Essential Oils Extraction Bioactivities and Their Uses for Food Preservation.pdf

R:Co

ncise

Revie

wsin

Food

Scien

ceEssential Oils: Extraction, Bioactivities, and TheirUses for Food PreservationPhakawat Tongnuanchan and Soottawat Benjakul

Abstract: Essential oils are concentrated liquids of complex mixtures of volatile compounds and can be extracted fromseveral plant organs. Essential oils are a good source of several bioactive compounds, which possess antioxidative andantimicrobial properties. In addition, some essential oils have been used as medicine. Furthermore, the uses of essential oilshave received increasing attention as the natural additives for the shelf-life extension of food products, due to the risk inusing synthetic preservatives. Essential oils can be incorporated into packaging, in which they can provide multifunctionstermed “active or smart packaging.” Those essential oils are able to modify the matrix of packaging materials, therebyrendering the improved properties. This review covers up-to-date literatures on essential oils including sources, chemicalcomposition, extraction methods, bioactivities, and their applications, particularly with the emphasis on preservation andthe shelf-life extension of food products.

Keywords: antimicrobial, antioxidant, biodegradable film, essential oil, food product, volatile compound

IntroductionEssential oils, also called volatile odoriferous oil, are aromatic

oily liquids extracted from different parts of plants, for example,leaves, peels, barks, flowers, buds, seeds, and so on. They can beextracted from plant materials by several methods, steam distil-lation, expression, and so on. Among all methods, for example,steam distillation method has been widely used, especially forcommercial scale production (Cassel and Vargas 2006; Di Leo Liraand others 2009). Essential oils have been widely used as foodflavors (Burt 2004). Essential oils found in many different plants,especially the aromatic plants, vary in odor and flavor, which aregoverned by the types and amount of constituents present in oils.Additionally, the amount of essential oil from different plants isdifferent and this determines the price of essential oil. Apart fromaromatic compounds, indigenous pigments contribute to varyingcolors of essential oil. This can affect the applications as the in-gredient in some particular foods. Essential oils have been knownto possess antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, thereby servingas natural additives in foods and food products. It can be used asactive compounds in packaging materials, in which the proper-ties of those materials, particularly water vapor barrier propertyassociated with hydrophobicity in nature of essential oils, can beimproved. Almost any part of a plant may be the source of the oil,which could be extracted and fully exploited for food applicationsor others. Modern technologies have been continuously devel-oped to conquer the limitation of conventional methods, and toenhance the extraction efficacy. Due to the increasing attentionin natural additives, essential oils from several plants have beenused more widely, especially in conjunction with other preserva-tions under concept of “hurdle technology.” Thus, essential oilscan serve as the alternative additives or processing aid as greentechnology.

MS 20131520 Submitted 10/23/2013, Accepted 4/9/2014. Authors are withDept. of Food Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla Univ., 15Kanchanawanish Road, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand. Direct inquiries toauthor Benjakul (E-mail: [email protected]).

Sources and Chemical CompositionSeveral plants contain essential oils, however, parts of plants,

which serve as the major source of essential oil can be different(Table 1). Those include roots, peels, leaves, seeds, fruits, barks, andso on. Plant essential oils are usually the complex mixture of nat-ural compounds, both polar and nonpolar compounds (Masango2005). Dominant compounds in various essential oils are pre-sented in Table 2. In general, the constituents in essential oils areterpenes (monoterpenes and sesquerpenes), aromatic compounds(aldehyde, alcohol, phenol, methoxy derivative, and so on), andterpenoids (isoprenoids) (Bakkali and others 2008; Mohamed andothers 2010). Compounds and aroma of essential oils can be di-vided into 2 major groups: terpene hydrocarbons and oxygenatedcompounds.

Terpene hydrocarbonsThe hydrocarbons are the molecule, constituting of H and C

atoms arranged in chains. These hydrocarbons may be acyclic, al-icyclic (monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic), or aromatic. Terpenesare the most common class of chemical compounds found in essen-tial oils. Terpenes are made from isoprene units (several 5 carbonbase units, C5), which are the combinations of 2 isoprene units,called a “terpene unit.” Essential oils consist of mainly monoter-penes (C10) and sesquiterpenes (C15), which are hydrocarbonswith the general formula (C5H8)n. The diterpenes (C20), triter-penes (C30), and tetraterpenes (C40) exist in essential oils at lowconcentration (Mohamed and others 2010). Terpenoids (a terpenecontaining oxygen) is also found in essential oils (Burt 2004).

Essential oils mostly contain monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes,which are C10H16(MW 136 amu) and C15H24 (MW 204 amu), re-spectively. Although sesquiterpenes are larger in molecules, struc-ture and functional properties of sesquiterpenes are similar tothe monoterpenes (Ruberto and Baratta 2000). For diterpenes,triterpenes, and tetraterpenes, they have the larger molecule thanmonoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, but they are present at very lowconcentration in essential oils (Bakkali and others 2008).

Oxygenated compoundsThese compounds are the combination of C, H, and O,

and there are a variety of compounds found in essential oils.

C© 2014 Institute of Food Technologists R©doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.12492 Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 � Journal of Food Science R1231Further reproduction without permission is prohibited

R:ConciseReviewsinFoodScience

Bioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

Table 1–Parts of plant material containing essential oils.

Parts Plants

Leaves Basil, bay leaf, cinnamon, common sage, eucalyptus, lemon grass, citronella, melaleuca, mint, oregano, patchouli, peppermint, pine,rosemary, spearmint, tea tree, thyme, wintergreen, kaffir lime, laurel, savory, tarragon, cajuput, lantana, lemon myrtle, lemonteatree, niaouli, may chang, petitgrain, laurel, cypress

Seeds Almond, anise, cardamom, caraway, carrot celery, coriander, cumin, nutmeg, parsley, fennelWood Amyris, atlas cedarwood, himalayan cedarwood, camphor, rosewood, sandalwood, myrtle, guaiac woodBark Cassia, cinnamon, sassafras, katrafayBerries Allspice, juniperResin Frankincense, myrrhFlowers Blue tansy, chamomile, clary sage, clove, cumin, geranium, helichrysum hyssop, jasmine, lavender, manuka, marjoram, orange, rose,

baccharises, palmarosa, patchouli, rhododendron anthopogon, rosalina, ajowan, ylang-ylang, marjoram sylvestris, tarragon,immortelle, neroli

Peel Bergamot, grapefruit, kaffir lime, lemon, lime, orange, tangerine, mandarinRoot Ginger, plai, turmeric, valerian, vetiver, spikenard, angelicaFruits Xanthoxylum, nutmeg, black pepper

Oxygenated compounds can be derived from the terpenes, inwhich they are termed “terpenoids.” Some oxygenated com-pounds prevalent in plant essential oils are shown as follows:

- Phenols: thymol, eugenol, carvacrol, chavicol, thymol, and so on.- Alcohols:

Monoterpene alcohol: borneol, isopulegol, lavanduol, α-terpineol, and so on.

Sesquiterpenes alcohol: elemol, nerolidol, santalol, α-santalol, andso on.

- Aldehydes: citral, myrtenal, cuminaldehyde, citronellal, cin-namaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and so on.

- Ketones: carvone, menthone, pulegone, fenchone, camphor, thu-jone, verbenone, and so on.

- Esters: bomyl acetate, linalyl acetate, citronellyl acetate, geranylacetate, and so on.

- Oxides: 1,8-cineole, bisabolone oxide, linalool oxide, sclareoloxide, and so on.

- Lactones: bergaptene, nepetalactone, psoralen, aesculatine, cit-roptene, and so on.

- Ethers: 1,8-cineole, anethole, elemicin, myristicin, and so on.

Different constituents in essential oils exhibit varying smell orflavor (Burt 2004). Also, the perception of individual volatile com-pounds depends on their threshold.

Extraction of Essential OilsEssential oils can be extracted from several plants with differ-

ent parts by various extraction methods. The manufacturing ofessential oils, and the method used for essential oil extraction arenormally dependent on botanical material used. State and formof material is another factor used for consideration. Extractionmethod is one of prime factors that determine the quality ofessential oil. Inappropriate extraction procedure can lead to thedamage or alter action of chemical signature of essential oil. Thisresults in the loss in bioactivity and natural characteristics. For se-vere case, discoloration, off-odor/flavor as well as physical changesuch as the increased viscosity can occur. Those changes in ex-tracted essential oil must be avoided. Extraction of essential oilscan be carried out by various means, as shown in Table 3.

DistillationSteam distillation. Steam distillation is the most widely used

method for plant essential oil extraction (Reverchon and Senatore

1992). The proportion of essential oils extracted by steam distilla-tion is 93% and the remaining 7% can be further extracted by othermethods (Masango 2005). Basically, the plant sample is placed inboiling water or heated by steam (Figure 1). The heat applied isthe main cause of burst and break down of cell structure of plantmaterial. As a consequence, the aromatic compounds or essentialoils from plant material are released (Perineau and others 1992;Babu and Kaul 2005). The temperature of heating must be enoughto break down the plant material and release aromatic compoundor essential oil. A new process design and operation for steamdistillation of essential oils to increase oil yield and reduce theloss of polar compounds in wastewater was developed by Masango(2005). The system consists of a packed bed of the plant materi-als, which sits above the steam source. Only steam passes throughit and the boiling water is not mixed with plant material. Thus,the process requires the minimum amount of steam in the processand the amount of water in the distillate is reduced. Also, water-soluble compounds are dissolved into the aqueous fraction of thecondensate at a lower extent (Masango 2005). Yildirim and others(2004) reported that the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH)radical scavenging activities of essential oils from steam distillationprocess were markedly higher than those of oils extracted usinghydrodistillation (HD).

Hydrodistillation. HD has become the standard method ofessential oil extraction from plant material such as wood or flower,which is often used to isolate nonwater-soluble natural productswith high boiling point. The process involves the complete immer-sion of plant materials in water, followed by boiling. This methodprotects the oils extracted to a certain degree since the surround-ing water acts as a barrier to prevent it from overheating. Thesteam and essential oil vapor are condensed to an aqueous fraction(Figure 2). The advantage of this technique is that the requiredmaterial can be distilled at a temperature below 100 °C. Okohand others (2010) studied the different extraction processes onyield and properties of essential oil from rosemary (Rosmarinus of-ficinalis L.) by HD and solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME).The total yields of the volatile fractions obtained through HDand SFME were 0.31% and 0.39%, respectively. HD oil containedmore monoterpene hydrocarbons (32.95%) than SFME-extractedoil (25.77%), while higher amounts of oxygenated monoterpenes(28.6%) were present in the oil extracted by SFME in compar-ison with HD (26.98%). Golmakani and Rezaei (2008) studiedthe microwave-assisted HD (MAHD), which is an advanced HDtechnique utilizing a microwave oven in the extraction process.MAHD was superior in terms of saving energy and extraction time

R1232 Journal of Food Science � Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014

R:Co

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Scien

ceBioactivities and applications of essential oils . . .

Tab

le2–

Maj

or

com

pounds

indif

fere

nt

pla

nt

esse

nti

aloils.

Monote

rpen

eO

xyge

nat

edSes

quiter

pen

eO

xyge

nat

edEss

ential

oils

hydro

carb

ons

monote

rpen

eshy

dro

carb

ons

sesq

uiter

pen

esEst

ers

Oth

ers

Ref

eren

ces

Bas

ilβ

-Pin

ene,

β-L

imon

ene,

γ-T

erpi

nene

endo

-5,5

,6-T

rim

ethy

l-2-

norb

orna

none

β-E

lem

ene,

2,6-

Dim

ethy

l-6-

(4-m

ethy

l-3-

pent

enyl

)-bi

cycl

o[3.

1.1]

hept

-2-e

ne,

γ-C

adin

ene,

γ-M

uuro

lene

Met

hyle

ugen

ol–

Met

hylc

havi

col,3

-M

etho

xyci

nnam

alde

hyde

Teix

eira

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Citr

onel

laS-

3-C

aren

e,M

enth

a-1,

4,8-

trie

ne,

�2-C

aren

e,cis

-2,6

-D

imet

hyl-

2,6o

ctad

iene

,γ

-Ter

pine

ne

(−)-

Isop

uleg

ol,β

-Citr

onel

lal,

β-

Citr

onel

lol

β-E

lem

ene,

β-S

elin

ene,

α-S

elin

ene,

α-M

uuro

lene

,(+

)-δ-C

adin

ene,

Ere

mop

hile

ne,γ

-Sel

inen

e,(+

)-δ-S

elin

ene,

(−)-

α-A

mor

phen

e

(−)-

Ced

rean

olm

-(T

rim

ethy

lsilo

xy)

-cin

nam

icac

idm

ethy

lest

er

-Te

ixei

raan

dot

hers

(201

3)

Clo

ve–

–tra

ns-C

aryo

phyl

lene

,α

-Hum

ulen

eM

ethy

leug

enol

Ace

teug

enol

p-E

ugen

olTe

ixei

raan

dot

hers

(201

3)

Gar

lic1(

7),5

,8-o

-Men

that

rien

etr

ans-

Lim

one

oxid

e,en

do-5

,5,6

-Tri

met

hyl-

2-no

rbor

nano

ne,

––

–di

-2-P

rope

nyld

isulfi

de,

Dim

ethy

ltet

rasu

lphi

de,d

i-2-

Prop

enyl

tetr

asul

fide,

3,3′

-T

hiob

is-1-

prop

ene,

Sulfu

r

Teix

eira

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Lem

onα

-Pin

ene,

β-P

inen

e,C

ymen

e,α

-Lim

onen

e,α

-Fel

land

rene

–tra

ns-C

aryo

phyl

lene

––

1,2,

3,5-

Tetr

amet

hyl-

benz

ene,

1-(1

,5-

Dim

ethy

lhex

yl)-

4-m

ethy

lben

zene

Teix

eira

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Lem

onα

-Pin

ene,

α-F

ench

ene,

Lim

onen

e,C

amph

ene

Citr

onel

lal,

cis-C

arve

ol,

α-C

itral

,Car

vaco

l,Te

rpni

ol,

Thy

mol

,Car

vacr

ol,C

itral

––

–C

yclo

hexa

ne,H

epta

nal,

Dih

ydro

iso-p

imar

ic,

Dih

ydro

-abi

tec

Moh

amed

and

othe

rs(2

010)

Lem

ongr

ass

α-P

inen

e,3-

Car

ene,

Cam

phen

eβ

-Citr

al,α

-Citr

al,

α-C

yclo

citr

al,

Terp

ineo

l,2,3

-Deh

ydro

-1,

8-ci

neol

e

β-C

aryo

phyl

lene

––

m-E

ugen

ol,G

eran

ylN

-but

yrat

e,Is

oger

anio

lLe

iman

nan

dot

hers

(200

9)

Man

dari

nα

-Pin

ene,

di-L

imon

ene,

Allo

-Oci

men

e,C

amph

ene,

Sabi

nene

Neo

-Dih

ydro

cave

ol,

cis-L

imon

ene

oxid

e,Li

nalo

ol,B

orne

ol,

Lim

onen

egly

col,

Car

vone

Farn

esen

e,α

-Far

nese

ne–

–Li

naly

lace

tate

,Und

ecan

oic

acid

,Met

hly-

anth

rani

late

,B

enza

ldeh

yde

Moh

amed

and

othe

rs(2

010)

Min

t(Sa

ture

jacu

neifo

lia)

α-P

inen

e,M

yrce

ne,

Lim

onen

e,cis

β-O

cim

ene,

p-C

ymen

e,al

lo-O

cim

ene

Thy

mol

,Car

vacr

ol,

Cam

phor

,Lin

aloo

l,Te

rpin

en-4

-ol,

Ner

al,

α-T

erpi

neol

,Bor

neol

,G

eran

ial,

Ger

anio

l

β-B

ourb

onen

e,β

-Car

yoph

ylle

ne,

Aro

mad

endr

ene,

β-C

ubeb

ene,

δ-C

adin

ene,

Car

yoph

ylle

neox

ide,

aSpa

thul

enol

,Vir

idifl

orol

,–

–B

ezi c

and

othe

rs(2

005)

Min

tb(S

atur

eja

mon

tana

)α

-Thu

jene

,α-P

inen

e,M

yrce

ne,α

-Ter

pine

ne,

γ-T

erpi

nene

,p-C

ymen

e

Lina

lool

,α-T

erpi

neol

,B

orne

ol,

Thy

mol

,Car

vacr

ol

β-C

ubeb

ene,

δ-C

adin

ene

Car

yoph

ylle

neox

ide,

Spat

hule

nol

–1-

Oct

en-3

-ol,

Thy

mol

met

hyle

ther

,Car

vacr

olm

ethy

leth

er,T

hym

ylac

etat

e

Bez

ican

dot

hers

(200

5)

Ora

nge

Myr

cene

,β-P

hella

ndre

ne,

α-T

erpi

nole

ne,

Men

that

rien

e

cis-L

imon

eneo

xide

,Dec

anal

,Li

nalo

ol,

Verb

enol

,Car

vone

,Pe

rilla

dehy

de,c

is-C

arve

ol,

Citr

onel

lol

Farn

esen

e–

–N

onyl

-ald

ehyd

e,C

apry

licac

id,C

inna

mic

-ald

ehyd

e,H

epta

deca

nol

Moh

amed

and

othe

rs(2

010)

(Con

tinue

d)

Vol. 79, Nr. 7, 2014 � Journal of Food Science R1233



Tab

le2–

Conti

nued

.

Monote

rpen

eO

xyge

nat

edSes

quiter

pen

eO

xyge

nat

edEss

ential

oils

hydro

carb

ons

monote

rpen

eshy

dro

carb

ons

sesq

uiter

pen

esEst

ers

Oth

ers

Ref

eren

ces

Ore

gano

α-T

erpi

nene

,Li

mon

ene,

γ-T

erpi

nene

1,8-

Cin

eole

,Ter

pine

n-4

-ol,

α-T

erpi

neol

,Thy

mol

,C

arva

crol

,

β-C

aryo

phyl

lene

,cis-

Hyd

rate

sabi

nene

,tra

ns-H

ydra

tesa

bine

ne

––

–A

guir

rean

dot

hers

(201

3)

Plai

-Dam

(Zin

gibe

rot

tens

ii)α

-Pin

ene,

β-P

inen

e,Sa

bine

ne,M

yrce

ne,

α-T

erpi

nene

,Lim

onen

e,E

-β-O

cim

ene,

p-C

ymen

e,Te

rpin

olen

e,γ

-Ter

pine

ne

1,8-

Cin

eole

,Lin

aloo

l,Te

rpin

en-4

-ol,

cis-M

enth

-2-e

n-1-

ol,

Bor

neol

,tra

ns-P

iper

itol

β-E

lem

ene,

β-C

aryo

phyl

lene

,H

umul

ene

Car

yoph

ylle

neox

ide,

Hum

ulen

eox

ide,

α-E

udes

imol

,β

-Eud

esim

ol,Z

erum

bone

–B

orny

lace

tate

,Sab

inen

ehy

drat

e,4-

phen

ylbu

tan-

2-on

e

Thu

bthi

mth

edan

dot

hers

(200

5)

Ros

emar

yα

-Pin

ene,

Cam

phen

e,β

-Pin

ene,

Cym

ene,

α-F

ella

ndre

ne,S

-3-C

aren

e,m

-Cym

ene,

Men

tha-

1,4,

8-tr

iene

Euc

alyp

tol,

(E)-

2,3-

Epo

xyca

rane

,(−)-

Cam

phor

,end

o-B

orne

ol,

endo

-5,5

,6-T

rim

ethy

l-2-

norb

orna

none

trans

-Car

yoph

ylle

ne–

(−)-

Bor

nyla

ceta

te–

Teix

eira

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Sage

α-P

inen

e,C

amph

ene,

β-P

inen

e,C

ymen

e,α

-Fel

land

rene

,m-C

ymen

e,M

enth

a-1,

4,8-

trie

ne,

�2-C

aren

e,1,

3,8-

p-M

enth

atri

ene,

α-T

erpi

nole

ne

Euc

alyp

tol,

(E)-

2,3-

Epo

xyca

rane

,(−)-

Cam

phor

,end

o-B

orne

ol,

endo

-5,5

,6-T

rim

ethy

l-2-

norb

orna

none

trans

-Car

yoph

ylle

ne,

β-S

elin

ene,

β-B

isabo

lene

–(−

)-B

orny

lace

tate

–Te

ixei

raan

dot

hers

(201

3)

Tan

geri

neα

-Pin

ene,

Lim

onen

e,α

-Ter

pine

ne,t

rans

-M

enth

adie

ne,

trans

-Oci

men

e,tra

ns-D

ecal

one

Citr

onel

lal,

Lina

lool

,cis

-Lim

onen

eox

ide,

trans

-Car

veol

,Lim

onen

edi

oxid

e,Pe

rilly

lalc

ohol

–Le

dol,

Glo

bulo

l–

Alo

xipr

in,H

epta

dien

e,M

ethy

l-he

ptad

iene

,C

yclo

octa

none

,Ben

zyl-

dica

rbox

ylic

Moh

amed

and

othe

rs(2

010)

Thy

me

Cam

phen

e,β

-Pin

ene,

Cym

ene,

α-F

ella

ndre

ne,

m-C

ymen

e

Euc

alyp

tol,

(E)-

2,3-

Epo

xyca

rane

,en

do-5

,5,6

-Tri

met

hyl-

m-

Thy

mol

,C

arva

crol

trans

-Car

yoph

ylle

ne–

–(3

E,5

E,8

E)-

3,7,

11-T

rim

ethy

l-1,

3,5,

8,10

-dod

ecap

enta

ene

Teix

eira

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Thy

mus

long

icaul

issu

bsp.

long

icaul

isva

r.lo

ngica

ulis

α-T

huje

ne,α

-Pin

ene,

Myr

cene

,Cam

phen

e,β

-Pin

ene,

α-P

hella

ndre

ne,

α-T

erpi

nene

,p-C

ymen

e,(E

)-β

-Oci

men

e,γ

-Ter

pine

ne,c

is-Sa

bine

nehy

drat

e,Te

rpin

olen

e

Cam

phor

,Bor

neol

,Te

rpin

en-4

-ol,

α-T

erpi

neol

,T

hym

ol,C

arva

crol

,β

-Car

yoph

ylle

ne

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Table 3–Extraction of essential oils from various sources using several methods.

Extraction methods Plants References

Solvent extraction – Solvent sage (Salvia officinalis), apiaceae (Ptychotis verticillata), chasteberry(Vitexagnuscastus L.), lemon (Citrus x limon)

Durling and others (2007); Matsingou and others (2003);El Ouariachi and others (2011); Sarikurkcu and others(2009); Koshima and others (2012)

– Supercritical CO2 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), anise(Pimpinella anisum), cumin seed (Cuminum cyminum), sage(Salvia officinalis), lemon (Citrus x limon), carrot fruit (Daucuscarrota L.), marjoram (Majorana hortensis Moench), catnip(Nepeta cataria L.), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), lavender(Lavandula angustifolia Mill), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.),hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.), anise hyssop (Lophantus anisatusBenth), patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), cumin (Cuminumcyminum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), coriander (Coriandrumsativum L.), chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), baccharises(Baccharis uncinella, Baccharis anomala, and Baccharis dentata)

Pereira and Meireles (2007); Reverchon and Senatore(1992); Eikani and others (1999); Djarmati and others(1991); Gironi and Maschietti (2008); Glisic andothers (2007); Dapkevicius and others (1998);Donelian and others (2009); Li and others (2009);Guan and others (2007); Mhemdi and others (2011);Araus and others (2009); Xavier and others (2011)

– Subcritical water fructus amomi, marjoram (Origanum majorana), olive (Oleaeuropaea), coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum L.)

Deng and others (2005); Jimenez-Carmona and others(1999); Amarni and Kadi (2010); Eikani and others(2007)

Distillation - Steam rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.), thyme (Thymuskotschyanus), germander (Teucrium orientale), rosemary(Rosmarinus officinalis), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), anise(Pimpinella anisum), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora), basil(Ocimum basilicum L.), lavender (Lavandula dentata L.),patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata),orange (Citrus sinensis)

Babu and Kaul (2005); Sefidkon and others (1999);Yildirim and others (2004); Pereira and Meireles(2007); Rajeswara Rao and others (2003); Cassel andothers (2009); Donelian and others (2009); Guan andothers (2007); Farhat and others (2011)

– Hydrodistillation rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.), germander (Teucriumorientale), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), lemon (Citrus xlimon), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), marjoram (Majoranahortensis Moench), catnip (Nepeta cataria L), lavender(Lavandula angustifolia Mill), hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.),anise hyssop (Lophantus anisatus Benth), sage (Salvia officinalisL), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata),caraway (Carum carvi), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), basil(Ocimum basilicum L.), garden mint (Mentha crispa L.)

Babu and Kaul (2005); Yildirim and others (2004);Reverchon and Senatore (1992); Ferhat and others(2007); Bayramoglu and others (2008); Dapkeviciusand others (1998); Li and others (2009); Guan andothers (2007); Farhat and others (2010); Gavahian andothers (2012)

– Hydrodiffusion orange (Citrus sinensis), rosemary leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis) Farhat and others (2011); Bousbia and others (2009)Solvent-free microwave oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), fragrant fern (Dryopteris fragrans),

rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), caraway (Carum carvi), 5flavor berry (Schisandra chinensis), cumin (Cuminum cyminumL.), cardamom (Elletaria cardamomum L.), basil (Ocimumbasilicum L.), garden mint (Mentha crispa L.), thyme (Thymusvulgaris L.), sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.),spearmint (Mentha spicata L.), pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.)

Bayramoglu and others (2008); Li and others (2012);Okoh and others (2010); Farhat and others (2010); Maand others (2012); Wang and others (2006); Lucchesiand others (2007); Lucchesi and others (2004); Micheland others (2011); Vian and others (2008)

Combination methods -Solvent + Steam

cumin (Cuminum cyminum), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Li and others (2009), Zhang and others (2012)

(75 min, compared to 4 h in HD). Ohmic-assisted HD (OAHD)is another advanced HD technique (Gavahian and others 2012).OAHD method had the extraction time of 24.75 min, while HDtook 1 h for extraction of essential oil from thyme. No changesin the compounds of the essential oils obtained by OAHD werefound in comparison with HD.

Hydrodiffusion. Hydrodiffusion extraction is a type of steamdistillation, which is only different in the inlet way of steam intothe container of still. This method is used when the plant materialhas been dried and is not damaged at boiling temperature (Vianand others 2008). For hydrodiffusion, steam is applied from thetop of plant material, whereas steam is entered from the bottomfor steam distillation method. The process can also be operatedunder low pressure or vacuum and reduces the steam temperatureto below 100 °C. Hydrodiffusion method is superior to steamdistillation because of a shorter processing time and a higher oilyield with less steam used. Bousbia and others (2009) compared theHD and innovative microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG)methods for their effectiveness in the isolation of essential oil fromrosemary leaves (R. officinalis). The MHG method exhibits theexcellent advantages over traditional alternatives including shorterisolation times (15 min against 3 h for HD), environmental impact

(energy cost is fairly higher to perform HD than that required forrapid MHG isolation), cleaner features (no residue generation andno water or solvent used), increased antimicrobial and antioxidantactivities. Farhat and others (2011) studied the microwave steamdiffusion (MSDf), which is an advanced steam diffusion (SDf)technique utilizing microwave heating process for extraction ofessential oils from by-products of orange peel. The essential oilsextracted by MSDf for 12 min had similar yield and aromaticprofile to those obtained by SDf for 40 min.

Solvent extractionSolvent. Conventional solvent extraction has been imple-

mented for fragile or delicate flower materials, which are nottolerant to the heat of steam distillation. Different solvents in-cluding acetone, hexane, petroleum ether, methanol, or ethanolcan be used for extraction (Areias and others 2000; Pizzale andothers 2002; Kosar and others 2005). For general practice, thesolvent is mixed with the plant material and then heated to ex-tract the essential oil, followed by filtration. Subsequently, thefiltrate is concentrated by solvent evaporation. The concentrate isresin (resinoid), or concrete (a combination of wax, fragrance, and




essential oil). From the concentrate, it is then mixed with purealcohol to extract the oil and distilled at low temperatures. Thealcohol absorbs the fragrance and when the alcohol is evaporated,the aromatic absolute oil is remained. However, this method is arelatively time-consuming process, thus making the oils more ex-pensive than other methods (Li and others 2009). Essential oil withantioxidant activity from Ptychotisverticillata was extracted usingsolvent extraction method by El Ouariachi and others (2011).The oil was dominated by phenolic compounds (48.0%) with car-vacrol (44.6%) and thymol (3.4%) as the main compounds. Ozenand others (2011) studied the chemical composition and antioxi-

dant activity of separated essential oils from Thymus praecox subsp.skorpilii var. skorpilii (TPS) extracted using different solvents. TPSessential oil was found to contain thymol (40.31%) and o-cymene(13.66%) as the major components. The ethanol, methanol, andwater extracts exerted significant free-radical scavenging activity.The water extract has the highest total phenolics (6.211 mg gal-lic acid/g dry weight) and flavonoids (0.809 mg quercetin/g dryweight). Moreover, Sarikurkcu and others (2009) reported thatthe water extract exhibited higher antioxidant activity than otherextracts (hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol).However, solvent residue could be retained in the final product

Figure 1–Diagrammatic illustration of steam distillation method.

Figure 2–Diagrammatic illustration ofhydrodistillation method.


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due to incomplete removal. This may cause allergies, toxicity, andaffect the immune system (Ferhat and others 2007a).

Supercritical carbon dioxide. Conventional methods in-cluding solvent extraction and steam distillation have some short-comings such as long preparation time and large amount of or-ganic solvents (Deng and others 2005). Moreover, the losses ofsome volatile compounds, low extraction efficiency, degradationof unsaturated compounds, and toxic solvent residue in the extractmay be encountered (Jimenez-Carmona and others 1999; Glisicaand others 2007; Gironi and Maschietti 2008). Therefore, super-critical fluids have been considered as an alternative medium foressential oil extraction. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most com-monly used supercritical fluid because of its modest critical condi-tions (Hawthorne and others 1993; Jimenez-Carmona and others1999; Senorans and others 2000). Under high-pressure condition,CO2 turns into liquid, which can be used as a very inert andsafe medium to extract the aromatic molecules from raw material.No solvent residue remains in the final finished product since theliquid CO2 simply reverts to a gas and evaporates under normalatmospheric pressure and temperature. Despite high solubilities ofessential oil components in supercritical CO2, the extraction rateswere relatively slow with pure CO2 (ca. 80% recovery after 90min) (Hawthorne and others 1993). However, the combinationmethods by a 15-min static extraction with methylene chlorideas a modifier followed by a 15-min dynamic extraction with pureCO2 yielded high recoveries. The extraction efficacy was equiva-lent to HD, which was performed for 4 h. The volatile compoundssuch as monoterpenes can be collected from the supercritical fluidextraction (SFE) effluent by >90%. SFE was able to recover someorganic compounds that were not extracted by HD (Hawthorneand others 1993). Pereira and Meireles (2007) showed that thesupercritical fluid extraction is economically viable than steam dis-tillation. This is mainly caused by the lower yield and the higherenergy consumption of the latter.

Subcritical water. The subcritical water or pressurized hotwater has been introduced as an extractant under dynamic condi-tions (pressure high enough to maintain water under liquid stateand temperature in the range of 100 to 374 °C). Jimenez-Carmonaand others (1999) reported that the efficiency (in terms of volumeof essential oil/1 g of plant) of continuous subcritical water ex-traction was 5.1 times higher than HD method. This method isquicker (15 min compared with 3 h), provides a more valuableessential oil (with higher amounts of oxygenated compounds andno significant presence of terpenes), and allows substantial savingsof costs, in terms of both energy and plant material. Kubatovaand others (2001) studied the subcritical water extraction of lac-tones from a kava (Piper methysticum) root, compared to a Soxhletextraction with water. The extraction of ground samples with sub-critical water at 100 °C took 2 h, but the shorter time (20 min)was required when extraction was carried out at 175 °C. Boilingfor 2 h and extraction with Soxhlet apparatus for 6 h showed thelower yields by 40% to 60%, compared with that obtained usingsubcritical water.

Solvent-free microwaveThe disadvantages of conventional methods such as solvent or

hydrodiffusion extraction are the losses of some volatile com-pounds, low extraction efficiency, long extraction time, degra-dation of unsaturated or ester compounds through thermal orhydrolytic effects, and toxic solvent residue in the extract (Pollienand others 1998; Luque de Castro and others 1999). These dis-advantages have led to the consideration of the use of SFME.

It is a rapid extraction of essential oils from aromatic herbs,spices, and dry seeds. SFME has several advantages, involv-ing higher yield and selectivity, shorter time, and environmen-tal friendly (Lopez-Avila and others 1994; Tomaniova and oth-ers 1998). SFME is a combination of microwave heating anddry distillation, performed at atmospheric pressure without anysolvent or water. Isolation and concentration of volatile com-pounds are performed by a single stage (Lucchesi and others 2004;Bayramoglu and others 2008). Using oregano as a raw material,SFME offered significantly higher essential oil yields (0.054 mL/g),compared to HD (0.048 mL/g) (Bayramoglu and others 2008).When microwave power at 662 W was used in SFME, process timewas reduced by 80%, compared with conventional process. Ferhatand others (2007b) reported that microwave method offers the im-portant advantages over traditional alternatives, such as shorter ex-traction times (30 min compared with 3 h for HD and 1 h for coldpressing [CP]); better yields (0.24% compared with 0.21% for HDand 0.05% for CP); environmental impact (energy cost is appre-ciably higher for performing HD and for mechanical motors (CP)than that required for rapid microwave extraction); cleaner features(as no residue generation and no water or solvent used); and highantimicrobial activities. Farhat and others (2010) reported that es-sential oils of caraway seeds isolated by microwave dry-diffusionand gravity (MDG) exhibited the similar yield and aromatic profileto those obtained by HD, but MDG was better than HD in termsof shorter process time (45 min compared with 300 min), energysaving, and cleanliness. The present apparatus permits fast andefficient extraction, reduces waste, avoids water and solvent con-sumption, and allows substantial energy savings (Farhat and others2010).

Role of Essential Oils as Food AdditivesEssential oils from plants have been known to act as natural

additives, for example, antimicrobial agents, antioxidant, and so on.Their activities vary with source of plants, chemical composition,extraction methods, and so on. Due to the unique smell associatedwith the volatiles, this may limit the use of essential oil in somefoods since it may alter the typical smell/flavor of foods.

Antimicrobial activityThe ability of plant essential oils to protect foods against

pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms has been reported(Lis-Balchin and others 1998; Friedman 2006; Rojas-Grau andothers 2007). Among chemical components in several essentialoils, carvacrol has been shown to exert a distinct antimicrobialaction (Veldhuizen and others 2006). Carvacrol is the major com-ponent of essential oil from oregano (60% to 74% carvacrol) andthyme (45% carvacrol) (Lagouri and others 1993; Arrebola andothers 1994). It has a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activityagainst most gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (Friedmanand others 2002). Carvacrol disintegrates the outer membrane ofgram-negative bacteria, releasing lipopolysaccharides and increas-ing the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane to ATP (Burt2004). For gram-positive bacteria, it is able to interact with themembranes of bacteria and alter the permeability for cations likeH+ and K+ (Veldhuizen and others 2006). In general, the higherantimicrobial activity of essential oils is observed on gram-positivebacteria than gram-negative bacteria (Kokoska and others 2002;Okoh and others 2010). Lipophilic ends of lipoteichoic acids incell membrane of gram positive bacteria may facilitate the pen-etration of hydrophobic compounds of essential oils (Cox andothers 2000). On the other hand, the resistance of gram-negative




bacteria to essential oils is associated with the protecting role of ex-trinsic membrane proteins or cell wall lipopolysaccharides, whichlimits the diffusion rate of hydrophobic compounds through thelipopolysaccharide layer (Burt 2004). The dissipation of ion gra-dients leads to impairment of essential processes in the cell andfinally to cell death (Ultee and others 1999). The cytoplasmicmembrane of bacteria generally has 2 principal functions: (i) bar-rier function and energy transduction, which allow the membraneto form ion gradients that can be used to drive various processes,and (ii) formation of a matrix for membrane-embedded proteins(such as the membrane-integrated F0 complex of ATP synthase)(Sikkema and others 1995; Hensel and others 1996). Antimicro-bial mechanism of essential oil is proposed as shown in Figure 3.The activity of the essential oils is related to composition, func-tional groups, and synergistic interactions between components(Dorman and Deans 2000). The removal of the aliphatic ring sub-stituent of carvacrol slightly decreased the antimicrobial activity.2-Amino-ρ-cymene has similar structure to cavacrol, except hy-droxyl group (Figure 4). The lower activity by 3-fold of 2-amino-ρ-cymene, as compared to carvacrol, indicates the essential role ofhydroxyl group in antimicrobial activity of carvacrol (Veldhuizenand others 2006). The hydroxyl group present in the structure ofphenolic compounds confers antimicrobial activity and its relativeposition is very crucial for the effectiveness of these natural com-ponents; this can explain the superior antimicrobial activity of car-vacrol, compared to other plant phenolics (Veldhuizen and others2006).

Plant essential oils have been known as antimicrobial agents. Es-sential oil of rosemary (R. officinalis) exhibited both gram-positive(Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and gram-negative (Es-cherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) bacteria (Okoh and others2010). The major components of rosemary oil are monoterpenessuch as α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene 1,8-cineole, borneol, cam-phor, and verbinone (Santoyo and others 2005; Okoh and others

2010), which possess strong antimicrobial activity by the disrup-tion of bacteria membrane integrity (Knobloch and others 1989).Aguirre and others (2013); Burt (2004); and Pelissari and oth-ers (2009) also reported that oregano essential oil had higherantimicrobial activity against the gram-positive bacteria (S. au-reus) than gram-negative (E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Themain constituents of oregano essential oil are thymol, carvacrol,γ -therpinene, and ρ-cymene (Lambert and others 2001; Burt2004; Aguirre and others 2013). However, Pseudomonas putida wasresistant to carrot seed and parsley essential oils (Teixeira and oth-ers 2013). E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium were also tolerant tocarrot seed, grapefruit, lemon, onion, and parsley essential oils.The greater resistance of gram-negative bacteria toward essentialoils may be attributed to the complexity of their double-layer cellmembrane, compared with the single-layer membrane of gram-positive bacteria (Hogg 2005).

Antimicrobial activity of Callistemon comboynensis essential oilwas observed against gram-positive (B. subtilis and S. aureus), gram-negative (Proteus vulgaris and P. aeruginosa), and a pathogenic fungusCandida albicans. This might be associated with the high contentof oxygenated constituents (Abdelhady and Aly 2012). Essentialoil of C. comboynensis leave consisted of 1,8-cineole (53.03%),eugenol (12.1%), methyl eugenol (8.3%), α-terpineol (4.3%), andcarveol (3.4%) (Abdelhady and Aly 2012). Teixeira and others(2013) found that the highest reduction (8.0 log CFU/mL) wasobtained when coriander, origanum, and rosemary essential oilsat a level of 20 μL were used to inhibit Listeria innocua. Thymeessential oil (20 μL) was able to inhibit both L. innocua and Lis-teria monocytogenes. However, rosemary essential oil exhibited thehighest MIC (90.8 mg/mL) against Brochothrix thermosphacta andS. typhimurium. Thus, essential oils from the selected plants can beused as antimicrobial agents for food applications as well as otherpurposes; however, their activity depends on types of essential oilused.

Figure 3–Schematic illustration for the effect of essential oils on bacteria cell.


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Antioxidant activitySeveral compounds in essential oils have the structure mim-

icking the well-known plant phenols with antioxidant activity.Among the major compounds available in the oil, thymol andcarvacrol were reported to possess the highest antioxidant activity(Dapkevicius and others 1998). Essential oils have several modesof actions as antioxidant, such as prevention of chain initiation,free radical scavengers, reducing agents, termination of peroxides,prevention of continued hydrogen abstraction as well as quenchersof singlet oxygen formation and binding of transition metal ioncatalysts (Yildirim and others 2000; Mao and others 2006). Withthose functions, essential oils can serve as the potential natural an-tioxidants, which can be used to prevent lipid oxidation in foodsystems. Phenolics are organic compounds consisting of hydroxylgroup (-OH) attached directly to a carbon atom that is a partof aromatic ring. The hydrogen atom of hydroxyl group can bedonated to free radicals, thereby preventing other compounds tobe oxidized (Nguyen and others 2003). Teixeira and others (2013)reported that the highest scavenging activity of DPPH radical wasobserved for clove and origanum essential oils with the EC50 val-ues of 35.7 ± 1.2 and 46.8 ± 0.4 μg/mL, respectively. Clove andoriganum essential oils also showed the high ferric reducing power(Teixeira and others 2013). The antioxidant capability of phenoliccompounds is mainly due to their redox properties, which permitthem to act as hydrogen donors, reducing agents, singlet oxygenquenchers as well as metal chelators (Kumar and others 2005).The antioxidant activity is generally related with the major ac-tive compounds in essential oils such as eugenol in clove (Weiand Shibamoto 2010), carvacrol in origanum (Bounatirou and

others 2007), m-thymol in thyme (Bozin and others 2006), andβ-citronellol or β-citronellal in citronella (Ruberto and Baratta2000). However, the other antioxidant compounds in essentialoils such as terpinene, (−)-camphor, (−)-bornylacetate, eucalyp-tol, and methylchavicol have been reported to exhibit antioxidantactivity, but their amounts were probably too low to exhibit an-tioxidant activity (Ruberto and Baratta 2000; Mitic-Culafic andothers 2009; Teixeira and others 2013). Antioxidant activity varieswith source of essential oils. Tongnuanchan and others (2013a)reported that among essential oils from roots, plai essential oilshowed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity, followedby turmeric and ginger essential oil, respectively. The highest2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS)radical scavenging activity was observed in turmeric essential oil,followed by plai and ginger essential oils. The differences in an-tioxidative activity of different essential oils were mostly due tothe differences in types and amounts of antioxidative componentspresent in essential oils (Burt 2004; Kordali and others 2005).

Antioxidative activity of essential oil is also affected by extractionmethod or solvents used. Sarikurkcu and others (2010) reportedthat free radical scavenging activity (DPPH assay) and reducingpower of essential oil from Thymus longicaulis subsp. Longicaulisvar. longicaulis extracted using HD method was lower than thoseextracted using methanol or water. Methanol extract of Salviatomentosa exhibited superior radical scavenging activity to otherextracts (IC50 = 18.7l μg/mL) (Tepe and others 2005). Nonpolarextracts showed less effective activities than polar extracts. There-fore, antioxidative activity of essential oil is strictly related withthe polarities of their phytochemicals. The antioxidant activity of

Figure 4–Structure of carvacrol andcarvacrol-related compoundsSource: Veldhuizen and others (2006).




essential oil from T. longicaulis subsp. longicaulis var. longicaulis ex-tracted by HD method at 2.0 mg/mL showed similar antioxidativeactivity to synthetic antioxidants butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) when tested by β-carotene–linoleic acid model system and was higher than those extractedwith other solvents (Sarikurkcu and others 2010). In contrast, theinhibition of linoleic acid oxidation of model system by essentialoil of S. tomentosa (Miller) was lower than those extracted usingsolvents with different polarities and BHT (Tepe and others 2005).Abdelhady and Aly (2012) reported that C. comboynensis essentialoil exhibited the antioxidant activity at a concentration of 1000μg/mL (91.1 ± 0.3% inhibition), comparable to 100 μg/mL gallicacid (95.7 ± 2% inhibition). It has been reported that nonphe-nolic antioxidants of plant extracts might also contribute to theantioxidant activity (Newman and others 2002; Hassimotto andothers 2005).

Additionally, the harvesting period of plant also determines theconcentration of the major oil components such as phenolic com-pounds, which directly related with the antioxidant activity ofessential oils (Malatova and others 2011; Zheljazkov and others2012; Wu and others 2013).

Active Packaging Containing Essential Oilsand Applications

Development of active packagingNowadays, smart packaging has gained increasing attention, for

example, antimicrobial packaging, which can be applied to ex-tend the shelf life of food and products (Appendini and Hotchkiss2002; Quintavalla and Vicini 2002). To enhance the property ofthose packaging, antimicrobial compounds or extracts with the se-lected bioactivity are incorporated. Thus, several approaches havebeen introduced, not only for increasing bioactivity but also mod-ifying the property of biomaterials used for packaging. Amongbiomaterials, proteins have gained attention, due to their vari-ety in compositions, properties, as well as nutritive value. How-ever, protein-based material for packaging is still encountering thepoor property, especially poor barrier property toward water va-por. Chemical and enzyme treatment can be applied to modifypolymer network through the cross-linking of the polymer chainsto improve the properties of protein film (Mahmoud and Savello1993; Yildirim and Hettiarachchy 1997; De Carvalho and Grosso2004). Hydrophobic plasticizer can be used to improve water va-por barrier property of films. However, it may yield films withdifferent properties. The incorporation of hydrophobic substancessuch as lipid, fatty acid, wax, and so on, has been implemented toimprove water vapor barrier property (Prodpran and others 2007;Limpisophon and others 2010; Soazo and others 2011). Hy-drophobic materials such as essential oils have been incorporatedto improve water vapor barrier property of protein-based films,for example, film from fish muscle protein, film from fish gelatin,and so on (Atares and others 2010a; Tongnuanchan and others2012, 2013a). Tongnuanchan and others (2012) reported that wa-ter vapor permeability (WVP) of fish skin gelatin film decreasedmarkedly from 3.11 to 1.88, 1.89, and 2.45 × 10−11 gm−1s−1Pa−1

(P < 0.05), when films were incorporated with ginger, turmeric,and plai essential oils, respectively, at a level of 100% based on pro-tein. The incorporation of ginger, turmeric, and plai essential oilsat the highest level (100% based on protein) reduced WVP of filmby 39.54%, 39.22%, and 21.22%, respectively. The result suggesteddifferent hydrophobicity of compounds present in different essen-tial oils used. Monoterpenes are highly hydrophobic substancesfound in essential oils, in which the content varied with types of

essential oils (Turina and others 2006). Hydrophobic essential oilcould increase the hydrophobicity of films, thereby reducing thewater vapor migration through the film. Essential oils with lowdensity are separated and localized at the upper surface of film,thereby forming the bilayer microstructure. In general, there wasno oil exudates on the film incorporated with low concentration(25%) of essential oil; however, at high concentration of essen-tial oil (100%), some oil exudates were found at the surface ofthe films. The bilayer-morphological microstructure might con-tribute to lower WVP of essential-oil-incorporated gelatin films(Figure 5), compared with the control film. Atares and others(2010a) studied the mechanical properties of soy protein isolateincorporated with cinnamon and ginger essential oil at differ-ent concentrations (protein to oil mass ratios: 1 : 0.025, 1 : 0.050,1 : 0.075, and 1 : 0.100). A slight decreasing trend of elastic mod-ulus (EM) was observed as the oil content increased. The WVPwas slightly reduced by both essential oils. The oil type signifi-cantly affected both tensile strength (resistance to elongation) andEM (capacity for stretching) (Atares and others 2010a). Essen-tial oils may cause some degree of rearrangement in the proteinnetwork, thus strengthening and increasing the film resistance toelongation. Moreover, Pires and others (2011) studied the effectof thyme essential oil incorporated in hake protein film. The ad-dition of thyme oil significantly reduced the WVP. Nevertheless,the addition of essential oil had impact on the transparency of film,depending on type and concentration of essential oils. The addi-tion of thyme oil decreased the transparency value of hake proteinsfilms (Pires and others 2011). Table 4 presents the properties ofprotein-based films containing various essential oils.

The ability of plant essential oils to protect foods againstpathogenic and spoilage microorganisms has been reported byseveral researchers (Lis-Balchin and others 1998; Friedman 2006;Rojas-Grau and others 2007). Film or packaging incorporatedwith essential oils can be employed as active packaging due to theirantimicrobial or antioxidant activities. Seydim and Sarikus (2006)evaluated antimicrobial activity of whey-protein isolate-based edi-ble films incorporated with oregano essential oil. Oregano essentialoil added films exhibited the larger inhibitory zone on S. aureuswith increasing levels of essential oil added. Table 5 presents the an-timicrobial activities of biopolymer films containing various typesof essential oils.

Films added with essential oils are shown to possess antioxi-dant activities, which can vary with type and amount of essen-tial oil incorporated. Gomez-Estaca and others (2009) reportedthat bovine-hide and tuna skin gelatin films supplemented withoregano and rosemary extracts exhibited the reducing ability andfree-radical scavenging capacity. Antioxidant power was gener-ally being proportional to the amount of added extract. Gelatinfilms incorporated with different essential oils containing 30%glycerol mostly had the higher antioxidant activity than thosewith 20% glycerol (P < 0.05) (Tongnuanchan and others 2012).More loosen structure of film network found in film contain-ing 30% glycerol favored the release of essential oils with antiox-idative activity (Tongnuanchan and others 2012). Antioxidativeactivities of gelatin films incorporated with essential oils werelower than those of pure essential oil, regardless of type of essen-tial oil used. The interaction between gelatin and antioxidativecompounds in essential oil thus lowers the release of those com-pounds (Tongnuanchan and others 2013a). Antioxidant activitiesof protein-based films containing various essential oils are shown inTable 6.

However, film or packaging may have the smell of essentialoils due to its volatilization. The smell intensity of essential oil in


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13to

6.67

,3.3

0to

8.49

N(B

reak

ing

forc

e)

111.

2to

129.

8,87

.87

to11

5.41

(Pun

ctur

ede

form

atio

n)

0.35

to0.

431.

8to

6.5

Pire

san

dot

hers

(201

1)

Soy

prot

ein

isola

te,

8%(w

/w)

ofFF

SG

lyce

rol,

30%

(w/w

)of

prot

ein

Cin

nam

on(C

inna

mom

umve

rum

),0.

025,

0.05

,0.0

75,a

nd0.

1m

Loi

l/g

prot

ein

–11

.0to

17.6

3.4

to7.

50.

46to

0.64

a–

Ata

res

and

othe

rs(2

010a

)G

inge

r(Z

ingi

bero

fficin

ale)

,0.0

25,0

.05,

0.07

5,an

d0.

1m

Loi

l/g

prot

ein

–4

to8

1.7

to3

0.56

to0.

68a

–

Sodi

umca

sein

ate,

8%(w

/w)

ofFF

SG

lyce

rol,

30%

(w/w

)of

prot

ein

Cin

nam

on(C

inna

mom

umve

rum

),0.

025

and

0.07

5m

Loi

l/g

prot

ein

–22

and

24b

10.2

and

11.4

c13

and

22b

67an

d76

c0.

64an

d0.

57d

2.14

and

1.7e

–A

tare

san

dot

hers

(201

0b)

Gin

ger(

Zin

gibe

roffi

cinal

e),0

.025

and

0.07

5m

Loi

l/g

prot

ein

–22

and

22b

10an

d11

.6c

18an

d16

b

57an

d72

c0.

57an

d0.

52d

2.1

and

1.8e

–

Sunfl

ower

prot

ein

conc

entr

ate,

5%(w

/v)

ofFF

S

Gly

cero

l,1.

5%(w

/v)

ofFF

SC

love

(Syz

ygiu

mar

omat

icum

)0.

080

±0.

012.

5±

0.2

24.9

±1.

71.

16±

0.09

aa–

Salg

ado

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Fish

gela

tin(t

ilapi

a),3

.5%

(w/w

)of

FFS

Gly

cero

l,20%

and

30%

(w/w

)of

prot

ein

Ber

gam

ot(C

itru

sbe

rgam

ia),

50%

(w/w

)of

prot

ein

0.04

7an

d0.

048

42.4

2an

d36

.52

15.2

9an

d19

.19

3.15

and

3.22

aaa

4.28

and

4.45

Tong

nuan

chan

and

othe

rs(2

012)

Kaf

firLi

me

Peel

(Citr

ushy

strix

DC

)0.

048

and

0.04

736

.87

and

34.2

231

.43

and

30.9

32.

95an

d3.

385.

48an

d5.

56Le

mon

,(C

itrus

limon

)0.

048

and

0.04

832

.82

and

31.0

639

.06

and

52.6

62.

81an

d2.

855.

46an

d5.

31Li

me,

(Citr

usau

rant

ifolia

)0.

049

and

0.04

727

.32

and

25.8

752

.21

and

69.7

92.

91an

d3.

375.

66an

d5.

46Fi

shge

latin

(tila

pia)

,3.5

%(w

/w)

ofFF

S

Gly

cero

l,30

%(w

/w)

ofpr

otei

nG

inge

r(Z

ingi

bero

fficin

ale)

,25%

,50%

,and

100%

(w/w

)of

prot

ein

0.04

1to

0.05

718

.58

to35

.73

41.7

0to

72.0

31.

88to

2.61

aaa

1.60

to3.

02To

ngnu

anch

anan

dot

hers

(201

3a)

Tum

eric

(Cur

cum

alo

nga)

0.04

1to

0.05

323

.34

to34

.04

42.9

6to

72.8

01.

89to

2.48

1.45

to1.

63Pl

ai(Z

ingi

berc

assu

mun

arro

xb)

0.04

1to

0.05

517

.20

to32

.06

44.9

6to

74.6

82.

45to

2.91

1.49

–2.

17Fi

shge

latin

(tila

pia)

,3.5

%(w

/w)

ofFF

S

Gly

cero

l,30

%(w

/w)

ofpr

otei

nLe

mon

gras

s,(C

ymbo

pogo

ncit

ratu

s)0.

056

to0.

073

18.4

2to

25.1

352

.81

to77

.25

1.41

to1.

79†

2.48

to3.

24To

ngnu

anch

anan

dot

hers

(201

3b)

Bas

il,(O

cimum

sanc

tum

)0.

054

to0.

084

18.7

0to

21.3

746

.53

to85

.06

1.20

to2.

112.

18to

3.26

Citr

onel

la,(

Cym

bopo

gon

nard

us)

0.06

8to

0.08

017

.39

to21

.85

44.6

3to

97.2

91.

07to

1.42

3.67

to4.

41K

affir

Lim

eLe

af,(

Citr

ushy

strix

DC

)0.

066

to0.

081

25.0

7to

26.2

143

.95

to95

.08

1.03

to1.

594.

25to

6.08

∗ FFS

=Fi

lmfo

rmin

gso

lutio

n;W

VP

=w

ater

vapo

rpe

rmea

bilit

y;a

WV

Pun

it(g

mm

/m2

hkP

a);aa

WV

Pun

it(1

010g

H2O

/Pa

ms)

;†W

VP

unit

(1010

gH

2O

/Pa

ms)

;b,c

Fina

lmoi

stur

eco

nten

tin

the

film

:5an

d10

gw

ater

/100

gfil

m,

resp

ectiv

ely;

d,e

WV

Pof

film

ste

sted

at25°C

and

2ra

nge

ofre

lativ

ehu

mid

ity(R

H)

(33%

to53

%an

d53

to75

,res

pect

ivel

y).




Tab

le5–

Anti

mic

robia

lef

fect

of

bio

poly

mer

film

sco

nta

inin

gva

rious

types

of

esse

nti

aloils.

Film

form

ing

Pla

stic

izer

,Ess

ential

oils,

mat

eria

ls,co

nce

ntr

atio

nco

nce

ntr

atio

nco

nce

ntr

atio

nTes

ted

org

anis

ms

Inhib

itio

nef

fect

Ref

eren

ces

Soy

prot

ein

isola

te,5

%G

lyce

rol,

Ore

gano

(Ore

ganu

mhe

racle

oticu

mL.

),St

aphy

loco

ccus

aure

us27

.50

to49

.50a

Em

irogl

uan

dot

hers

(201

0)(w

/v)

ofFF

S3.

5%(w

/v)

ofFF

S1%

,2%

,3%

,4%

,and

5%(v

/v)

ofFF

SE

sche

richi

aco

li32

.00

to45

.50

Esc

heric

hia

coli

O15

7:H

735

.50

to50

.50

Pseu

dom

anas

aeru

gino

sa27

.00

to39

.50

Lac

toba

cillu

spl

anta

rum

22.5

0to

37.0

0T

hym

e(T

hym

usvu

lgar

isL.

)St

aphy

loco

ccus

aure

us30

.00

to49

.50

Esc

heric

hia

coli

36.5

0to

49.0

0E

sche

richi

aco

liO

157:

H7

36.5

0to

49.5

0Ps

eudo

man

asae

rugi

nosa

32.5

0to

42.0

0L

acto

bacil

lus

plan

taru

m20

.50

to36

.50

Bov

ine-

hide

gela

tin,

Sorb

itola

ndgl

ycer

ol,0

.15

and

0.15

g/g

gela

tinC

love

(Syz

ygiu

mar

omat

icum

L.)

Pseu

dom

onas

fluor

esce

ns9.

07±

0.13

bG

omez

-Est

aca

and

othe

rs(2

010)

8%(w

/v)

ofFF

S0.

75m

l/g

biop

olym

erLa

ctob

acill

usac

idop

hilu

s12

.76

±2.

51L

ister

iain

nocu

a7.

46±

0.53

Esc

heric

hia

coli

10.6

4±

1.37

Gel

atin

-Chi

tosa

n,So

rbito

land

glyc

erol

,0.1

5an

d0.

15g/

gge

latin

Clo

ve(S

yzyg

ium

arom

aticu

mL.

)Ps

eudo

mon

asflu

ores

cens

9.51

±2.

03b

6%of

gela

tinpl

us2%

ofch

itosa

n(w

/v)

ofFF

S0.

75m

L/g

biop

olym

ers

Lact

obac

illus

acid

ophi

lus

12.6

0±

3.42

Gom

ez-E

stac

aan

dot

hers

(201

0)L

ister

iain

nocu

a6.

42±

0.41

Esc

heric

hia

coli

8.69

±0.

42W

hey

prot

ein

isola

te,

5%(w

/v)

ofFF

SG

lyce

rol,

5%(w

/v)o

fFFS

Ore

gano

(Orig

anum

min

utifl

orum

)1%

,2%

,3%

,an

d4%

(v/v

)of

FFS

Esc

heric

hia

coli

O15

7:H

7St

aphy

loco

ccus

aure

usSa

lmon

ella

ente

ritid

isL

ister

iam

onoc

ytog

enes

Lac

toba

cillu

spl

anta

rum

0to

37.0

9c 0to

43.0

70

to40

.59

0to

41.6

50to

13.4

5Se

ydim

and

Sari

kus(

2006

)

Ros

emar

y(R

osm

arin

usof

ficia

nalis

L.)

Esc

heric

hia

coli

O15

7:H

7St

aphy

loco

ccus

aure

usSa

lmon

ella

ente

ritid

isL

ister

iam

onoc

ytog

enes

Lac

toba

cillu

spl

anta

rum

0to

11.3

60

to13

.45

0to

10.4

80

to11

.96

0to

9.21

Gar

lic(A

llium

sativ

umL.

),E

sche

richi

aco

liO

157:

H7

Stap

hylo

coccu

sau

reus

Salm

onel

laen

terit

idis

List

eria

mon

ocyt

ogen

esL

acto

bacil

lus

plan

taru

mN

.D.N

.D.N

.D.N

.D.N

.D.

(Con

tinue

d)


R:Co

ncise

Revie

wsin

Food

Scien


Tab

le5–

Conti

nued

.

Film

form

ing

Pla

stic

izer

,Ess

ential

oils,

mat

eria

ls,co

nce

ntr

atio

nco

nce

ntr

atio

nco

nce

ntr

atio

nTes

ted

org

anis

ms

Inhib

itio

nef

fect

Ref

eren

ces

Sunfl

ower

prot

ein

conc

entr

ate,

5%(w

/v)

ofFF

S

Gly

cero

l,1.

5%(w

/v)

ofFF

SC

love

(Syz

ygiu

mar

omat

icum

),0.

75m

L/g

biop

olym

erA

erom

onas

hydr

ophi

la,

Asp

ergi

llus

nige

r,B

acill

usce

reus

,B

acill

usco

agul

ans,

Bifi

doba

cteriu

man

imal

is-su

besp

ecie

lacti

s,

32.6

6±

17.5

9b38

.32

±11

.24

25.6

1±

5.22

37.2

1±

5.13

25.5

2±

9.85

Salg

ado

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Bifi

doba

cteriu

mbi

fidum

,B

roch

othr

ixth

erm

opha

cta,

Citr

obac

terf

reun

dii,

Clo

strid

ium

perfr

inge

ns,

Deb

aryo

myc

esha

nsen

ii,E

nter

ococ

cus

faec

ium

,E

sche

richi

aco

li,L

acto

bacil

lus

acid

ophi

lus,

Lac

toba

cillu

she

lvet

icus,

List

eria

inno

cua,

List

eria

mon

ocyt

ogen

es,

Peni

ciliu

mex

pans

um,

Phot

obac

teriu

mph

osph

oreu

m,

Pseu

dom

onas

aeru

gino

sa,

Pseu

dom

onas

fluor

esce

ns,

Salm

onel

lach

oler

asui

s,Sh

ewan

ella

putre

facie

ns,

Shig

ella

sonn

ei,

Stap

hylo

coccu

sau

reus

,V

ibrio

para

haem

olyt

icus

Yers

inia

ente

roco

lıtica

27.4

2±

14.0

440

.20

±0.

8724

.14

±5.

5421

.15

±0.

7160

.74

±9.

9022

.07

±1.

1425

.68

±1.

4322

.00

±1.

8124

.95

±5.

6431

.04

±0.

5123

.34

±4.

1350

.34

±2.

4838

.20

±6.

4327

.09

±2.

4727

.39

±8.

1326

.40

±3.

5124

.25

±4.

9922

.04

±2.

4629

.35

±3.

5230

.77

±9.

8022

.55

±4.

79C

assa

vast

arch

-Chi

tosa

n,77

%of

star

chpl

us5%

ofch

itosa

n

Gly

cero

l,18

%O

rega

no(O

rega

num

hera

cleot

icum

L.)0

.1%

,0.5

%,

and

1%of

FFS

Bac

illus

cere

usE

sche

richi

aco

liSa

lmon

ella

ente

ritid

isSt

aphy

loco

ccus

aure

us6.

28to

19.5

0a9.

99to

23.7

313

.26

to30

.81

13.9

8to

33.8

8

Pelis

sari

and

othe

rs(2

009)

Hak

epr

otei

n,1.

5%(w

/v)

ofFF

SG

lyce

rol,

59%

(w/w

)of

prot

ein

Citr

onel

la(P

elar

goni

umcit

rosu

m),0

.25

mL

oil/

gpr

otei

n

Bro

chot

hrix

ther

mos

phac

taE

sche

richi

aco

liL

ister

iain

nocu

aL

ister

iam

onoc

ytog

enes

Pseu

dom

onas

putid

aSa

lmon

ella

typh

imur

ium

Shew

anel

lapu

trefa

ciens

48.7

±0.

3dN

.D.4

0.6

±13

.7N

.D.7

1.6

±22

.9N

.D.

N.D

.C

oria

nder

(Cor

iand

rum

sativ

um)

Bro

chot

hrix

ther

mos

phac

taE

sche

richi

aco

liL

ister

iain

nocu

aL

ister

iam

onoc

ytog

enes

Pseu

dom

onas

putid

aSa

lmon

ella

typh

imur

ium

Shew

anel

lapu

trefa

ciens

N.D

.N.D

.32.

0±

16.5

N.D

.N

.D.N

.D.7

7.5

±12

.8Pi

res

and

othe

rs(2

013)

Tar

rago

n(A

rtem

isia

drac

uncu

lus)

Bro

chot

hrix

ther

mos

phac

taE

sche

richi

aco

liL

ister

iain

nocu

aL

ister

iam

onoc

ytog

enes

Pseu

dom

onas

putid

aSa

lmon

ella

typh

imur

ium

Shew

anel

lapu

trefa

ciens

79.8

±5.

7N

.D.1

4.1

±7.

6N

.D.N

.D.N

.D.8

0.5

±6.

9

Thy

me

(Thy

mus

vulg

aris)

Bro

chot

hrix

ther

mos

phac

taE

sche

richi

aco

liL

ister

iain

nocu

aL

ister

iam

onoc

ytog

enes

Pseu

dom

onas

putid

aSa

lmon

ella

typh

imur

ium

Shew

anel

lapu

trefa

ciens

51.0

±5.

3N

.D.3

5.2

±5.

3N

.D.N

.D.4

5.2

±18

.99

6.9

±1.

7T

ritic

ale

prot

ein,

7.5%

(w/v

)of

FFS

Gly

cero

l,20

%(w

/w)

ofpr

otei

nO

rega

no,1

%an

d2%

(w/v

)of

FFS

Esc

heric

hia

coli

Stap

hylo

coccu

sau

reus

Pseu

dom

onas

aeru

gino

sa10

.81

and

21.5

3a16

6.90

and

342.

360.

00an

d9.

70A

guir

rean

dot

hers

(201

3)

∗ FFS

=Fi

lmfo

rmin

gso

lutio

n;N

.D.=

inhi

bitio

nno

tde

tect

ed;a

Inhi

bitio

nun

it(in

hibi

tion

zone

diam

eter

s(m

m))

;bIn

hibi

tion

unit

(per

cent

age

ofin

hibi

tion

(%)

ofth

eto

talp

late

surf

ace)

;cIn

hibi

tion

unit

(inhi

bitio

nzo

ne(m

m2))

;dIn

hibi

tion

unit

(Mac

rodi

lutio

nm

etho

d(%

redu

ctio

n))




Tab

le6–

Anti

oxi

dat

ive

effe

ctof

pro

tein

-bas

edfilm

sco

nta

inin

gva

rious

types

of

esse

nti

aloils.

Film

form

ing

Antiox

idan

tac

tivi

ty

mat

eria

ls,

Pla

stic

izer

,Ess

ential

oils,

Red

uci

ng

PC

L

conce

ntr

atio

nco

nce

ntr

atio

nco

nce

ntr

atio

nD

PPH

AB

TS

pow

erFR

AP

PC

L-A

CW

PC

L-A

CL

Chel

atin

gac

tivi

tyR

efer

ence

s

Fish

gela

tin(t

ilapi

a),3

.5%

(w/w

)of

FFS

Gly

cero

l,20

%an

d30

%(w

/w)

ofpr

otei

n

Ber

gam

ot(C

itrus

berg

amia),

50%

(w/w

)of

prot

ein

0.25

and

0.42

h4.

33an

d6.

25i

–1.

17an

d2.

15j

––

–To

ngnu

anch

anan

dot

hers

(201

2)

Kaf

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films increased with increasing essential oil levels. This might limitthe application of the film in food when it was incorporated atthe high amount. However, smaller amount (25%) of essential oiladded did not cause the detrimental effect on smell perception orunacceptability of the film (Tongnuanchan and others 2012).

Active film containing essential oil can be applied to extendthe shelf life and maintain the quality of foods, such as meat,fish, and their products. Films can serve as carriers for variousantimicrobial agent and antioxidant that can maintain fresh quality,extend product shelf life, and reduce the risk of pathogen growth.Table 7 presents the antimicrobial effect of active films containingvarious essential oils in food systems.

Use of packaging for meat and meat productsMicroorganisms are responsible for meat spoilage. Most essential

oils are classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). However,their use as food preservatives is often limited due to flavoringconsiderations (Zinoviadou and others 2009). The effectivenessof bioactive films containing essential oils against the spoilage orpathogenic bacteria in food system has been studied. Zinoviadouand others (2009) studied the antibacterial effects of WPI filmcontaining oregano oil (0.5% and 1.5% w/w of Film formingsolution [FFS]) against total variable bacteria count, Pseudomonasspp. and lactic acid bacteria on beef cuts. The use of films con-taining the highest level of oregano oil (1.5% w/w of FFS) re-sulted in a significant reduction of total variable bacteria count

and Pseudomonas spp. population during 12 d of refrigeration stor-age (5 °C). The total variable bacteria population of the sampleswrapped with films containing the high essential oil level at day8 was 5.1 log CFU/cm2, while the control had population of 8.4log CFU/cm2. Since microbial loads higher than 107 CFU/cm2

are usually associated with off-odors (Ercolini and others 2006), itmay be suggested that the use of WPI films containing 1.5% (w/w)oregano oil could double the shelf life of fresh beef stored underrefrigerated condition. Oussalah and others (2004) reported theapplication of milk protein films incorporated with essential oils(oregano, pimento, and mixed) on meat surfaces containing 103

CFU/cm2 of E. coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas spp. Film contain-ing oregano essential oil was the most effective in inhibition bothbacteria, whereas film with pimento oils seemed to be the least ef-fective against these 2 bacteria. The reduction of around 1 log unitof E. coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas spp. was observed at the endof storage (day 7, at 4 °C) when film containing oregano essentialoil was used, compared to samples without film coated. Ouattaraand others (2000) reported that chitosan film incorporated withcinnamaldehyde reduced the growth of Lactobacillus sakei, Serratialiquefaciens, and Enterobacteriaceae, on the surface of meat products(bologna, cooked ham, and pastrami). However, the films had noeffect or little effect on the numbers of lactic acid bacteria onbologna or pastrami, after 21 d of storage at 4 or 10 °C. Zivanovicand others (2005) tested the impact of chitosan film containingoregano essential oil (1% and 2% of FFS) on microbial growth ofthe inoculated bologna samples and stored for 5 d at 10 °C. The

Figure 5–Simplified illustration for the formation of emulsified and bilayer films from fish skin gelatin incorporated with essential oil.Source: Adapted from Tongnuanchan and others (2013a).




Table 7–Antimicrobial effect of active films containing various essential oils in food systems.

Film forming Essential oils,materials concentration samples Tested organisms References

Chitosan Cinnamaldehyde, 1% (w/w) of FFS Bologna, Regularcooked ham,Pastrami

Enterobacteriaceae, Lactobacillus sakei, Serratialiquefaciens, Lactic acid bacteria

Ouattara andothers (2000)

Milk protein Oregano (OR), Pimento (PI),Mixture (OR+PI, 1 : 1), 1% (w/v) ofFFS

Whole beefmuscle

Escherichia coli O157:H7, Pseudomonas spp. Oussalah andothers (2004)

Chitosan Oregano, 1% and 2% of FFS Bologna slices Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7 Zivanovic andothers (2005)

Pigskin gelatin Oregano, Rosemary, 1.25% and 20%of FFS, respectively

Cold-smokedsardine

Total viable bacteria, H2S-producing microorganisms Gomez-Estaca andothers (2007)

Whey protein isolate Oregano, 1.5% (w/w) of FFS Fresh beef Total viable bacteria, Pseudomonas ssp., Lactic acidbacteria

Zinoviadou andothers (2009)

Soy protein Oregano (OR), Thyme (TH),Mixture (OR+TH, 1 : 1), 5% (v/v)of FFS

Fresh ground beefpatties

Pseudomanas spp., Staphylococcus spp. Coliform Emiroglu andothers (2010)

Bovine-hidegelatin-Chitosan

Clove, 0.75 mL/g biopolymer Cod fillets Total viable bacteria, H2S-producingmicroorganisms, Lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonasssp., Enterobacteriaceae

Gomez-Estaca andothers (2010)

Sunflower proteinconcentrate

Clove, 0.75 mL/g biopolymer Sardine patties Total viable bacteria, Total mesophiles,H2S-producing microorganisms, Luminescentcolonies, Lactic bacteria, Pseudomonas spp.Enterobacteriaceae

Salgado and others(2013)

higher activity was obtained in films with 1% and 2% oreganoessential oil, which decreased the numbers of L. monocytogenes by3.6 to 4 logs and E. coli O157:H7 by 3 logs, whereas the purechitosan films reduced L. monocytogenes by 2 logs.

Essential oils are able to extend shelf life of foods by lower-ing lipid oxidation (Oussalah and others 2004; Zivanovic andothers 2005). Therefore, the incorporation of essential oils into thebiodegradable films could provide antioxidant activity for resultingfilms. Oussalah and others (2004) reported that the incorporationof oregano essential oil into milk-protein-based film increased theability to stabilize lipid oxidation in beef muscle samples duringrefrigerated storage. Moradi and others (2011) studied the an-tioxidant effects of chitosan film containing Zatariamultiflora Boissessential oil (ZEO) wrapped on mortadella sausage during 21 d ofrefrigeration storage (4 °C). Lipid oxidation of samples decreasedmarkedly at first 6 d when compared to samples wrapped withcontrol film (without ZEO incorporated) and unwrapped samplesup to the end of storage. The most effectiveness was observedwhen samples packed with film containing 10 g/kg ZEO andcombination with 10 g/kg grape seed extract.

Use of packaging for fish and fish productsThe antimicrobial effects of plant extracts including plant es-

sential oils on a wide range of microorganisms have been de-scribed (Hammer and others 1999; Dorman and Deans 2000).As a consequence, plant extracts have been used to preserve meatand fish products due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant ef-fects. Gomez-Estaca and others (2010) reported that the complexgelatin–chitosan film incorporated with clove essential oil was ap-plied to fish during chilled storage and the growth was drasticallyreduced for gram-negative bacteria, especially enterobacteria, andcorresponded with the delay in total volatile base (TVB) produc-tion. Lactic acid bacteria remained practically constant during 11d of storage. H2S-producing bacteria were also inhibited sincetheir growth was interrupted with the application of the film.This microbial inhibition could be attributed to the hydrophobicnature of essential oil, which enable them and their componentsto partition in the lipids of the bacteria cell membrane and mi-tochondria while disturbing the structures and rendering it more

permeable (Sikkema and others 1995). The intrinsic properties ofthe food (fat, protein, pH, and so on), as well as the environmentin which the food is maintained (storage temperature, packag-ing, and so on), may influence the prevention effect of essentialoils (Tassou and others 1995; Burt 2004). Low pH and storagetemperature, decrease O2 concentrations, and high salt contentenhances the antimicrobial effect of essential oils, while high levelsof protein and fat and low water activity seem to protect bacte-ria from the inhibition by essential oils (Gomez-Estaca and others2010). However, soy protein film with oregano, thyme essentialoil, and mixture of those did not have significant effects on to-tal viable counts, lactic acid bacteria and Staphylococcus spp. whenapplied on ground beef patties. Nevertheless, the reduction in co-liform and Pseudomonas spp. counts was observed. Gomez-Estacaand others (2007) tested the antibacterial effects of gelatin-basedfilms added with an extract of oregano or rosemary against micro-bial spoilage in preserving cold-smoked sardine. Coating the fishwith films enriched with oregano or rosemary extract loweredthe microbial growth by 1.99 and 1.54 log cycles, respectively, onday 16.

Salgado and others (2013) tested the antioxidant activity of sun-flower protein films enriched with clove essential oil in preservingfish patties during 13 d of storage at 2°C. The rate of malonalde-hyde production was lower in patties wrapped with clove contain-ing films during the first 3 d of storage, indicating a noticeabledelay in hydroperoxide (primary lipid oxidation products) degra-dation exerted by the clove essential oil components. This allowedthiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) remaining at thelowest values during storage. Use of natural plant extracts to pre-vent lipid oxidation in fish has been reported (Gimenez and others2004; Serdaroglu and Felekoglu 2005). Gomez-Estaca and others(2007) developed gelatin-based film enriched with oregano orrosemary essential oils to prevent lipid oxidation in cold-smokedsardine during 20 d of storage at 5 °C. Coating the muscle withthe films enriched with both essential oils, particularly oreganooil, lowered the lipid oxidation rate (as measured by the peroxideand TBARS indices) of the muscle. Therefore, the edible filmswith the added plant extracts could lower lipid oxidation levels infood systems.


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ConclusionsIn summary, essential oils from different sources can be exploited

as the natural additives in foods. Essential oils with other bioac-tivities or functions from new sources should be further searched.New technology for lowering the unique and undesirable smellof essential oil, which can limit their use in foods, such as en-capsulation, and so on, must be implemented. As a consequence,essential oil can be widely used without any negative effect onsensory property of foods. The development of release system foressential oil from packaging or fuming system inside packagingshould be conducted to maximize the activity of active com-pounds in essential oils. Therefore, it can serve as the convenientpackaging, which effectively extends the shelf life of foods.

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