In addition, the monthly climatology values

of the computed evaporation are given in Table (4) and Fig. 4. The

Monthly average of evaporation for the period (1999-2007) in the

southern part of the Red Sea (Fig. 4, Table 4) indicated that evaporation

increases from the Strait of Bab al-Mandab to the north. The highest

evaporation was 2.04 m/yr is near Jeddah region due to comparatively

lower relative humidity, while in Jazan and Hodeidah it was 1.29and 1.25

m/yr respectively as shown in Table 4. The results of present study are

consistent with the result of other researches carried out in Jeddah region

(Morcos, 1970; Ahmad and Sultan, 1987 and 1989 and Al-Barakati,

2005). The lower evaporation towards in the southern Red sea may be

due to the higher relative humidity and lower humidity gradient (ew-ea).

In the northern Red Sea the evaporation is high because of the low

relative humidity as shown in Fig. 2d. This shows consistency with

previous studies carried out by Ahmad and Sultan (1989); Eshel and Naik

(1997); and Eshel and Heavens (2007).

During winter, the monthly averages of evaporation in Jeddah and

Jazan regions are greater than those of Hodeidah, as a result of strong

wind along northeast coast. In Hodeidah the highest value of monthly

average of evaporation is in the transition months (May and October),

whereas in Jazan region the highest value is in the late summer to

December.


Correlation of monthly averages of evaporation with wind speed

and the difference (ew-ea) in all regions is shown in Table 5. The

correlation between the humidity gradient (ew-ea) and monthly

climatology of evaporation is strong in all regions and is approximately

0.8, whereas the correlation between monthly average of evaporation and

wind speed is weak in all regions (~ 0.5).

The annual average evaporation for the three regions from 1999 to

2007 is given in Fig. (5). It shows higher annual averages of evaporation

in 2000 and 2006 with lower values in 2004 and 2005 in the Jeddah

region and is believed to be related to relative humidity. In Jazan region,

the higher value is in 1999 while the lower one is in 2002 and seems to

be due to the variation of wind speed. In Hodeidah, the higher value is in

2006 while the lower is in 1999 and is mainly due to the variations of

relative humidity and wind speed.

Conclusion

Dalton's Equations are used to study the evaporation in the

southern Red Sea. Evaporation is estimated in three regions Jeddah,

Jazan and Hodeidah. In Jeddah region evaporation is greater than Jazan

and Hodeidah. Evaporation is higher in Jeddah region in winter, while in

Hodeidah region it is higher in the transition months. In Jazan it is higher

in the summer months. The correlation between the humidity gradient

(ew-ea) and monthly climatology of evaporation is strong in all regions

and is approximately with a correlation coefficient of 0.8, while the

correlation with the wind speed is about 0.5. Therefore the evaporation

mostly depends on the humidity gradient over the southern part of the

Red Sea and the wind speed.

Acknowledgment

This work has been achieved with the help of Prof. Fazal A.

Chaudhry who gave lots of advices during the preparation of the

manuscript.

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