Essay's of Schoupner

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Project Gutenberg's The Essays Of Arthur Schopenhauer, by Arthur Schopenhauer

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Author Arthur Schopenhauer

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The foowing essays are drawn fro! the chapters entited Cur Ethikand Cur (echtsehre und Poitik which are to be found both inSchopenhauer's Parerga and in his posthu!ous writings# As in !ypre"ious "ou!es, so aso in this, 7 ha"e o!itted a few passages which

appeared to !e to be either antiDuated or no onger of any generainterest# :or con"enience' sake 7 ha"e di"ided the origina chaptersinto sections, which 7 ha"e had to na!e and 7 ha"e aso had to in"enta tite which shoud eFpress their rea scope# The reader wi findthat it is not so !uch Ethics and Poitics that are here treated,as hu!an nature itsef in "arious aspects#

T#B#S#

;<?A= =AT<(E#

Truths of the physica order !ay possess !uch eFterna significance,but interna significance they ha"e none# The atter is the pri"iegeof inteectua and !ora truths, which are concerned with theobjecti"ation of the wi in its highest stages, whereas physicatruths are concerned with it in its owest#

:or eFa!pe, if we coud estabish the truth of what up ti now isony a conjecture, na!ey, that it is the action of the sun whichproduces ther!oeectricity at the eDuator that this producesterrestria !agnetis! and that this !agnetis!, again, is the cause ofthe aurora boreais, these woud be truths eFternay of great, but

internay of itte, significance# On the other hand, eFa!pesof interna significance are furnished by a great and truephiosophica syste!s by the catastrophe of e"ery good tragedy nay,e"en by the obser"ation of hu!an conduct in the eFtre!e !anifestationsof its !oraity and i!!oraity, of its good and its e"i character#:or a these are eFpressions of that reaity which takes outwardshape as the word, and which, in the highest stages of itsobjecti"ation, procai!s its inner!ost nature#

To say that the word has ony a physica and not a !ora significanceis the greatest and !ost pernicious of a errors, the funda!entabunder, the rea per"ersity of !ind and te!per and, at botto!, itis doubtess the tendency which faith personifies as Anti%6hrist#

=e"ertheess, in spite of a reigions%%and they are syste!s whichone and a !aintain the opposite, and seek to estabish it in their!ythica way%%this funda!enta error ne"er beco!es Duite eFtinct, butraises its head fro! ti!e to ti!e afresh, unti uni"ersa indignationco!pes it to hide itsef once !ore#

$et, howe"er certain we !ay fee of the !ora significance of ifeand the word, to eFpain and iustrate it, and to reso"e thecontradiction between this significance and the word as it is, for!a task of great difficuty so great, indeed, as to !ake it possibethat it has re!ained for !e to eFhibit the true and ony genuine



and sound basis of !oraity e"erywhere and at a ti!es effecti"e,together with the resuts to which it eads# The actua facts of!oraity are too !uch on !y side for !e to fear that !y theory cane"er be repaced or upset by any other#

;owe"er, so ong as e"en !y ethica syste! continues to be ignored bythe professoria word, it is >ant's !ora principe that pre"ais inthe uni"ersities# A!ong its "arious for!s the one which is !ost in

fa"our at present is the dignity of !an# 7 ha"e aready eFposedthe absurdity of this doctrine in !y treatise on the :oundation of?oraity#0+5 Therefore 7 wi ony say here that if the Duestion wereasked on what the aeged dignity of !an rests, it woud not be ongbefore the answer was !ade that it rests upon his !oraity# 7n otherwords, his !oraity rests upon his dignity, and his dignity rests uponhis !oraity#

0:ootnote + #5�

But apart fro! this circuar argu!ent it see!s to !e that the idea ofdignity can be appied ony in an ironica sense to a being whose wiis so sinfu, whose inteect is so i!ited, whose body is so weak and

perishabe as !an's# ;ow sha a !an be proud, when his conceptionis a cri!e, his birth a penaty, his ife a abour, and death anecessityH%%

Iuid superbit ho!oJ cujus conceptio cupa, =asci poena, abor "ita, necesse !oriH

Therefore, in opposition to the abo"e%!entioned for! of the >antianprincipe, 7 shoud be incined to ay down the foowing rue henyou co!e into contact with a !an, no !atter who!, do not atte!pt anobjecti"e appreciation of hi! according to his worth and dignity# )onot consider his bad wi, or his narrow understanding and per"erseideas as the for!er !ay easiy ead you to hate and the atter to

despise hi! but fiF your attention ony upon his sufferings, hisneeds, his anFieties, his pains# Then you wi aways fee yourkinship with hi! you wi sy!pathise with hi! and instead of hatredor conte!pt you wi eFperience the co!!iseration that aone is thepeace to which the Gospe cas us# The way to keep down hatred andconte!pt is certainy not to ook for a !an's aeged dignity, but,on the contrary, to regard hi! as an object of pity#

The Buddhists, as the resut of the !ore profound "iews which theyentertain on ethica and !etaphysica subjects, start fro! thecardina "ices and not the cardina "irtues since the "irtues !aketheir appearance ony as the contraries or negations of the "ices#According to Sch!idt's ;istory of the Eastern ?ongoians the

cardina "ices in the Buddhist sche!e are four &ust, 7ndoence,Anger, and A"arice# But probaby instead of 7ndoence, we shoud readPride for so it stands in the &ettres difiantes et curieuses,0+5�where En"y, or ;atred, is added as a fifth# 7 a! confir!ed incorrecting the state!ent of the eFceent Sch!idt by the fact that !yrendering agrees with the doctrine of the Sufis, who are certainyunder the infuence of the Brah!ins and Buddhists# The Sufis aso!aintain that there are four cardina "ices, and they arrange the! in"ery striking pairs, so that &ust appears in connection with A"arice,and Anger with Pride# The four cardina "irtues opposed to the! woudbe 6hastity and Generosity, together with Genteness and ;u!iity#



0:ootnote + Edit, of ++4, "o# "i#, p# 32-#5

hen we co!pare these profound ideas of !oraity, as they areentertained by orienta nations, with the ceebrated cardina "irtuesof Pato, which ha"e been recapituated again and again%%*ustice,@aour, Te!perance, and isdo!%%it is pain that the atter are notbased on any cear, eading idea, but are chosen on grounds that are

superficia and, in part, ob"iousy fase# @irtues !ust be Duaitiesof the wi, but isdo! is chiefy an attribute of the 7nteect#0Greek Sophrosynae5, which 6icero transates Te!perantia, is a "eryindefinite and a!biguous word, and it ad!its, therefore, of a "arietyof appications it !ay !ean discretion, or abstinence, or keeping ae"e head# 6ourage is not a "irtue at a athough so!eti!es it is aser"ant or instru!ent of "irtue but it is just as ready to beco!ethe ser"ant of the greatest "iainy# 7t is reay a Duaity ofte!pera!ent# E"en GeuinF Kin the preface to this EthicsL conde!nedthe Patonic "irtues and put the foowing in their pace )iigence,Obedience, *ustice and ;u!iity which are ob"iousy bad# The 6hinesedistinguish fi"e cardina "irtues Sy!pathy, *ustice, Propriety,isdo!, and Sincerity# The "irtues of 6hristianity are theoogica,

not cardina :aith, &o"e, and ;ope#

:unda!enta disposition towards others, assu!ing the character eitherof En"y or of Sy!pathy, is the point at which the !ora "irtues and"ices of !ankind first di"erge# These two dia!etricay oppositeDuaities eFist in e"ery !an for they spring fro! the ine"itabeco!parison which he draws between his own ot and that of others#According as the resut of this co!parison affects his indi"iduacharacter does the one or the other of these Duaities beco!e thesource and principe of a his action# En"y buids the wa betweenThee and ?e thicker and stronger Sy!pathy !akes it sight andtransparent nay, so!eti!es it pus down the wa atogether andthen the distinction between sef and not%sef "anishes#

@aour, which has been !entioned as a "irtue, or rather the 6ourageon which it is based Kfor "aour is ony courage in warL, deser"es acoser eFa!ination# The ancients reckoned 6ourage a!ong the "irtues,and cowardice a!ong the "ices but there is no corresponding idea inthe 6hristian sche!e, which !akes for charity and patience, and in itsteaching forbids a en!ity or e"en resistance# The resut is thatwith the !oderns 6ourage is no onger a "irtue# =e"ertheess it !ustbe ad!itted that cowardice does not see! to be "ery co!patibe withany nobiity of character%%if ony for the reason that it betrays ano"ergreat apprehension about one's own person#

6ourage, howe"er, !ay aso be eFpained as a readiness to !eet is

that threaten at the !o!ent, in order to a"oid greater is thatie in the future whereas cowardice does the contrary# But thisreadiness is of the sa!e Duaity as patience, for patience consistsin the cear consciousness that greater e"is than those which arepresent, and that any "ioent atte!pt to fee fro! or guard againstthe is we ha"e !ay bring the others upon us# 6ourage, then, woudbe a kind of patience and since it is patience that enabes us topractise forbearance and sef contro, 6ourage is, through the !ediu!of patience, at east akin to "irtue#

But perhaps 6ourage ad!its of being considered fro! a higher point of



"iew# The fear of death !ay in e"ery case be traced to a deficiencyin that natura phiosophy%%natura, and therefore resting on !erefeeing%%which gi"es a !an the assurance that he eFists in e"erythingoutside hi! just as !uch as in his own person so that the death ofhis person can do hi! itte har!# But it is just this "ery assurancethat woud gi"e a !an heroic 6ourage and therefore, as the readerwi recoect fro! !y Ethics, 6ourage co!es fro! the sa!e source asthe "irtues of *ustice and ;u!anity# This is, 7 ad!it, to take a "ery

high "iew of the !atter but apart fro! it 7 cannot we eFpain whycowardice see!s conte!ptibe, and persona courage a nobe and subi!ething for no ower point of "iew enabes !e to see why a finiteindi"idua who is e"erything to hi!sef%%nay, who is hi!sef e"enthe "ery funda!enta condition of the eFistence of the rest of theword%%shoud not put his own preser"ation abo"e e"ery other ai!# 7tis, then, an insufficient eFpanation of 6ourage to !ake it restony on utiity, to gi"e it an e!pirica and not a transcendentacharacter# 7t !ay ha"e been for so!e such reason that 6aderon onceuttered a sceptica but re!arkabe opinion in regard to 6ourage, nay,actuay denied its reaity and put his denia into the !outh of awise od !inister, addressing his young so"ereign# Athough, heobser"ed, natura fear is operati"e in a aike, a !an !ay be bra"e

in not etting it be seen and it is this that constitutes 6ourage

Iue aunDue e natura te!or En todos obra igua!ente, =o !ostrare es ser "aiente $ esto es o Due hace e "aor#0+5

0:ootnote + &a ;ija de Aire, ii#, -#5

7n regard to the difference which 7 ha"e !entioned between theancients and the !oderns in their esti!ate of 6ourage as a "irtue,it !ust be re!e!bered that by @irtue, "irtus, 0Greek aretae5, theancients understood e"ery eFceence or Duaity that was praiseworthy

in itsef, it !ight be !ora or inteectua, or possiby onyphysica# But when 6hristianity de!onstrated that the funda!entatendency of ife was !ora, it was !ora superiority aone thanhenceforth attached to the notion of @irtue# ?eanwhie the earierusage sti sur"i"ed in the eder &atinists, and aso in 7taianwriters, as is pro"ed by the we%known !eaning of the word"irtuoso# The specia attention of students shoud be drawn to thiswider range of the idea of @irtue a!ongst the ancients, as otherwiseit !ight easiy be a source of secret perpeFity# 7 !ay reco!!end twopassages preser"ed for us by Stobaeus, which wi ser"e this purpose#One of the! is apparenty fro! the Pythagorean phiosopher ?etopos, inwhich the fitness of e"ery bodiy !e!ber is decared to be a "irtue#The other pronounces that the "irtue of a shoe!aker is to !ake good

shoes# This !ay aso ser"e to eFpain why it is that in the ancientsche!e of ethics "irtues and "ices are !entioned which find no pacein ours#

As the pace of 6ourage a!ongst the "irtues is a !atter of doubt,so is that of A"arice a!ongst the "ices# 7t !ust not, howe"er, beconfounded with greed, which is the !ost i!!ediate !eaning of the&atin word a"aritia# &et us then draw up and eFa!ine the argu!entspro et contra in regard to A"arice, and ea"e the fina judg!ent tobe for!ed by e"ery !an for hi!sef#



On the one hand it is argued that it is not A"arice which is a "ice,but eFtra"agance, its opposite# EFtra"agance springs fro! a brutishi!itation to the present !o!ent, in co!parison with which the future,eFisting as it does ony in thought, is as nothing# 7t rests upon theiusion that sensua peasures possess a positi"e or rea "aue#Accordingy, future need and !isery is the price at which thespendthrift purchases peasures that are e!pty, feeting, and often no!ore than i!aginary or ese feeds his "ain, stupid sef%conceit on

the bows and scrapes of parasites who augh at hi! in secret, or onthe gaMe of the !ob and those who en"y his !agnificence# e shoud,therefore, shun the spendthrift as though he had the pague, and ondisco"ering his "ice break with hi! beti!es, in order that ater on,when the conseDuences of his eFtra"agance ensue, we !ay neither ha"eto hep to bear the!, nor, on the other hand, ha"e to pay the part ofthe friends of Ti!on of Athens#

At the sa!e ti!e it is not to be eFpected that he who fooishysDuanders his own fortune wi ea"e another !an's intact, if itshoud chance to be co!!itted to his keeping nay, sui profusus andaieni appetens are by Saust "ery righty conjoined# ;ence it isthat eFtra"agance eads not ony to i!po"erish!ent but aso to cri!e

and cri!e a!ongst the !oneyed casses is a!ost aways the resut ofeFtra"agance# 7t is accordingy with justice that the >oran decaresa spendthrifts to be brothers of Satan#

But it is superfuity that A"arice brings in its train, and when wassuperfuity e"er unweco!eJ That !ust be a good "ice which has goodconseDuences# A"arice proceeds upon the principe that a peasure isony negati"e in its operation and that the happiness which consistsof a series of peasures is a chi!aera that, on the contrary, itis pains which are positi"e and eFtre!ey rea# Accordingy, thea"aricious !an foregoes the for!er in order that he !ay be thebetter preser"ed fro! the atter, and thus it is that bear andforbear%%sustine et abstine%%is his !aFi!# And because he knows,

further, how ineFhaustibe are the possibiities of !isfortune,and how innu!erabe the paths of danger, he increases the !eans ofa"oiding the!, in order, if possibe, to surround hi!sef with atripe wa of protection# ho, then, can say where precaution againstdisaster begins to be eFaggeratedJ ;e aone who knows where the!aignity of fate reaches its i!it# And e"en if precaution wereeFaggerated it is an error which at the !ost woud hurt the !an whotook it, and not others# 7f he wi ne"er need the treasures which heays up for hi!sef, they wi one day benefit others who! naturehas !ade ess carefu# That unti then he withdraws the !oneyfro! circuation is no !isfortune for !oney is not an artice ofconsu!ption it ony represents the good things which a !an !ayactuay possess, and is not one itsef# 6oins are ony counters

their "aue is what they represent and what they represent cannot bewithdrawn fro! circuation# ?oreo"er, by hoding back the !oney,the "aue of the re!ainder which is in circuation is enhanced byprecisey the sa!e a!ount# E"en though it be the case, as is said,that !any a !iser co!es in the end to o"e !oney itsef for its ownsake, it is eDuay certain that !any a spendthrift, on the otherhand, o"es spending and sDuandering for no better reason# :riendshipwith a !iser is not ony without danger, but it is profitabe, becauseof the great ad"antages it can bring# :or it is doubtess those whoare nearest and dearest to the !iser who on his death wi reapthe fruits of the sef%contro which he eFercised but e"en in his



ifeti!e, too, so!ething !ay be eFpected of hi! in cases of greatneed# At any rate one can aways hope for !ore fro! hi! than fro! thespendthrift, who has ost his a and is hi!sef hepess and in debt#?as da e duro Due e desnudo, says a Spanish pro"erb the !an whohas a hard heart wi gi"e !ore than the !an who has an e!pty purse#The upshot of a this is that A"arice is not a "ice#

On the other side, it !ay be said that A"arice is the Duintessence of

a "ices# hen physica peasures seduce a !an fro! the right path,it is his sensua nature%%the ani!a part of hi!%%which is at faut#;e is carried away by its attractions, and, o"erco!e by the i!pressionof the !o!ent, he acts without thinking of the conseDuences# hen,on the other hand, he is brought by age or bodiy weakness to thecondition in which the "ices that he coud ne"er abandon end byabandoning hi!, and his capacity for physica peasure dies%%if heturns to A"arice, the inteectua desire sur"i"es the sensua# ?oney,which represents a the good things of this word, and is these goodthings in the abstract, now beco!es the dry trunk o"ergrown with athe dead usts of the fesh, which are egois! in the abstract# Theyco!e to ife again in the o"e of the ?a!!on# The transient peasureof the senses has beco!e a deiberate and cacuated ust of !oney,

which, ike that to which it is directed, is sy!boica in its nature,and, ike it, indestructibe#

This obstinate o"e of the peasures of the word%%a o"e which, as itwere, outi"es itsef this uttery incorrigibe sin, this refinedand subi!ated desire of the fesh, is the abstract for! in which austs are concentrated, and to which it stands ike a genera idea toindi"idua particuars# Accordingy, A"arice is the "ice of age, justas eFtra"agance is the "ice of youth#

This disputatio in utra!Due parte!%%this debate for and against%%iscertainy cacuated to dri"e us into accepting the juste !iieu!oraity of Aristote a concusion that is aso supported by the

foowing consideration#

E"ery hu!an perfection is aied to a defect into which it threatensto pass but it is aso true that e"ery defect is aied to aperfection# ;ence it is that if, as often happens, we !ake a !istakeabout a !an, it is because at the beginning of our acDuaintance withhi! we confound his defects with the kinds of perfection to which theyare aied# The cautious !an see!s to us a coward the econo!ica !an,a !iser the spendthrift see!s ibera the rude feow, downright andsincere the foohardy person ooks as if he were going to work with anobe sef%confidence and so on in !any other cases#

9 9 9 9 9

=o one can i"e a!ong !en without feeing drawn again and again to thete!pting supposition that !ora baseness and inteectua incapacityare cosey connected, as though they both sprang direct fro! onesource# That that, howe"er, is not so, 7 ha"e shown in detai#0+5 Thatit see!s to be so is !erey due to the fact that both are so oftenfound together and the circu!stance is to be eFpained by the "eryfreDuent occurrence of each of the!, so that it !ay easiy happen forboth to be co!peed to i"e under one roof# At the sa!e ti!e it isnot to be denied that they pay into each other's hands to their!utua benefit and it is this that produces the "ery unedifying



spectace which ony too !any !en eFhibit, and that !akes the word togo as it goes# A !an who is uninteigent is "ery ikey to show hisperfidy, "iainy and !aice whereas a ce"er !an understands howto concea these Duaities# And how often, on the other hand, doesa per"ersity of heart pre"ent a !an fro! seeing truths which hisinteigence is Duite capabe of graspingH

0:ootnote + 7n !y chief work, "o# ii#, ch# FiF,5

=e"ertheess, et no one boast# *ust as e"ery !an, though he be thegreatest genius, has "ery definite i!itations in so!e one sphere ofknowedge, and thus attests his co!!on origin with the essentiayper"erse and stupid !ass of !ankind, so aso has e"ery !an so!ethingin his nature which is positi"ey e"i# E"en the best, nay thenobest, character wi so!eti!es surprise us by isoated traits ofdepra"ity as though it were to acknowedge his kinship with the hu!anrace, in which "iainy%%nay, cruety%%is to be found in that degree#:or it was just in "irtue of this e"i in hi!, this bad principe,that of necessity he beca!e a !an# And for the sa!e reason the wordin genera is what !y cear !irror of it has shown it to be#

But in spite of a this the difference e"en between one !an andanother is incacuaby great, and !any a one woud be horrified tosee another as he reay is# Oh, for so!e As!odeus of !oraity, to!ake not ony roofs and was transparent to his fa"ourites, butaso to ift the "ei of dissi!uation, fraud, hypocrisy, pretence,fasehood and deception, which is spread o"er a thingsH to show howitte true honesty there is in the word, and how often, e"en whereit is east to be eFpected, behind a the eFterior outwork of "irtue,secrety and in the inner!ost recesses, unrighteousness sits at thehe!H 7t is just on this account that so !any !en of the better kindha"e four%footed friends for, to be sure, how is a !an to get reieffro! the endess dissi!uation, fasity and !aice of !ankind, ifthere were no dogs into whose honest faces he can ook without

distrustJ

:or what is our ci"iised word but a big !asDueradeJ where you !eetknights, priests, sodiers, !en of earning, barristers, cergy!en,phiosophers, and 7 don't know what aH But they are not what theypretend to be they are ony !asks, and, as a rue, behind the !asksyou wi find !oney!akers# One !an, 7 suppose, puts on the !ask ofaw, which he has borrowed for the purpose fro! a barrister, ony inorder to be abe to gi"e another !an a sound drubbing a second haschosen the !ask of patriotis! and the pubic wefare with a si!iarintent a third takes reigion or purity of doctrine# :or a sortsof purposes !en ha"e often put on the !ask of phiosophy, and e"enof phianthropy, and 7 know not what besides# o!en ha"e a s!aer

choice# As a rue they a"ai the!se"es of the !ask of !oraity,!odesty, do!esticity, and hu!iity# Then there are genera !asks,without any particuar character attaching to the! ike do!inoes# They!ay be !et with e"erywhere and of this sort is the strict rectitude,the courtesy, the sincere sy!pathy, the s!iing friendship, thatpeope profess# The whoe of these !asks as a rue are !erey, as 7ha"e said, a disguise for so!e industry, co!!erce, or specuation# 7tis !erchants aone who in this respect constitute any honest cass#They are the ony peope who gi"e the!se"es out to be what they areand therefore they go about without any !ask at a, and conseDuentytake a hu!be rank#



7t is "ery necessary that a !an shoud be apprised eary in ife thatit is a !asDuerade in which he finds hi!sef# :or otherwise there are!any things which he wi fai to understand and put up with, nay, atwhich he wi be co!petey puMMed, and that !an ongest of a whoseheart is !ade of better cay%%

Et !eiore uto finFit praecordia Titan#0+5

0:ootnote + *u"ena, Sat# +/, 3/5

Such for instance is the fa"our that "iainy finds the negect that!erit, e"en the rarest and the greatest, suffers at the hands of thoseof the sa!e profession the hatred of truth and great capacity theignorance of schoars in their own pro"ince and the fact that truewares are a!ost aways despised and the !erey specious ones inreDuest# Therefore et e"en the young be instructed beti!es that inthis !asDuerade the appes are of waF, the fowers of sik, the fishof pasteboard, and that a things%%yes, a things%%are toys andtrifes and that of two !en who! he !ay see earnesty engaged inbusiness, one is suppying spurious goods and the other paying for

the! in fase coin#

But there are !ore serious refections to be !ade, and worse things tobe recorded# ?an is at botto! a sa"age, horribe beast# e know it,if ony in the business of ta!ing and restraining hi! which we caci"iisation# ;ence it is that we are terrified if now and then hisnature breaks out# here"er and whene"er the ocks and chains of awand order fa off and gi"e pace to anarchy, he shows hi!sef forwhat he is# But it is unnecessary to wait for anarchy in order to gainenighten!ent on this subject# A hundred records, od and new, producethe con"iction that in his unreenting cruety !an is in no wayinferior to the tiger and the hyaena# A forcibe eFa!pe is suppiedby a pubication of the year +/+ entited Sa"ery and the 7nterna

Sa"e Trade in the <nited States of =orth A!erica being repies toDuestions trans!itted by the British Anti%sa"ery Society to theA!erican Anti%sa"ery Society#0+5 This book constitutes one of thehea"iest indict!ents against the hu!an race# =o one can put it downwith a feeing of horror, and few without tears# :or whate"er thereader !ay ha"e e"er heard, or i!agined, or drea!t, of the unhappycondition of sa"ery, or indeed of hu!an cruety in genera, it wisee! s!a to hi! when he reads of the way in which those de"isin hu!an for!, those bigoted, church%going, stricty Sabbatarianrascas%%and in particuar the Angican priests a!ong the!%%treatedtheir innocent back brothers, who by wrong and "ioence had got intotheir diaboica cutches#

0:ootnote + Transator's '=ote#%%7f Schopenhauer were writingto%day, he woud with eDua truth point to the !iseries of the Africantrade# 7 ha"e sighty abridged this passage, as so!e of the e"isagainst which he protested no onger eFist#5

Other eFa!pes are furnished by Tshudi's Tra"es in Peru, in thedescription which he gi"es of the treat!ent of the Peru"ian sodiersat the hands of their officers and by ?aceod's Tra"es in EasternAfrica, where the author tes of the cod%booded and truy de"iishcruety with which the Portuguese in ?oMa!biDue treat their sa"es#But we need not go for eFa!pes to the =ew ord, that ob"erse side of



our panet# 7n the year +/ it was brought to ife that in Engand,not in one, but apparenty in a hundred cases within a brief period, ahusband had poisoned his wife or "ice "ers , or both had joined in�poisoning their chidren, or in torturing the! sowy to death bystar"ing and i%treating the!, with no other object than to get the!oney for burying the! which they had insured in the Buria 6ubsagainst their death# :or this purpose a chid was often insured inse"era, e"en in as !any as twenty cubs at once#0+5

0:ootnote + 6f# The Ti!es, -.th, --nd and -3rd Sept#, +/, andaso +-th )ec#, +83#5

)etais of this character beong, indeed, to the backest pages in thecri!ina records of hu!anity# But, when a is said, it is theinward and innate character of !an, this god par eFceence of thePantheists, fro! which they and e"erything ike the! proceed# 7n e"ery!an there dwes, first and fore!ost, a coossa egois!, which breaksthe bounds of right and justice with the greatest freedo!, as e"erydayife shows on a s!a scae, and as history on e"ery page of it on aarge# )oes not the recognised need of a baance of power in Europe,with the anFious way in which it is preser"ed, de!onstrate that !an

is a beast of prey, who no sooner sees a weaker !an near hi! than hefas upon hi! without faiJ and does not the sa!e hod good of theaffairs of ordinary ifeJ

But to the boundess egois! of our nature there is joined !ore oress in e"ery hu!an breast a fund of hatred, anger, en"y, rancour and!aice, accu!uated ike the "eno! in a serpent's tooth, and waitingony for an opportunity of "enting itsef, and then, ike a de!onunchained, of stor!ing and raging# 7f a !an has no great occasion forbreaking out, he wi end by taking ad"antage of the s!aest, and byworking it up into so!ething great by the aid of his i!agination for,howe"er s!a it !ay be, it is enough to rouse his anger%%

IuantuacunDue adeo est occasio, sufficit irae0+5%%

0:ootnote + *u"ena, Sat# +3, +3#5

and then he wi carry it as far as he can and !ay# e see this indaiy ife, where such outbursts are we known under the na!e of"enting one's ga on so!ething# 7t wi aso ha"e been obser"edthat if such outbursts !eet with no opposition the subject of the!fees decidedy the better for the! afterwards# That anger isnot without its peasure is a truth that was recorded e"en byAristote0+5 and he Duotes a passage fro! ;o!er, who decares angerto be sweeter than honey# But not in anger aone%%in hatred too, whichstands to anger ike a chronic to an acute disease, a !an !ay induge

with the greatest deight

0:ootnote + (het#, i#, ++ ii#, -#5

=ow hatred is by far the ongest peasure, ?en o"e in haste, but they detest at eisure0+5

0:ootnote + Byron )on *uan, c# Fiii, N#5

Gobineau in his work &es (aces ;u!aines has caed !an 'ani!a! chant par eFceence# Peope take this "ery i, because they fee�



that it hits the! but he is Duite right, for !an is the ony ani!awhich causes pain to others without any further purpose than just tocause it# Other ani!as ne"er do it eFcept to satisfy their hunger, orin the rage of co!bat# 7f it is said against the tiger that he kis!ore than eats, he stranges his prey ony for the purpose of eatingit and if he cannot eat it, the ony eFpanation is, as the :renchphrase has it, that ses yeuF sont pus grands Due son esto!ac# =oani!a e"er tor!ents another for the !ere purpose of tor!enting, but

!an does it, and it is this that constitutes the diaboica feature inhis character which is so !uch worse than the !erey ani!a# 7 ha"eaready spoken of the !atter in its broad aspect but it is !anifeste"en in s!a things, and e"ery reader has a daiy opportunityof obser"ing it# :or instance, if two itte dogs are payingtogether%%and what a genia and char!ing sight it is%%and a chid ofthree or four years joins the!, it is a!ost ine"itabe for it tobegin hitting the! with a whip or stick, and thereby show itsef, e"enat that age, 'ani!a ! chant par eFceence# The o"e of teasing�and paying tricks, which is co!!on enough, !ay be traced to the sa!esource# :or instance, if a !an has eFpressed his annoyance at anyinterruption or other petty incon"enience, there wi be no ack ofpeope who for that "ery reason wi bring it about ani!a ! chant�

par eFceenceH This is so certain that a !an shoud be carefu notto eFpress any annoyance at s!a e"is# On the other hand he shoudaso be carefu not to eFpress his peasure at any trife, for, ifhe does so, !en wi act ike the jaier who, when he found that hisprisoner had perfor!ed the aborious task of ta!ing a spider, and tooka peasure in watching it, i!!ediatey crushed it under his foot'ani!a ! chant par eFceenceH This is why a ani!as are�instincti"ey afraid of the sight, or e"en of the track of a !an, thatani!a ! chant par eFceenceH nor does their instinct the! fase�for it is !an aone who hunts ga!e for which he has no use and whichdoes hi! no har!#

7t is a fact, then, that in the heart of e"ery !an there ies a wid

beast which ony waits for an opportunity to stor! and rage, in itsdesire to infict pain on others, or, if they stand in his way, toki the!# 7t is this which is the source of a the ust of war andbatte# 7n trying to ta!e and to so!e eFtent hod it in check, theinteigence, its appointed keeper, has aways enough to do# Peope!ay, if they pease, ca it the radica e"i of hu!an nature%%ana!e which wi at east ser"e those with who! a word stands for aneFpanation# 7 say, howe"er, that it is the wi to i"e, which, !oreand !ore e!bittered by the constant sufferings of eFistence, seeks toae"iate its own tor!ent by causing tor!ent in others# But in thisway a !an graduay de"eops in hi!sef rea cruety and !aice# Theobser"ation !ay aso be added that as, according to >ant, !attersubsists ony through the antagonis! of the powers of eFpansion and

contraction, so hu!an society subsists ony by the antagonis! ofhatred, or anger, and fear# :or there is a !o!ent in the ife ofa of us when the !aignity of our nature !ight perhaps !ake us!urderers, if it were not acco!panied by a due ad!iFture of fear tokeep it within bounds and this fear, again, woud !ake a !an thesport and aughing stock of e"ery boy, if anger were not ying readyin hi!, and keeping watch#

But it is Schadenfreude, a !ischie"ous deight in the !isfortunes ofothers, which re!ains the worst trait in hu!an nature# 7t is a feeingwhich is cosey akin to cruety, and differs fro! it, to say the



truth, ony as theory fro! practice# 7n genera, it !ay be said of itthat it takes the pace which pity ought to take%%pity which is itsopposite, and the true source of a rea justice and charity#

En"y is aso opposed to pity, but in another sense en"y, that isto say, is produced by a cause directy antagonistic to that whichproduces the deight in !ischief# The opposition between pity and en"yon the one hand, and pity and the deight in !ischief on the other,

rests, in the !ain, on the occasions which ca the! forth# 7n thecase of en"y it is ony as a direct effect of the cause which eFcitesit that we fee it at a# That is just the reason why en"y, athoughit is a reprehensibe feeing, sti ad!its of so!e eFcuse, and is,in genera, a "ery hu!an Duaity whereas the deight in !ischief isdiaboica, and its taunts are the aughter of he#

The deight in !ischief, as 7 ha"e said, takes the pace which pityought to take# En"y, on the contrary, finds a pace ony where thereis no induce!ent to pity, or rather an induce!ent to its opposite andit is just as this opposite that en"y arises in the hu!an breast andso far, therefore, it !ay sti be reckoned a hu!an senti!ent# =ay, 7a! afraid that no one wi be found to be entirey free fro! it# :or

that a !an shoud fee his own ack of things !ore bittery at thesight of another's deight in the enjoy!ent of the!, is natura nay,it is ine"itabe but this shoud not rouse his hatred of the !an whois happier than hi!sef# 7t is just this hatred, howe"er, in whichtrue en"y consists# &east of a shoud a !an be en"ious, when it is aDuestion, not of the gifts of fortune, or chance, or another's fa"our,but of the gifts of nature because e"erything that is innate in a !anrests on a !etaphysica basis, and possesses justification of a higherkind it is, so to speak, gi"en hi! by )i"ine grace# But, unhappiy,it is just in the case of persona ad"antages that en"y is !ostirreconciabe# Thus it is that inteigence, or e"en genius, cannotget on in the word without begging pardon for its eFistence, where"erit is not in a position to be abe, proudy and body, to despise the

word#

7n other words, if en"y is aroused ony by weath, rank, or power,it is often kept down by egois!, which percei"es that, on occasion,assistance, enjoy!ent, support, protection, ad"ance!ent, and soon, !ay be hoped for fro! the object of en"y or that at east byintercourse with hi! a !an !ay hi!sef win honour fro! the refectedight of his superiority and here, too, there is the hope of one dayattaining a those ad"antages hi!sef# On the other hand, in the en"ythat is directed to natura gifts and persona ad"antages, ike beautyin wo!en, or inteigence in !en, there is no consoation or hope ofone kind or the other so that nothing re!ains but to induge abitter and irreconciabe hatred of the person who possesses these

pri"ieges and hence the ony re!aining desire is to take "engeanceon hi!#

But here the en"ious !an finds hi!sef in an unfortunate position fora his bows fa poweress as soon as it is known that they co!efro! hi!# Accordingy he hides his feeings as carefuy as if theywere secret sins, and so beco!es an ineFhaustibe in"entor of tricksand artifices and de"ices for conceaing and !asking his procedure,in order that, unpercei"ed, he !ay wound the object of his en"y# :orinstance, with an air of the ut!ost unconcern he wi ignore thead"antages which are eating his heart out he wi neither see the!,



nor know the!, nor ha"e obser"ed or e"en heard of the!, and thus !akehi!sef a !aster in the art of dissi!uation# ith great cunning hewi co!petey o"erook the !an whose briiant Duaities are gnawingat his heart, and act as though he were Duite an uni!portant personhe wi take no notice of hi!, and, on occasion, wi ha"e e"en Duiteforgotten his eFistence# But at the sa!e ti!e he wi before athings endea"our by secret !achination carefuy to depri"e thosead"antages of any opportunity of showing the!se"es and beco!ing

known# Then out of his dark corner he wi attack these Duaities withcensure, !ockery, ridicue and cau!ny, ike the toad which spurtsits poison fro! a hoe# =o ess wi he enthusiasticay praiseuni!portant peope, or e"en indifferent or bad perfor!ances in thesa!e sphere# 7n short, he wi beco!es a Proteas in stratage!, inorder to wound others without showing hi!sef# But what is the useof itJ The trained eye recognises hi! in spite of it a# ;e betrayshi!sef, if by nothing ese, by the way in which he ti!idy a"oidsand fies fro! the object of his en"y, who stands the !ore co!peteyaone, the !ore briiant he is and this is the reason why prettygirs ha"e no friends of their own seF# ;e betrays hi!sef, too, bythe causeess hatred which he shows%%a hatred which finds "ent in a"ioent eFposion at any circu!stance howe"er tri"ia, though it is

often ony the product of his i!agination# ;ow !any such !en there arein the word !ay be recognised by the uni"ersa praise of !odesty,that is, of a "irtue in"ented on behaf of du and co!!onpacepeope# =e"ertheess, it is a "irtue which, by eFhibiting thenecessity for deaing consideratey with the wretched pight of thesepeope, is just what cas attention to it#

:or our sef%consciousness and our pride there can be nothing !orefattering than the sight of en"y urking in its retreat and pottingits sche!es but ne"er et a !an forget that where there is en"y thereis hatred, and et hi! be carefu not to !ake a fase friend out ofany en"ious person# Therefore it is i!portant to our safety to ayen"y bare and a !an shoud study to disco"er its tricks, as it is

e"erywhere to be found and aways goes about incognito or as 7ha"e said, ike a "eno!ous toad it urks in dark corners# 7t deser"esneither Duarter nor sy!pathy but as we can ne"er reconcie it et ourrue of conduct be to scorn it with a good heart, and as our happinessand gory is torture to it we !ay rejoice in its sufferings

)en =eid wirst ni!!er du "ers hnen� So !agst du ihn getrost "erh hnen#� )ein G ck, dein (uh! ist ih! ein &eiden� ?agst dru! an seiner Iuaa dich weiden#

e ha"e been taking a ook at the depra"ity of !an, and it is asight which !ay we fi us with horror# But now we !ust cast our

eyes on the !isery of his eFistence and when we ha"e done so, andare horrified by that too, we !ust ook back again at his depra"ity#e sha then find that they hod the baance to each other# e shapercei"e the eterna justice of things for we sha recognise thatthe word is itsef the &ast *udg!ent on it, and we sha begin tounderstand why it is that e"erything that i"es !ust pay the penatyof its eFistence, first in i"ing and then in dying# Thus the e"iof the penaty accords with the e"i of the sin%%!au! poenae with!au! cupae# :ro! the sa!e point of "iew we ose our indignation atthat inteectua incapacity of the great !ajority of !ankind which inife so often disgusts us# 7n this Sansara, as the Buddhists ca



it, hu!an !isery, hu!an depra"ity and hu!an foy correspond with oneanother perfecty, and they are of ike !agnitude# But if, on so!especia induce!ent, we direct our gaMe to one of the!, and sur"ey itin particuar, it see!s to eFceed the other two# This, howe"er, is aniusion, and !erey the effect of their coossa range#

A things procai! this Sansara !ore than a ese, the word of!ankind in which, fro! a !ora point of "iew, "iainy and baseness,

and fro! an inteectua point of "iew, incapacity and stupidity,pre"ai to a horrifying eFtent# =e"ertheess, there appear init, athough "ery spas!odicay, and aways as a fresh surprise,!anifestations of honesty, of goodness, nay, e"en of nobiity andaso of great inteigence, of the thinking !ind of genius# They ne"erDuite "anish, but ike singe points of ight gea! upon us out of thegreat dark !ass# e !ust accept the! as a pedge that this Sansaracontains a good and redee!ing principe, which is capabe of breakingthrough and of fiing and freeing the whoe of it#

9 9 9 9 9

The readers of !y Ethics know that with !e the uti!ate foundation

of !oraity is the truth which in the @edas and the @edantarecei"es its eFpression in the estabished, !ystica for!ua, Tattwa! asi KThis is thysefL, which is spoken with reference to e"eryi"ing thing, be it !an or beast, and is caed the ?aha"akya, thegreat word#

Actions which proceed in accordance with this principe, such as thoseof the phianthropist, !ay indeed be regarded as the beginning of!ysticis!# E"ery benefit rendered with a pure intention procai!s thatthe !an who eFercises it acts in direct confict with the word ofappearance for he recognises hi!sef as identica with anotherindi"idua, who eFists in co!pete separation fro! hi!# Accordingy,a disinterested kindness is ineFpicabe it is a !ystery and hence

in order to eFpain it a !an has to resort to a sorts of fictions#hen >ant had de!oished a other argu!ents for theis!, he ad!ittedone ony, that it ga"e the best interpretation and soution of such!ysterious actions, and of a others ike the!# ;e therefore aowedit to stand as a presu!ption unsusceptibe indeed of theoreticaproof, but "aid fro! a practica point of "iew# 7 !ay, howe"er,eFpress !y doubts whether he was Duite serious about it# :or to !ake!oraity rest on theis! is reay to reduce !oraity to egois!athough the Engish, it is true, as aso the owest casses ofsociety with us, do not percei"e the possibiity of any otherfoundation for it#

The abo"e%!entioned recognition of a !an's own true being in

another indi"idua objecti"ey presented to hi!, is eFhibited in aparticuary beautifu and cear way in the cases in which a !an,aready destined to death beyond any hope of rescue, gi"es hi!sef upto the wefare of others with great soicitude and Mea, and tries tosa"e the!# Of this kind is the we%known story of a ser"ant who wasbitten in a courtyard at night by a !ad dog# 7n the beief that shewas beyond hope, she seiMed the dog and dragged it into a stabe,which she then ocked, so that no one ese !ight be bitten# Then againthere is the incident in =apes, which Tischbein has i!!ortaised inone of his aDuarees# A son, feeing fro! the a"a which is rapidystrea!ing toward the sea, is carrying his aged father on his back#



hen there is ony a narrow strip of and eft between the de"ouringee!ents, the father bids the son put hi! down, so that the son !aysa"e hi!sef by fight, as otherwise both wi be ost# The son obeys,and as he goes casts a gance of farewe on his father# This is the!o!ent depicted# The historica circu!stance which Scott representsin his !astery way in The ;eart of ?idothian, chap, ii#, is of aprecisey si!iar kind where, of two deinDuents conde!ned to death,the one who by his awkwardness caused the capture of the other happiy

sets hi! free in the chape by o"erpowering the guard after theeFecution%ser!on, without at the sa!e ti!e !aking any atte!pt on hisown behaf# =ay, in the sa!e category !ust aso be paced the scenewhich is represented in a co!!on engra"ing, which !ay perhaps beobjectionabe to western readers%%7 !ean the one in which a sodier,kneeing to be shot, is trying by wa"ing a coth to frighten away hisdog who wants to co!e to hi!#

7n a these cases we see an indi"idua in the face of his owni!!ediate and certain destruction no onger thinking of sa"inghi!sef, so that he !ay direct the whoe of his efforts to sa"ing so!eone ese# ;ow coud there be a cearer eFpression of the consciousnessthat what is being destroyed is ony a pheno!enon, and that the

destruction itsef is ony a pheno!enon that, on the other hand, therea being of the !an who !eets his death is untouched by that e"ent,and i"es on in the other !an, in who! e"en now, as his actionbetrays, he so ceary percei"es it to eFistJ :or if this were not so,and it was his rea being which was about to be annihiated, how coudthat being spend its ast efforts in showing such an ardent sy!pathyin the wefare and continued eFistence of anotherJ

There are two different ways in which a !an !ay beco!e consciousof his own eFistence# On the one hand, he !ay ha"e an e!piricaperception of it, as it !anifests itsef eFternay%%so!ething sos!a that it approaches "anishing point set in a word which, asregards ti!e and space, is infinite one ony of the thousand !iions

of hu!an creatures who run about on this panet for a "ery briefperiod and are renewed e"ery thirty years# On the other hand, by goingdown into the depths of his own nature, a !an !ay beco!e consciousthat he is a in a that, in fact, he is the ony rea being andthat, in addition, this rea being percei"es itsef again in others,who present the!se"es fro! without, as though they for!ed a !irror ofhi!sef#

Of these two ways in which a !an !ay co!e to know what he is, thefirst grasps the pheno!enon aone, the !ere product of the principeof indi"iduation whereas the second !akes a !an i!!ediateyconscious that he is the thing%in%itsef# This is a doctrine inwhich, as regards the first way, 7 ha"e >ant, and as regards both, 7

ha"e the @edas, to support !e#

There is, it is true, a si!pe objection to the second !ethod# 7t !aybe said to assu!e that one and the sa!e being can eFist in differentpaces at the sa!e ti!e, and yet be co!pete in each of the!#Athough, fro! an e!pirica point of "iew, this is the !ost papabei!possibiity%%nay, absurdity%%it is ne"ertheess perfecty trueof the thing%in%itsef# The i!possibiity and the absurdity of it,e!piricay, are ony due to the for!s which pheno!ena assu!e,in accordance with the principe of indi"iduation# :or thething%in%itsef, the wi to i"e, eFists whoe and undi"ided in e"ery



being, e"en in the s!aest, as co!petey as in the su!%tota of athings that e"er were or are or wi be# This is why e"ery being, e"enthe s!aest, says to itsef, So ong as 7 a! safe, et the wordperish%%du! ego sa"us si!, pereat !undus# And, in truth, e"en ifony one indi"idua were eft in the word, and a the rest were toperish, the one that re!ained woud sti possess the whoe sef%beingof the word, uninjured and undi!inished, and woud augh at thedestruction of the word as an iusion# This concusion per

i!possibe !ay be baanced by the counter%concusion, which is on afours with it, that if that ast indi"idua were to be annihiated inand with hi! the whoe word woud be destroyed# 7t was in this sensethat the !ystic Angeas Siesius0+5 decared that God coud not i"efor a !o!ent without hi!, and that if he were to be annihiated God!ust of necessity gi"e up the ghost

7ch weiss dass ohne !ich Gott nicht ein =u kann eben erd' ich Municht, er !uss "on =oth den Geist aufgeben#

0:ootnote + Transator's =ote#%%Angeus Siesius, see 6ounses and?aFi!s, p# 34, note#5

But the e!pirica point of "iew aso to so!e eFtent enabes us topercei"e that it is true, or at east possibe, that our sef caneFist in other beings whose consciousness is separated and differentfro! our own# That this is so is shown by the eFperience ofso!na!buists# Athough the identity of their ego is preser"edthroughout, they know nothing, when they awake, of a that a !o!entbefore they the!se"es said, did or suffered# So entirey is theindi"idua consciousness a pheno!enon that e"en in the sa!e ego twoconsciousnesses can arise of which the one knows nothing of the other#

GO@E(=?E=T#

7t is a characteristic faiing of the Ger!ans to ook in the coudsfor what ies at their feet# An eFceent eFa!pe of this is furnishedby the treat!ent which the idea of =atura (ight has recei"ed atthe hands of professors of phiosophy# hen they are caed uponto eFpain those si!pe reations of hu!an ife which !ake up thesubstance of this right, such as (ight and rong, Property, State,Punish!ent and so on, they ha"e recourse to the !ost eFtra"agant,abstract, re!ote and !eaningess conceptions, and out of the! buid aTower of Babe reaching to the couds, and taking this or that for!according to the specia whi! of the professor for the ti!e being# The

cearest and si!pest reations of ife, such as affect us directy,are thus !ade Duite uninteigibe, to the great detri!ent of theyoung peope who are educated in such a schoo# These reationsthe!se"es are perfecty si!pe and easiy understood%%as the reader!ay con"ince hi!sef if he wi turn to the account which 7 ha"e gi"enof the! in the :oundation of ?oraity, +2, and in !y chief work,�bk# i#, N-# But at the sound of certain words, ike (ight, :reedo!,�the Good, Being%%this nugatory infiniti"e of the cupoa%%and !anyothers of the sa!e sort, the Ger!an's head begins to swi!, and faingstraightway into a kind of deiriu! he aunches forth into high%fownphrases which ha"e no !eaning whate"er# ;e takes the !ost re!ote and



e!pty conceptions, and strings the! together artificiay, instead offiFing his eyes on the facts, and ooking at things and reations asthey reay are# 7t is these things and reations which suppy theideas of (ight and :reedo!, and gi"e the! the ony true !eaning thatthey possess#

The !an who starts fro! the preconcei"ed opinion that the conceptionof (ight !ust be a positi"e one, and then atte!pts to define it, wi

fai for he is trying to grasp a shadow, to pursue a spectre, tosearch for what does not eFist# The conception of (ight is a negati"eone, ike the conception of :reedo! its content is !ere negation#7t is the conception of rong which is positi"e rong has the sa!esignificance as injury%%aesio%%in the widest sense of the ter!#An injury !ay be done either to a !an's person or to his property orto his honour and accordingy a !an's rights are easy to definee"ery one has a right to do anything that injures no one ese#

To ha"e a right to do or cai! a thing !eans nothing !ore than to beabe to do or take or "ise it without thereby injuring any one ese#Si!peF sigiu! "eri# This definition shows how senseess !anyDuestions are for instance, the Duestion whether we ha"e the right to

take our own ife, As far as concerns the persona cai!s which others!ay possiby ha"e upon us, they are subject to the condition that weare ai"e, and fa to the ground when we die# To de!and of a !an, whodoes not care to i"e any onger for hi!sef, that he shoud i"eon as a !ere !achine for the ad"antage of others is an eFtra"agantpretension#

Athough !en's powers differ, their rights are aike# Their rights donot rest upon their powers, because (ight is of a !ora co!peFionthey rest on the fact that the sa!e wi to i"e shows itsef ine"ery !an at the sa!e stage of its !anifestation# This, howe"er, onyappies to that origina and abstract (ight, which a !an possesses asa !an# The property, and aso the honour, which a !an acDuires for

hi!sef by the eFercise of his powers, depend on the !easure and kindof power which he possesses, and so end his (ight a wider sphere ofappication# ;ere, then, eDuaity co!es to an end# The !an who isbetter eDuipped, or !ore acti"e, increases by adding to his gains, nothis (ight, but the nu!ber of the things to which it eFtends#

7n !y chief work0+5 7 ha"e pro"ed that the State in its essence is!erey an institution eFisting for the purpose of protecting its!e!bers against outward attack or inward dissension# 7t foows fro!this that the uti!ate ground on which the State is necessary is theacknowedged ack of (ight in the hu!an race# 7f (ight were there, noone woud think of a State for no one woud ha"e any fear that hisrights woud be i!paired and a !ere union against the attacks of wid

beasts or the ee!ents woud ha"e "ery itte anaogy with what we!ean by a State# :ro! this point of "iew it is easy to see how duand stupid are the phiosophasters who in po!pous phrases representthat the State is the supre!e end and fower of hu!an eFistence# Sucha "iew is the apotheosis of Phiistinis!#

0:ootnote + + Bk# ii#, ch# F"ii#5

7f it were (ight that rued in the word, a !an woud ha"e done enoughin buiding his house, and woud need no other protection than theright of possessing it, which woud be ob"ious# But since rong is the



order of the day, it is reDuisite that the !an who has buit his houseshoud aso be abe to protect it# Otherwise his (ight is defacto inco!pete the aggressor, that is to say, has the right of!ight%%:austrecht and this is just the conception of (ightwhich SpinoMa entertains# ;e recognises no other# ;is words areunusDuisDue tantu! juris habet Duantu! potentia "aet0+5 each !anhas as !uch right as he has power# And again uniuscujusDue juspotentia ejus definitur each !an's right is deter!ined by his

power#0-5 ;obbes see!s to ha"e started this conception of (ight,035and he adds the strange co!!ent that the (ight of the good &ord to athings rests on nothing but ;is o!nipotence#

0:ootnote + Tract# Theo# Po#, ch# ii#, #5�

0:ootnote - Ethics, 7@#, FFF"ii#, +#5

0:ootnote 3 Particuary in a passage in the )e 6i"e, 7, +/#5�

=ow this is a conception of (ight which, both in theory and inpractice, no onger pre"ais in the ci"ic word but in the wordin genera, though aboished in theory, it continues to appy in

practice# The conseDuences of negecting it !ay be seen in the caseof 6hina# Threatened by rebeion within and foes without, this greate!pire is in a defenceess state, and has to pay the penaty of ha"ingcuti"ated ony the arts of peace and ignored the arts of war#

There is a certain anaogy between the operations of nature and thoseof !an which is a pecuiar but not fortuitous character, and is basedon the identity of the wi in both# hen the herbi"orous ani!as hadtaken their pace in the organic word, beasts of prey !ade theirappearance%%necessariy a ate appearance%%in each species, andproceeded to i"e upon the!# *ust in the sa!e way, as soon as byhonest toi and in the sweat of their faces !en ha"e won fro! theground what is needed for the support of their societies, a nu!ber of

indi"iduas are sure to arise in so!e of these societies, who, insteadof cuti"ating the earth and i"ing on its produce, prefer to taketheir i"es in their hands and risk heath and freedo! by faing uponthose who are in possession of what they ha"e honesty earned, and byappropriating the fruits of their abour# These are the beasts ofprey in the hu!an race they are the conDuering peopes who! we finde"erywhere in history, fro! the !ost ancient to the !ost recent ti!es#Their "arying fortunes, as at one !o!ent they succeed and at anotherfai, !ake up the genera ee!ents of the history of the word# ;ence@otaire was perfecty right when he said that the ai! of a war isrobbery# That those who engage in it are asha!ed of their doings iscear by the fact that go"ern!ents oudy protest their reuctance toappea to ar!s eFcept for purposes of sef%defence# 7nstead of trying

to eFcuse the!se"es by teing pubic and officia ies, which area!ost !ore re"oting than war itsef, they shoud take their stand,as bod as brass, on ?acchia"ei's doctrine# The gist of it !ay bestated to be this that whereas between one indi"idua and another,and so far as concerns the aw and !oraity of their reations,the principe, )on't do to others what you woudn't ike done toyoursef, certainy appies, it is the con"erse of this principewhich is appropriate in the case of nations and in poitics hat youwoudn't ike done to yoursef do to others# 7f you do not want tobe put under a foreign yoke, take ti!e by the foreock, and put yourneighbour under it hi!sef whene"er, that is to say, his weakness



offers you the opportunity# :or if you et the opportunity pass, itwi desert one day to the ene!y's ca!p and offer itsef there# Thenyour ene!y wi put you under his yoke and your faiure to grasp theopportunity !ay be paid for, not by the generation which was guity ofit, but by the neFt# This ?acchia"eian principe is aways a !uch!ore decent coak for the ust of robbery than the rags of "eryob"ious ies in a speech fro! the head of the State ies, too, of adescription which recas the we%known story of the rabbit attacking

the dog# E"ery State ooks upon its neighbours as at botto! a horde ofrobbers, who wi fa upon it as soon as they ha"e the opportunity#

9 9 9 9 9

Between the serf, the far!er, the tenant, and the !ortgagee, thedifference is rather one of for! than of substance# hether thepeasant beongs to !e, or the and on which he has to get a i"ingwhether the bird is !ine, or its food, the tree or its fruit, is a!atter of itte !o!ent for, as Shakespeare !akes Shyock say

$ou take !y ife hen you do take the !eans whereby 7 i"e#

The free peasant has, indeed, the ad"antage that he can go off andseek his fortune in the wide word whereas the serf who is attachedto the soi, gebae adscriptus, has an ad"antage which is perhapssti greater, that when faiure of crops or iness, od age orincapacity, render hi! hepess, his !aster !ust ook after hi!, andso he seeps we at night whereas, if the crops fai, his !astertosses about on his bed trying to think how he is to procure bread forhis !en# As ong ago as ?enander it was said that it is better tobe the sa"e of a good !aster than to i"e !iseraby as a free!an#Another ad"antage possessed by the free is that if they ha"e anytaents they can i!pro"e their position but the sa!e ad"antage is notwhoy withhed fro! the sa"e# 7f he pro"es hi!sef usefu to his

!aster by the eFercise of any ski, he is treated accordingy justas in ancient (o!e !echanics, fore!en of workshops, architects, nay,e"en doctors, were generay sa"es#

Sa"ery and po"erty, then, are ony two for!s, 7 !ight a!ost say onytwo na!es, of the sa!e thing, the essence of which is that a !an'sphysica powers are e!poyed, in the !ain, not for hi!sef but forothers and this eads party to his being o"er%oaded with work, andparty to his getting a scanty satisfaction for his needs# :or =aturehas gi"en a !an ony as !uch physica power as wi suffice, if heeFerts it in !oderation, to gain a sustenance fro! the earth# =o greatsuperfuity of power is his# 7f, then, a not inconsiderabe nu!ber of!en are reie"ed fro! the co!!on burden of sustaining the eFistence

of the hu!an race, the burden of the re!ainder is aug!ented, and theysuffer# This is the chief source of the e"i which under the na!e ofsa"ery, or under the na!e of the proetariat, has aways oppressedthe great !ajority of the hu!an race#

But the !ore re!ote cause of it is uFury# 7n order, it !ay be said,that so!e few persons !ay ha"e what is unnecessary, superfuous,and the product of refine!ent%%nay, in order that they !ay satisfyartificia needs%%a great part of the eFisting powers of !ankindhas to be de"oted to this object, and therefore withdrawn fro! theproduction of what is necessary and indispensabe# 7nstead of buiding



cottages for the!se"es, thousands of !en buid !ansions for a few#7nstead of wea"ing coarse !aterias for the!se"es and their fa!iies,they !ake fine coths, sik, or e"en ace, for the rich, and ingenera !anufacture a thousand objects of uFury for their peasure# Agreat part of the urban popuation consists of work!en who !ake theseartices of uFury and for the! and those who gi"e the! work thepeasants ha"e to pough and sow and ook after the focks as weas for the!se"es, and thus ha"e !ore abour than =ature originay

i!posed upon the!# ?oreo"er, the urban popuation de"otes a great deaof physica strength, and a great dea of and, to such things aswine, sik, tobacco, hops, asparagus and so on, instead of to corn,potatoes and catte%breeding# :urther, a nu!ber of !en are withdrawnfro! agricuture and e!poyed in ship%buiding and seafaring, in orderthat sugar, coffee, tea and other goods !ay be i!ported# 7n short,a arge part of the powers of the hu!an race is taken away fro! theproduction of what is necessary, in order to bring what is superfuousand unnecessary within the reach of a few# As ong therefore as uFuryeFists, there !ust be a corresponding a!ount of o"er%work and !isery,whether it takes the na!e of po"erty or of sa"ery# The funda!entadifference between the two is that sa"ery originates in "ioence,and po"erty in craft# The whoe unnatura condition of society%%the

uni"ersa strugge to escape fro! !isery, the sea%trade attended withso !uch oss of ife, the co!picated interests of co!!erce, andfinay the wars to which it a gi"es rise%%is due, ony and aone,to uFury, which gi"es no happiness e"en to those who enjoy it, nay,!akes the! i and bad%te!pered# Accordingy it ooks as if the !osteffecti"e way of ae"iating hu!an !isery woud be to di!inish uFury,or e"en aboish it atogether#

There is unDuestionaby !uch truth in this train of thought# But theconcusion at which it arri"es is refuted by an argu!ent possessingthis ad"antage o"er it%%that it is confir!ed by the testi!ony ofeFperience# A certain a!ount of work is de"oted to purposes of uFury#hat the hu!an race oses in this way in the !uscuar power which

woud otherwise be a"aiabe for the necessities of eFistence isgraduay !ade up to it a thousandfod by the ner"ous power, which,in a che!ica sense, is thereby reeased# And since the inteigenceand sensibiity which are thus pro!oted are on a higher e"e than the!uscuar irritabiity which they suppant, so the achie"e!ents of !indeFceed those of the body a thousandfod# One wise counse is worth thework of !any hands

0Greek ;os en sophon boueu!a tas poon cheiras nika#5

A nation of nothing but peasants woud do itte in the way ofdisco"ery and in"ention but ide hands !ake acti"e heads# Science andthe Arts are the!se"es the chidren of uFury, and they discharge

their debt to it# The work which they do is to perfect technoogy ina its branches, !echanica, che!ica and physica an art which inour days has brought !achinery to a pitch ne"er drea!t of before, andin particuar has, by stea! and eectricity, acco!pished things theike of which woud, in earier ages, ha"e been ascribed to the agencyof the de"i# 7n !anufactures of a kinds, and to so!e eFtent inagricuture, !achines now do a thousand ti!es !ore than coud e"erha"e been done by the hands of a the we%to%do, educated, andprofessiona casses, and coud e"er ha"e been attained if a uFuryhad been aboished and e"ery one had returned to the ife of apeasant# 7t is by no !eans the rich aone, but a casses, who deri"e



benefit fro! these industries# Things which in for!er days hardyany one coud afford are now cheap and abundant, and e"en the owestcasses are !uch better off in point of co!fort# 7n the ?idde Ages a>ing of Engand once borrowed a pair of sik stockings fro! one of hisords, so that he !ight wear the! in gi"ing an audience to the :rencha!bassador# E"en Iueen EiMabeth was greaty peased and astonished torecei"e a pair as a =ew $ear's present to%day e"ery shop!an has the!#:ifty years ago adies wore the kind of caico gowns which ser"ants

wear now# 7f !echanica science continues to progress at the sa!erate for any ength of ti!e, it !ay end by sa"ing hu!an abour a!ostentirey, just as horses are e"en now being argey superseded by!achines# :or it is possibe to concei"e that inteectua cuture!ight in so!e degree beco!e genera in the hu!an race and this woudbe i!possibe as ong as bodiy abour was incu!bent on any great partof it# ?uscuar irritabiity and ner"ous sensibiity are aways ande"erywhere, both generay and particuary, in antagonis! for thesi!pe reason that it is one and the sa!e "ita power which underiesboth# :urther, since the arts ha"e a softening effect on character, itis possibe that Duarres great and s!a, wars and dues, wi "anishfro! the word just as both ha"e beco!e !uch rarer occurrences#;owe"er, it is not !y object here to write a <topia#

But apart fro! a this the argu!ents used abo"e in fa"our of theaboition of uFury and the unifor! distribution of a bodiy abourare open to the objection that the great !ass of !ankind, aways ande"erywhere, cannot do without eaders, guides and counseors, inone shape or another, according to the !atter in Duestion judges,go"ernors, generas, officias, priests, doctors, !en of earning,phiosophers, and so on, are a a necessity# Their co!!on task is toead the race for the greater part so incapabe and per"erse, throughthe abyrinth of ife, of which each of the! according to his positionand capacity has obtained a genera "iew, be his range wide or narrow#That these guides of the race shoud be per!anenty reie"ed of abodiy abour as we as of a "ugar need and disco!fort nay,

that in proportion to their !uch greater achie"e!ents they shoudnecessariy own and enjoy !ore than the co!!on !an, is natura andreasonabe# Great !erchants shoud aso be incuded in the sa!epri"ieged cass, whene"er they !ake far%sighted preparations fornationa needs#

The Duestion of the so"ereignty of the peope is at botto! the sa!eas the Duestion whether any !an can ha"e an origina right to ruea peope against its wi# ;ow that proposition can be reasonaby!aintained 7 do not see# The peope, it !ust be ad!itted, isso"ereign but it is a so"ereign who is aways a !inor# 7t !ust ha"eper!anent guardians, and it can ne"er eFercise its rights itsef,without creating dangers of which no one can foresee the end

especiay as ike a !inors, it is "ery apt to beco!e the sport ofdesigning sharpers, in the shape of what are caed de!agogues#

@otaire re!arks that the first !an to beco!e a king was a successfusodier# 7t is certainy the case that a princes were originay"ictorious eaders of ar!ies, and for a ong ti!e it was as such thatthey bore sway# On the rise of standing ar!ies princes began to regardtheir peope as a !eans of sustaining the!se"es and their sodiers,and treated the!, accordingy, as though they were a herd of catte,which had to be tended in order that it !ight pro"ide woo, !ik, and!eat# The why and wherefore of a this, as 7 sha presenty show in



detai, is the fact that originay it was not right, but !ight, thatrued in the word# ?ight has the ad"antage of ha"ing been the firstin the fied# That is why it is i!possibe to do away with it andaboish it atogether it !ust aways ha"e its pace and a that a!an can wish or ask is that it shoud be found on the side of rightand associated with it# Accordingy says the prince to his subjects7 rue you in "irtue of the power which 7 possess# But, on the otherhand, it eFcudes that of any one ese, and 7 sha suffer none but

!y own, whether it co!es fro! without, or arises within by one of youtrying to oppress another# 7n this way, then, you are protected# Thearrange!ent was carried out and just because it was carried out theod idea of kingship de"eoped with ti!e and progress into Duite adifferent idea, and put the other one in the background, where it !aysti be seen, now and then, fitting about ike a spectre# 7ts pacehas been taken by the idea of the king as father of his peope, asthe fir! and unshakabe piar which aone supports and !aintains thewhoe organisation of aw and order, and conseDuenty the rightsof e"ery !an#0+5 But a king can acco!pish this ony by inbornprerogati"e which reser"es authority to hi! and to hi! aone%%anauthority which is supre!e, indubitabe, and beyond a attack, nay,to which e"ery one renders instincti"e obedience# ;ence the king is

righty said to rue by the grace of God# ;e is aways the !ostusefu person in the State, and his ser"ices are ne"er too dearyrepaid by any 6i"i &ist, howe"er hea"y#

0:ootnote + e read in Stobaeus, :oriegiu!, ch# Fi"#, /+, of aPersian custo!, by which, whene"er a king died, there was a fi"e days'anarchy, in order that peope !ight percei"e the ad"antage of ha"ingkings and aws#5

But e"en as ate a writer as ?acchia"ei was so decidedy i!bued withthe earier or !ediae"a conception of the position of a prince thathe treats it as a !atter which is sef%e"ident he ne"er discusses it,but tacity takes it as the presupposition and basis of his ad"ice#

7t !ay be said generay that his book is !erey the theoreticastate!ent and consistent and syste!atic eFposition of the practicepre"aiing in his ti!e# 7t is the no"e state!ent of it in a co!petetheoretica for! that ends it such a poignant interest# The sa!ething, 7 !ay re!ark in passing, appies to the i!!orta itte work of&a (ochefaucaud, who, howe"er, takes pri"ate and not pubic ife forhis the!e, and offers, not ad"ice, but obser"ations# The tite of thisfine itte book is open, perhaps, to so!e objection the contents arenot, as a rue, either !aFi!s or refections, but aper us�and that is what they shoud be caed# There is !uch, too, in?acchia"ei that wi be found aso to appy to pri"ate ife#

(ight in itsef is poweress in nature it is ?ight that rues# To

enist !ight on the side of right, so that by !eans of it right!ay rue, is the probe! of states!anship# And it is indeed a hardprobe!, as wi be ob"ious if we re!e!ber that a!ost e"ery hu!anbreast is the seat of an egois! which has no i!its, and is usuayassociated with an accu!uated store of hatred and !aice so thatat the "ery start feeings of en!ity argey pre"ai o"er those offriendship# e ha"e aso to bear in !ind that it is !any !iions ofindi"iduas so constituted who ha"e to be kept in the bonds of awand order, peace and tranDuiity whereas originay e"ery one hada right to say to e"ery one ese 7 a! just as good as you areH Aconsideration of a this !ust fi us with surprise that on the whoe



the word pursues its way so peacefuy and Duiety, and with so !uchaw and order as we see to eFist# 7t is the !achinery of State whichaone acco!pishes it# :or it is physica power aone which has anydirect action on !en constituted as they generay are, it is forphysica power aone that they ha"e any feeing or respect#

7f a !an woud con"ince hi!sef by eFperience that this is the case,he need do nothing but re!o"e a co!pusion fro! his feows, and try

to go"ern the! by ceary and forciby representing to the! whatis reasonabe, right, and fair, though at the sa!e ti!e it !ay becontrary to their interests# ;e woud be aughed to scorn and asthings go that is the ony answer he woud get# 7t woud soon beob"ious to hi! that !ora force aone is poweress# 7t is, then,physica force aone which is capabe of securing respect# =ow thisforce uti!atey resides in the !asses, where it is associated withignorance, stupidity and injustice# Accordingy the !ain ai! ofstates!anship in these difficut circu!stances is to put physicaforce in subjection to !enta force%%to inteectua superiority, andthus to !ake it ser"iceabe# But if this ai! is not itsef acco!paniedby justice and good intentions the resut of the business, if itsucceeds, is that the State so erected consists of kna"es and foos,

the decei"ers and the decei"ed# That this is the case is !adegraduay e"ident by the progress of inteigence a!ongst the !asses,howe"er !uch it !ay be repressed and it eads to re"oution# Butif, contrariy, inteigence is acco!panied by justice and goodintentions, there arises a State as perfect as the character of hu!anaffairs wi aow# 7t is "ery !uch to the purpose if justice andgood intentions not ony eFist, but are aso de!onstrabe and openyeFhibited, and can be caed to account pubicy, and be subject tocontro# 6are !ust be taken, howe"er, est the resuting participationof !any persons in the work of go"ern!ent shoud affect the unity ofthe State, and infict a oss of strength and concentration on thepower by which its ho!e and foreign affairs ha"e to be ad!inistered#This is what a!ost aways happens in repubics# To produce a

constitution which shoud satisfy a these de!ands woud accordingybe the highest ai! of states!anship# But, as a !atter of fact,states!anship has to consider other things as we# 7t has to reckonwith the peope as they eFist, and their nationa pecuiarities# Thisis the raw !ateria on which it has to work, and the ingredients ofthat !ateria wi aways eFercise a great effect on the co!petedsche!e#

States!anship wi ha"e achie"ed a good dea if it so far attains itsobject as to reduce wrong and injustice in the co!!unity to a !ini!u!#To banish the! atogether, and to ea"e no trace of the!, is !ereythe idea to be ai!ed at and it is ony approFi!atey that it can bereached# 7f they disappear in one direction, they creep in again in

another for wrong and injustice ie deepy rooted in hu!an nature#Atte!pts ha"e been !ade to attain the desired ai! by artificiaconstitutions and syste!atic codes of aw but they are not inco!pete touch with the facts%%they re!ain an asy!ptote, for thesi!pe reason that hard and fast conceptions ne"er e!brace apossibe cases, and cannot be !ade to !eet indi"idua instances# Suchconceptions rese!be the stones of a !osaic rather than the deicateshading in a picture# =ay, !ore a eFperi!ents in this !atter areattended with danger because the !ateria in Duestion, na!ey, thehu!an race, is the !ost difficut of a !ateria to hande# 7t isa!ost as dangerous as an eFposi"e#



=o doubt it is true that in the !achinery of the State the freedo!of the press perfor!s the sa!e function as a safety%"a"e in other!achinery for it enabes a discontent to find a "oice nay, indoing so, the discontent eFhausts itsef if it has not !uch substanceand if it has, there is an ad"antage in recognising it beti!esand appying the re!edy# This is !uch better than to repress thediscontent, and et it si!!er and fer!ent, and go on increasing unti

it ends in an eFposion# On the other hand, the freedo! of the press!ay be regarded as a per!ission to se poison%%poison for the heartand the !ind# There is no idea so fooish but that it cannot be putinto the heads of the ignorant and incapabe !utitude, especiay ifthe idea hods out so!e prospect of any gain or ad"antage# And when a!an has got hod of any such idea what is there that he wi not doJ7 a!, therefore, "ery !uch afraid that the danger of a free pressoutweighs its utiity, particuary where the aw offers a way ofredressing wrongs# 7n any case, howe"er, the freedo! of the pressshoud be go"erned by a "ery strict prohibition of a and e"eryanony!ity#

Generay, indeed, it !ay be !aintained that right is of a nature

anaogous to that of certain che!ica substances, which cannot beeFhibited in a pure and isoated condition, but at the !ost ony witha s!a ad!iFture of so!e other substance, which ser"es as a "ehicefor the!, or gi"es the! the necessary consistency such as fuorine,or e"en acoho, or prussic acid# Pursuing the anaogy we !ay say thatright, if it is to gain a footing in the word and reay pre"ai,!ust of necessity be suppe!ented by a s!a a!ount of arbitraryforce, in order that, notwithstanding its !erey idea and thereforeetherea nature, it !ay be abe to work and subsist in the rea and!ateria word, and not e"aporate and "anish into the couds, asit does in ;esoid# Birth%right of e"ery description, a heritabepri"ieges, e"ery for! of nationa reigion, and so on, !ay beregarded as the necessary che!ica base or aoy inas!uch as it is

ony when right has so!e such fir! and actua foundation that it canbe enforced and consistenty "indicated# They for! for right a sort of0Greek os !oi pou sto5%%a fucru! for supporting its e"er#

&innaeus adopted a "egetabe syste! of an artificia and arbitrarycharacter# 7t cannot be repaced by a natura one, no !atter howreasonabe the change !ight be, or how often it has been atte!pted to!ake it, because no other syste! coud e"er yied the sa!e certaintyand stabiity of definition# *ust in the sa!e way the artificia andarbitrary basis on which, as has been shown, the constitution ofa State rests, can ne"er be repaced by a purey natura basis# Anatura basis woud ai! at doing away with the conditions that ha"ebeen !entioned in the pace of the pri"ieges of birth it woud put

those of persona !erit in the pace of the nationa reigion, theresuts of rationaistic inDuiry, and so on# ;owe"er agreeabe toreason this !ight a pro"e, the change coud not be !ade because anatura basis woud ack that certainty and fiFity of definition whichaone secures the stabiity of the co!!onweath# A constitution whiche!bodied abstract right aone woud be an eFceent thing for naturesother than hu!an, but since the great !ajority of !en are eFtre!eyegoistic, unjust, inconsiderate, deceitfu, and so!eti!es e"en!aicious since in addition they are endowed with "ery scantyinteigence there arises the necessity for a power that sha beconcentrated in one !an, a power that sha be abo"e a aw and



right, and be co!petey irresponsibe, nay, to which e"erything shayied as to so!ething that is regarded as a creature of a higherkind, a ruer by the grace of God# 7t is ony thus that !en can beper!anenty hed in check and go"erned#

The <nited States of =orth A!erica eFhibit the atte!pt to proceedwithout any such arbitrary basis that is to say, to aow abstractright to pre"ai pure and unaoyed# But the resut is not attracti"e#

:or with a the !ateria prosperity of the country what do we findJThe pre"aiing senti!ent is a base <tiitarianis! with its ine"itabeco!panion, ignorance and it is this that has pa"ed the way for aunion of stupid Angican bigotry, fooish prejudice, coarse brutaity,and a chidish "eneration of wo!en# E"en worse things are the order ofthe day !ost iniDuitous oppression of the back free!en, ynch aw,freDuent assassination often co!!itted with entire i!punity, dues ofa sa"agery esewhere unknown, now and then open scorn of a aw andjustice, repudiation of pubic debts, abo!inabe poitica rascaitytowards a neighbouring State, foowed by a !ercenary raid on its richterritory,%%afterwards sought to be eFcused, on the part of the chiefauthority of the State, by ies which e"ery one in the country knew tobe such and aughed at%%an e"er%increasing ochocracy, and finay

a the disastrous infuence which this abnegation of justice in highDuarters !ust ha"e eFercised on pri"ate !oras# This speci!en of apure constitution on the ob"erse side of the panet says "ery ittefor repubics in genera, but sti ess for the i!itations of it in?eFico, Guate!aa, 6oo!bia and Peru#

A pecuiar disad"antage attaching to repubics%%and one that !ightnot be ooked for%%is that in this for! of go"ern!ent it !ust be !oredifficut for !en of abiity to attain high position and eFercisedirect poitica infuence than in the case of !onarchies# :or awaysand e"erywhere and under a circu!stances there is a conspiracy, orinstincti"e aiance, against such !en on the part of a the stupid,the weak, and the co!!onpace they ook upon such !en as their

natura ene!ies, and they are fir!y hed together by a co!!on fear ofthe!# There is aways a nu!erous host of the stupid and the weak,and in a repubican constitution it is easy for the! to suppress andeFcude the !en of abiity, so that they !ay not be outfanked bythe!# They are fifty to one and here a ha"e eDua rights at thestart#

7n a !onarchy, on the other hand, this natura and uni"ersa eague ofthe stupid against those who are possessed of inteectua ad"antagesis a one%sided affair it eFists ony fro! beow, for in a !onarchytaent and inteigence recei"e a natura ad"ocacy and support fro!abo"e# 7n the first pace, the position of the !onarch hi!sef is!uch too high and too fir! for hi! to stand in fear of any sort of

co!petition# 7n the neFt pace, he ser"es the State !ore by his withan by his inteigence for no inteigence coud e"er be eDuato a the de!ands that woud in his case be !ade upon it# ;e istherefore co!peed to be aways a"aiing hi!sef of other !en'sinteigence# Seeing that his own interests are securey bound up withthose of his country that they are inseparabe fro! the! and one withthe!, he wi naturay gi"e the preference to the best !en, becausethey are his !ost ser"iceabe instru!ents, and he wi bestow hisfa"our upon the!%%as soon, that is, as he can find the! which is notso difficut, if ony an honest search be !ade# *ust in the sa!eway e"en !inisters of State ha"e too !uch ad"antage o"er rising



poiticians to need to regard the! with jeaousy and accordingy foranaogous reasons they are gad to singe out distinguished !en andset the! to work, in order to !ake use of their powers for the!se"es#7t is in this way that inteigence has aways under a !onarchicago"ern!ent a !uch better chance against its irreconciabe ande"er%present foe, stupidity and the ad"antage which it gains is "erygreat#

7n genera, the !onarchica for! of go"ern!ent is that which isnatura to !an just as it is natura to bees and ants, to a fight ofcranes, a herd of wandering eephants, a pack of wo"es seeking preyin co!!on, and !any other ani!as, a of which pace one of theirnu!ber at the head of the business in hand# E"ery business in which!en engage, if it is attended with danger%%e"ery ca!paign, e"eryship at sea%%!ust aso be subject to the authority of one co!!andere"erywhere it is one wi that !ust ead# E"en the ani!a organis! isconstructed on a !onarchica principe it is the brain aone whichguides and go"erns, and eFercises the hege!ony# Athough heart, ungs,and sto!ach contribute !uch !ore to the continued eFistence of thewhoe body, these phiistines cannot on that account be aowed toguide and ead# That is a business which beongs soey to the brain

go"ern!ent !ust proceed fro! one centra point# E"en the soar syste!is !onarchica# On the other hand, a repubic is as unnatura as itis unfa"ourabe to the higher inteectua ife and the arts andsciences# Accordingy we find that e"erywhere in the word, and at ati!es, nations, whether ci"iised or sa"age, or occupying a positionbetween the two, are aways under !onarchica go"ern!ent# The rue of!any as ;o!er said, is not a good thing et there be one ruer, oneking

0Greek Ouk agathon poykoiraniae%eis koiranos esto Eis basoeus#5 0+5

0:ootnote + 7iad, ii#, -./#5

;ow woud it be possibe that, e"erywhere and at a ti!es, we shoudsee !any !iions of peope, nay, e"en hundreds of !iions, beco!ethe wiing and obedient subjects of one !an, so!eti!es e"en onewo!an, and pro"isionay, e"en, of a chid, uness there were a!onarchica instinct in !en which dro"e the! to it as the for! ofgo"ern!ent best suited to the!J This arrange!ent is not the productof refection# E"erywhere one !an is king, and for the !ost part hisdignity is hereditary# ;e is, as it were, the personification, the!onogra!, of the whoe peope, which attains an indi"iduaity in hi!#7n this sense he can righty say 'etat c'est !oi# 7t is preciseyfor this reason that in Shakespeare's historica pays the kingsof Engand and :rance !utuay address each other as :rance and

Engand, and the )uke of Austria goes by the na!e of his country# 7tis as though the kings regarded the!se"es as the incarnation of theirnationaities# 7t is a in accordance with hu!an nature and for this"ery reason the hereditary !onarch cannot separate his own wefare andthat of his fa!iy fro! the wefare of his country as, on the otherhand, !osty happens when the !onarch is eected, as, for instance, inthe States of the 6hurch#0+5 The 6hinese can concei"e of a !onarchicago"ern!ent ony what a repubic is they uttery fai to understand#hen a )utch egation was in 6hina in the year +N8, it was obiged torepresent that the Prince of Orange was their king, as otherwise the6hinese woud ha"e been incined to take ;oand for a nest of pirates



i"ing without any ord or !aster#0-5 Stobaeus, in a chapter in his:oriegiu!, at the head of which he wrote That !onarchy is best,coected the best of the passages in which the ancients eFpainedthe ad"antages of that for! of go"ern!ent# 7n a word, repubics areunnatura and artificia they are the product of refection# ;ence itis that they occur ony as rare eFceptions in the whoe history ofthe word# There were the s!a Greek repubics, the (o!an and the6arthaginian but they were a rendered possibe by the fact that

fi"e%siFths, perhaps e"en se"en%eighths, of the popuation consistedof sa"es# 7n the year +/., e"en in the <nited States, there werethree !iion sa"es to a popuation of siFteen !iions# Then, again,the duration of the repubics of antiDuity, co!pared with that of!onarchies, was "ery short# (epubics are "ery easy to found, and"ery difficut to !aintain, whie with !onarchies it is eFacty there"erse# 7f it is <topian sche!es that are wanted, 7 say this theony soution of the probe! woud be a despotis! of the wise and thenobe, of the true aristocracy and the genuine nobiity, brought aboutby the !ethod of generation%%that is, by the !arriage of the nobest!en with the ce"erest and !ost inteectua wo!en# This is !y <topia,!y (epubic of Pato#

0:ootnote + Transator's =ote#%%The reader wi recoect thatSchopenhauer was writing ong before the Papa territories wereabsorbed into the kingdo! of 7tay#5

0:ootnote - See *ean =ieuhoff, &'A!bassade de a 6o!pagnie Orientaedes Pro"inces <nies "ers &'E!pereur de a 6hine, traduit par *ean e6harpentier &eyde, +NN8 ch# /8#5�

6onstitutiona kings are undoubtedy in !uch the sa!e position asthe gods of Epicurus, who sit upon high in undisturbed biss andtranDuiity, and do not !edde with hu!an affairs# *ust now they arethe fashion# 7n e"ery Ger!an duodeci!o%principaity a parody of theEngish constitution is set up, Duite co!pete, fro! <pper and

&ower ;ouses down to the ;abeas 6orpus Act and tria by jury# Theseinstitutions, which proceed fro! Engish character and Engishcircu!stances, and presuppose both, are natura and suitabe to theEngish peope# 7t is just as natura to the Ger!an peope to be spitup into a nu!ber of different stocks, under a si!iar nu!ber of ruingPrinces, with an E!peror o"er the! a, who !aintains peace at ho!e,and represents the unity of the State board# 7t is an arrange!entwhich has proceeded fro! Ger!an character and Ger!an circu!stances#7 a! of opinion that if Ger!any is not to !eet with the sa!e fate as7tay, it !ust restore the i!peria crown, which was done away withby its arch%ene!y, the first =apoeon and it !ust restore it aseffecti"ey as possibe# 0+5 :or Ger!an unity depends on it, andwithout the i!peria crown it wi aways be !erey no!ina, or

precarious# But as we no onger i"e in the days of G nther of�SchwarMburg, when the choice of E!peror was a serious business, thei!peria crown ought to go aternatey to Prussia and to Austria, forthe ife of the wearer# 7n any case, the absoute so"ereignty of thes!a States is iusory# =apoeon 7# did for Ger!any what Otto theGreat did for 7tay he di"ided it into s!a, independent States, onthe principe, di"ide et i!pera#

0:ootnote + Transator's =ote#%%;ere, again, it is hardy necessaryto say that Schopenhauer, who died in +N., and wrote this passage ateast so!e years pre"iousy, cannot be referring to any of the



e"ents which cu!inated in +2.# The whoe passage for!s a strikingiustration of his poitica sagacity#5

The Engish show their great inteigence, a!ongst other ways, bycinging to their ancient institutions, custo!s and usages, and byhoding the! sacred, e"en at the risk of carrying this tenacity toofar, and !aking it ridicuous# They hod the! sacred for the si!pereason that those institutions and custo!s are not the in"ention of an

ide head, but ha"e grown up graduay by the force of circu!stanceand the wisdo! of ife itsef, and are therefore suited to the! as anation# On the other hand, the Ger!an ?iche0+5 aows hi!sef to bepersuaded by his schoo!aster that he !ust go about in an Engishdress%coat, and that nothing ese wi do# Accordingy he has buiedhis father into gi"ing it to hi! and with his awkward !anners thisungainy creature presents in it a sufficienty ridicuous figure# Butthe dress%coat wi so!e day be too tight for hi! and inco!!ode hi!#7t wi not be "ery ong before he fees it in tria by jury# Thisinstitution arose in the !ost barbarous period of the ?idde Ages%%theti!es of Afred the Great, when the abiity to read and write eFe!pteda !an fro! the penaty of death# 7t is the worst of a cri!inaprocedures# 7nstead of judges, we "ersed in aw and of great

eFperience, who ha"e grown grey in daiy unra"eing the tricks andwies of thie"es, !urderers and rascas of a sorts, and so are weabe to get at the botto! of things, it is gossiping taiors andtanners who sit in judg!ent it is their coarse, crude, unpractised,and awkward inteigence, incapabe of any sustained attention, thatis caed upon to find out the truth fro! a tissue of ies and deceit#A the ti!e, !oreo"er, they are thinking of their coth and theireather, and onging to be at ho!e and they ha"e absoutey no cearnotion at a of the distinction between probabiity and certainty# 7tis with this sort of a cacuus of probabiities in their stupid headsthat they confidenty undertake to sea a !an's doo!#

0:ootnote + Transator's =ote#%%7t !ay be we to eFpain that

?iche is so!eti!es used by the Ger!ans as a nickna!e of theirnation, corresponding to *ohn Bu as a nickna!e of the Engish#: ge in his Ger!an%Engish )ictionary decares that der deutsche�?iche represents the Ger!an nation as an honest, bunt, unsuspiciousfeow, who easiy aows hi!sef to be i!posed upon, e"en, he adds,with a touch of patriotis!, by those who are greaty his inferiors inpoint of strength and rea worth#5

The sa!e re!ark is appicabe to the! which )r# *ohnson !ade of acourt%!artia in which he had itte confidence, su!!oned to decide a"ery i!portant case# ;e said that perhaps there was not a !e!ber ofit who, in the whoe course of his ife, had e"er spent an hour byhi!sef in baancing probabiities#0+5 6an any one i!agine that the

taior and the tanner woud be i!partia judgesJ hatH the "icious!utitude i!partiaH as if partiaity were not ten ti!es !ore to befeared fro! !en of the sa!e cass as the accused than fro! judges whoknew nothing of hi! personay, i"ed in another sphere atogether,were irre!o"abe, and conscious of the dignity of their office# Butto et a jury decide on cri!es against the State and its head, or on!isde!eanours of the press, is in a "ery rea sense to set the foF tokeep the geese#

0:ootnote + Boswe's *ohnson, +2., set# 2+#5



E"erywhere and at a ti!es there has been !uch discontent withgo"ern!ents, aws and pubic reguations for the !ost part, howe"er,because !en are aways ready to !ake institutions responsibe for the!isery inseparabe fro! hu!an eFistence itsef which is, to speak!ythicay, the curse that was aid on Ada!, and through hi! on thewhoe race# But ne"er has that deusion been procai!ed in a !ore!endacious and i!pudent !anner than by the de!agogues of the*etstMeit%%of the day we i"e in# As ene!ies of 6hristianity, they

are, of course, opti!ists to the! the word is its own end andobject, and accordingy in itsef, that is to say, in its own naturaconstitution, it is arranged on the !ost eFceent principes, andfor!s a reguar habitation of biss# The enor!ous and garing e"is ofthe word they attribute whoy to go"ern!ents if go"ern!ents, theythink, were to do their duty, there woud be a hea"en upon earth inother words, a !en coud eat, drink, propagate and die, free fro!troube and want# This is what they !ean when they tak of the wordbeing its own end and object this is the goa of that perpetuaprogress of the hu!an race, and the other fine things which they arene"er tired of procai!ing#

:or!ery it was faith which was the chief support of the throne

nowadays it is credit# The Pope hi!sef is scarcey !ore concernedto retain the confidence of the faithfu than to !ake his creditorsbeie"e in his own good faith# 7f in ti!es past it was the guity debtof the word which was a!ented, now it is the financia debts of theword which arouse dis!ay# :or!ery it was the &ast )ay which wasprophesied now it is the 0Greek seisachtheia5 the great repudiation,the uni"ersa bankruptcy of the nations, which wi one day happenathough the prophet, in this as in the other case, entertains a fir!hope that he wi not i"e to see it hi!sef#

:ro! an ethica and a rationa point of "iew, the right ofpossession rests upon an inco!paraby better foundation than theright of birth ne"ertheess, the right of possession is aied with

the right of birth and has co!e to be part and parce of it, so thatit woud hardy be possibe to aboish the right of birth withoutendangering the right of possession# The reason of this is that !ostof what a !an possesses he inherited, and therefore hods by a kind ofright of birth just as the od nobiity bear the na!es ony of theirhereditary estates, and by the use of those na!es do no !ore than gi"eeFpression to the fact that they own the estates# Accordingy aowners of property, if instead of being en"ious they were wise, oughtaso to support the !aintenance of the rights of birth#

The eFistence of a nobiity has, then, a doube ad"antage it heps to!aintain on the one hand the rights of possession, and on the otherthe right of birth beonging to the king# :or the king is the first

nobe!an in the country, and, as a genera rue, he treats thenobiity as his hu!be reations, and regards the! Duite otherwisethan the co!!oners, howe"er trusty and we%beo"ed# 7t is Duitenatura, too, that he shoud ha"e !ore confidence in those whoseancestors were !osty the first !inisters, and aways the i!!ediateassociates, of his own# A nobe!an, therefore, appeas with reasonto the na!e he bears, when on the occurrence of anything to rousedistrust he repeats his assurance of fideity and ser"ice to the king#A !an's character, as !y readers are aware, assuredy co!es to hi!fro! his father# 7t is a narrow%!inded and ridicuous thing not toconsider whose son a !an is#



:(EE%7&& A=) :ATA&7S?#

=o thoughtfu !an can ha"e any doubt, after the concusions reached in

!y priMe%essay on ?ora :reedo!, that such freedo! is to be sought,not anywhere in nature, but outside of it# The ony freedo! thateFists is of a !etaphysica character# 7n the physica word freedo!is an i!possibiity# Accordingy, whie our se"era actions are in nowise free, e"ery !an's indi"idua character is to be regarded as afree act# ;e is such and such a !an, because once for a it is hiswi to be that !an# :or the wi itsef, and in itsef, and aso inso far as it is !anifest in an indi"idua, and accordingy constitutesthe origina and funda!enta desires of that indi"idua, isindependent of a knowedge, because it is antecedent to suchknowedge# A that it recei"es fro! knowedge is the series of!oti"es by which it successi"ey de"eops its nature and !akes itsefcognisabe or "isibe but the wi itsef, as so!ething that ies

beyond ti!e, and so ong as it eFists at a, ne"er changes# Thereforee"ery !an, being what he is and paced in the circu!stances whichfor the !o!ent obtain, but which on their part aso arise by strictnecessity, can absoutey ne"er do anything ese than just what atthat !o!ent he does do# Accordingy, the whoe course of a !an's ife,in a its incidents great and s!a, is as necessariy predeter!inedas the course of a cock#

The !ain reason of this is that the kind of !etaphysica free actwhich 7 ha"e described tends to beco!e a knowing consciousness%%apercepti"e intuition, which is subject to the for!s of space and ti!e#By !eans of those for!s the unity and indi"isibiity of the act arerepresented as drawn asunder into a series of states and e"ents,

which are subject to the Principe of Sufficient (eason in its fourfor!s%%and it is this that is !eant by necessity# But the resut ofit a assu!es a !ora co!peFion# 7t a!ounts to this, that by what wedo we know what we are, and by what we suffer we know what we deser"e#

:urther, it foows fro! this that a !an's indi"iduaity does notrest upon the principe of indi"iduation aone, and therefore is notatogether pheno!ena in its nature# On the contrary, it has its rootsin the thing%in%itsef, in the wi which is the essence of eachindi"idua# The character of this indi"idua is itsef indi"idua# Buthow deep the roots of indi"iduaity eFtend is one of the Duestionswhich 7 do not undertake to answer#

7n this connection it deser"es to be !entioned that e"en Pato, in hisown way, represented the indi"iduaity of a !an as a free act#0+5 ;erepresented hi! as co!ing into the word with a gi"en tendency, whichwas the resut of the feeings and character aready attaching tohi! in accordance with the doctrine of !ete!psychosis# The Brah!inphiosophers aso eFpress the unaterabe fiFity of innate characterin a !ystica fashion# They say that Brah!a, when a !an is produced,engra"es his doings and sufferings in written characters on his sku,and that his ife !ust take shape in accordance therewith# They pointto the jagged edges in the sutures of the sku%bones as e"idence ofthis writing and the purport of it, they say, depends on his pre"ious



ife and actions# The sa!e "iew appears to underie the 6hristian, orrather, the Pauine, dog!a of Predestination#

0:ootnote + Phaedrus and &aws, bk# F#5

But this truth, which is uni"ersay confir!ed by eFperience, isattended with another resut# A genuine !erit, !ora as we asinteectua, is not !erey physica or e!pirica in its origin,

but !etaphysica that is to say, it is gi"en a priori and not aposteriori in other words, it ies innate and is not acDuired,and therefore its source is not a !ere pheno!enon, but thething%in%itsef# ;ence it is that e"ery !an achie"es ony that whichis irre"ocaby estabished in his nature, or is born with hi!#7nteectua capacity needs, it is true, to be de"eoped just as !anynatura products need to be cuti"ated in order that we !ay enjoy oruse the! but just as in the case of a natura product no cuti"ationcan take the pace of origina !ateria, neither can it do so in thecase of inteect# That is the reason why Duaities which are !ereyacDuired, or earned, or enforced%%that is, Duaities a posteriori,whether !ora or inteectua%%are not rea or genuine, butsuperficia ony, and possessed of no "aue# This is a concusion of

true !etaphysics, and eFperience teaches the sa!e esson to a whocan ook beow the surface# =ay, it is pro"ed by the great i!portancewhich we a attach to such innate characteristics as physiogno!y andeFterna appearance, in the case of a !an who is at a distinguishedand that is why we are so curious to see hi!# Superficia peope, tobe sure,%%and, for "ery good reasons, co!!onpace peope too,%%wi beof the opposite opinion for if anything fais the! they wi thus beenabed to consoe the!se"es by thinking that it is sti to co!e#

The word, then, is not !erey a battefied where "ictory and defeatrecei"e their due reco!pense in a future state# =oH the word isitsef the &ast *udg!ent on it# E"ery !an carries with hi! the rewardand the disgrace that he deser"es and this is no other than the

doctrine of the Brah!ins and Buddhists as it is taught in the theoryof !ete!psychosis#

The Duestion has been raised, hat two !en woud do, who i"ed asoitary ife in the wids and !et each other for the first ti!e#;obbes, Pufendorf, and (ousseau ha"e gi"en different answers#Pufendorf beie"ed that they woud approach each other as friends;obbes, on the contrary, as ene!ies (ousseau, that they woud passeach other by 7n sience# A three are both right and wrong# Thisis just a case in which the incacuabe difference that there is ininnate !ora disposition between one indi"idua and another woud !akeits appearance# The difference is so strong that the Duestion hereraised !ight be regarded as the standard and !easure of it# :or there

are !en in who! the sight of another !an at once rouses a feeing ofen!ity, since their in!ost nature eFcai!s at once That is not !eHThere are, others in who! the sight awakens i!!ediate sy!pathy theirin!ost nature says That is !e o"er againH Between the two thereare countess degrees# That in this !ost i!portant !atter we are sototay different is a great probe!, nay, a !ystery#

7n regard to this a priori nature of !ora character there is !atterfor "aried refection in a work by Bastho!, a )anish writer, entited;istorica 6ontributions to the >nowedge of ?an in the Sa"ageState# ;e is struck by the fact that inteectua cuture and !ora



eFceence are shown to be entirey independent of each other,inas!uch as one is often found without the other# The reason of this,as we sha find, is si!py that !ora eFceence in no wise springsfro! refection, which is de"eoped by inteectua cuture, butfro! the wi itsef, the constitution of which is innate and notsusceptibe in itsef of any i!pro"e!ent by !eans of education#Bastho! represents !ost nations as "ery "icious and i!!ora and onthe other hand he reports that eFceent traits of character are found

a!ongst so!e sa"age peopes as, for instance, a!ongst the Orotchyses,the inhabitants of the isand Sa"u, the Tunguses, and the Peewisanders# ;e thus atte!pts to so"e the probe!, ;ow it is that so!etribes are so re!arkaby good, when their neighbours are a bad,

7t see!s to !e that the difficuty !ay be eFpained as foows ?oraDuaities, as we know, are heritabe, and an isoated tribe, such asis described, !ight take its rise in so!e one fa!iy, and uti!ateyin a singe ancestor who happened to be a good !an, and then !aintainits purity# 7s it not the case, for instance, that on !any unpeasantoccasions, such as repudiation of pubic debts, fiibustering raidsand so on, the Engish ha"e often re!inded the =orth A!ericans oftheir descent fro! Engish pena coonistsJ 7t is a reproach, howe"er,

which can appy ony to a s!a part of the popuation#

7t is !ar"eous how e"ery !an's indi"iduaity Kthat is to say, theunion of a definite character with a definite inteectL accurateydeter!ines a his actions and thoughts down to the !ost uni!portantdetais, as though it were a dye which per"aded the! and how, inconseDuence, one !an's whoe course of ife, in other words, his innerand outer history, turns out so absoutey different fro! another's#As a botanist knows a pant in its entirety fro! a singe eaf as6u"ier fro! a singe bone constructed the whoe ani!a, so an accurateknowedge of a !an's whoe character !ay be attained fro! a singecharacteristic act that is to say, he hi!sef !ay to so!e eFtentbe constructed fro! it, e"en though the act in Duestion is of "ery

trifing conseDuence# =ay, that is the !ost perfect test of a, forin a !atter of i!portance peope are on their guard in trifesthey foow their natura bent without !uch refection# That iswhy Seneca's re!ark, that e"en the s!aest things !ay be taken ase"idence of character, is so true argu!enta !oru! eF !ini!is DuoDueicet capere#0+5 7f a !an shows by his absoutey unscrupuous andsefish beha"iour in s!a things that a senti!ent of justice isforeign to his disposition, he shoud not be trusted with a pennyuness on due security# :or who wi beie"e that the !an who e"eryday shows that he is unjust in a !atters other than those whichconcern property, and whose boundess sefishness e"erywhere protrudesthrough the s!a affairs of ordinary ife which are subject tono scrutiny, ike a dirty shirt through the hoes of a ragged

jacket%%who, 7 ask, wi beie"e that such a !an wi act honourabyin !atters of !eu! and tuu! without any other incenti"e but thatof justiceJ The !an who has no conscience in s!a things wi be ascoundre in big things# 7f we negect s!a traits of character,we ha"e ony ourse"es to ba!e if we afterwards earn to ourdisad"antage what this character is in the great affairs of ife# Onthe sa!e principe, we ought to break with so%caed friends e"en in!atters of trifing !o!ent, if they show a character that is !aiciousor bad or "ugar, so that we !ay a"oid the bad turn which ony waitsfor an opportunity of being done us# The sa!e thing appies toser"ants# &et it aways be our !aFi! Better aone than a!ongst



traitors#

0:ootnote + Ep#, 8-#5

Of a truth the first and fore!ost step in a knowedge of !ankind isthe con"iction that a !an's conduct, taken as a whoe, and in a itsessentia particuars, is not go"erned by his reason or by any of theresoutions which he !ay !ake in "irtue of it# =o !an beco!es this or

that by wishing to be it, howe"er earnesty# ;is acts proceed fro! hisinnate and unaterabe character, and they are !ore i!!ediatey andparticuary deter!ined by !oti"es# A !an's conduct, therefore, is thenecessary product of both character and !oti"e# 7t !ay be iustratedby the course of a panet, which is the resut of the co!bined effectof the tangentia energy with which it is endowed, and the centripetaenergy which operates fro! the sun# 7n this si!ie the for!er energyrepresents character, and the atter the infuence of !oti"e# 7t isa!ost !ore than a !ere si!ie# The tangentia energy which properyspeaking is the source of the panet's !otion, whist on theother hand the !otion is kept in check by gra"itation, is, fro! a!etaphysica point of "iew, the wi !anifesting itsef in that body#

To grasp this fact is to see that we reay ne"er for! anything !orethan a conjecture of what we sha do under circu!stances which aresti to happen athough we often take our conjecture for a reso"e#hen, for instance, in pursuance of a proposa, a !an with thegreatest sincerity, and e"en eagerness, accepts an engage!ent to dothis or that on the occurrence of a certain future e"ent, it is byno !eans certain that he wi fufi the engage!ent uness he is soconstituted that the pro!ise which he gi"es, in itsef and as such, isaways and e"erywhere a !oti"e sufficient for hi!, by acting upon hi!,through considerations of honour, ike so!e eFterna co!pusion# Butabo"e and beyond this, what he wi do on the occurrence of that e"ent!ay be foretod fro! true and accurate knowedge of his character andthe eFterna circu!stances under the infuence of which he wi fa

and it !ay with co!pete certainty be foretod fro! this aone# =ay,it is a "ery easy prophecy if he has been aready seen in a ikeposition for he wi ine"itaby do the sa!e thing a second ti!e,pro"ided that on the first occasion he had a true and co!peteknowedge of the facts of the case# :or, as 7 ha"e often re!arked, afina cause does not i!pe a !an by being rea, but by being knowncausa finais non !o"et secundu! suu! esse reae, sed secundu! essecognitu!#0+5 hate"er he faied to recognise or understand the firstti!e coud ha"e no infuence upon his wi just as an eectriccurrent stops when so!e isoating body hinders the action of theconductor# This unaterabe nature of character, and the conseDuentnecessity of our actions, are !ade "ery cear to a !an who has not,on any gi"en occasion, beha"ed as he ought to ha"e done, by showing

a ack either of resoution or endurance or courage, or so!e otherDuaity de!anded at the !o!ent# Afterwards he recognises what it isthat he ought to ha"e done and, sincerey repenting of his incorrectbeha"iour, he thinks to hi!sef, 7f the opportunity were offered to!e again, 7 shoud act differenty# 7t is offered once !ore the sa!eoccasion recurs and to his great astonish!ent he does precisey thesa!e thing o"er again#0-5

0:ootnote + SuareM, )isp# ?etaph#, FFiii# 2 and #5��

0:ootnote - 6f# ord as i, ii#, pp# -8+ ff# sDD# Kthird



editionL#5

The best eFa!pes of the truth in Duestion are in e"ery way furnishedby Shakespeare's pays# 7t is a truth with which he was thoroughyi!bued, and his intuiti"e wisdo! eFpressed it in a concrete shape one"ery page# 7 sha here, howe"er, gi"e an instance of it in a case inwhich he !akes it re!arkaby cear, without eFhibiting any design oraffectation in the !atter for he was a rea artist and ne"er set

out fro! genera ideas# ;is !ethod was ob"iousy to work up to thepsychoogica truth which he grasped directy and intuiti"ey,regardess of the fact that few woud notice or understand it, andwithout the s!aest idea that so!e du and shaow feows inGer!any woud one day procai! far and wide that he wrote his works toiustrate !ora co!!onpaces# 7 aude to the character of the Earof =orthu!berand, who! we find in three pays in succession, athoughhe does not take a eading part in any one of the! nay, he appearsony in a few scenes distributed o"er fifteen acts# 6onseDuenty, ifthe reader is not "ery attenti"e, a character eFhibited at such greatinter"as, and its !ora identity, !ay easiy escape his notice, e"enthough it has by no !eans escaped the poet's# ;e !akes the ear appeare"erywhere with a nobe and knighty grace, and tak in anguage

suitabe to it nay, he so!eti!es puts "ery beautifu and e"enee"ated passages, into his !outh# At the sa!e ti!e he is "ery farfro! writing after the !anner of Schier, who was fond of paintingthe de"i back, and whose !ora appro"a or disappro"a of thecharacters which he presented coud be heard in their own words# ithShakespeare, and aso with Goethe, e"ery character, as ong as he ison the stage and speaking, see!s to be absoutey in the right, e"enthough it were the de"i hi!sef# 7n this respect et the readerco!pare )uke Aba as he appears in Goethe with the sa!e character inSchier#

e !ake the acDuaintance of the Ear of =orthu!berand in the pay of(ichard 77#, where he is the first to hatch a pot against the >ing

in fa"our of Boingbroke, afterwards ;enry 7@#, to who! he e"en offersso!e persona fattery KAct 77#, Sc# 3L# 7n the foowing act hesuffers a repri!and because, in speaking of the >ing he taks of hi!as (ichard, without !ore ado, but protests that he did it ony forbre"ity's sake# A itte ater his insidious words induce the >ing tosurrender# 7n the foowing act, when the >ing renounces the crown,=orthu!berand treats hi! with such harshness and conte!pt that theunucky !onarch is Duite broken, and osing a patience once !oreeFcai!s to hi! :iend, thou tor!ent'st !e ere 7 co!e to heH Atthe cose, =orthu!berand announces to the new >ing that he has sentthe heads of the for!er >ing's adherents to &ondon#

7n the foowing tragedy, ;enry 7@#, he hatches a pot against the

new >ing in just the sa!e way# 7n the fourth act we see the rebesunited, !aking preparations for the decisi"e batte on the !orrow, andony waiting i!patienty for =orthu!berand and his di"ision# At astthere arri"es a etter fro! hi!, saying that he is i, and that hecannot entrust his force to any one ese but that ne"ertheess theothers shoud go forward with courage and !ake a bra"e fight# Theydo so, but, greaty weakened by his absence, they are co!peteydefeated !ost of their eaders are captured, and his own son, the"aorous ;otspur, fas by the hand of the Prince of aes#

Again, in the foowing pay, the Second Part of ;enry 7@#, we see



hi! reduced to a state of the fiercest wrath by the death of his son,and !addened by the thirst for re"enge# Accordingy he kindes anotherrebeion, and the heads of it asse!be once !ore# 7n the fourth act,just as they are about to gi"e batte, and are ony waiting for hi! tojoin the!, there co!es a etter saying that he cannot coect a properforce, and wi therefore seek safety for the present in Scotandthat, ne"ertheess, he heartiy wishes their heroic undertaking thebest success# Thereupon they surrender to the >ing under a treaty

which is not kept, and so perish#

So far is character fro! being the work of reasoned choice andconsideration that in any action the inteect has nothing to do butto present !oti"es to the wi# Thereafter it ooks on as a !erespectator and witness at the course which ife takes, in accordancewith the infuence of !oti"e on the gi"en character# A the incidentsof ife occur, stricty speaking, with the sa!e necessity as the!o"e!ent of a cock# On this point et !e refer to !y priMe%essay onThe :reedo! of the i# 7 ha"e there eFpained the true !eaning andorigin of the persistent iusion that the wi is entirey free ine"ery singe action and 7 ha"e indicated the cause to which it isdue# 7 wi ony add here the foowing teeoogica eFpanation of

this natura iusion#

Since e"ery singe action of a !an's ife see!s to possess the freedo!and originaity which in truth ony beong to his character as heapprehends it, and the !ere apprehension of it by his inteect iswhat constitutes his career and since what is origina in e"erysinge action see!s to the e!pirica consciousness to be aways beingperfor!ed anew, a !an thus recei"es in the course of his career thestrongest possibe !ora esson# Then, and not before, he beco!esthoroughy conscious of a the bad sides of his character# 6onscienceacco!panies e"ery act with the co!!ent $ou shoud act differenty,athough its true sense is $ou coud be other than you are# As theresut of this i!!utabiity of character on the one hand, and, on the

other, of the strict necessity which attends a the circu!stances inwhich character is successi"ey paced, e"ery !an's course of ifeis precisey deter!ined fro! Apha right through to O!ega# But,ne"ertheess, one !an's course of ife turns out i!!easuraby happier,nober and !ore worthy than another's, whether it be regarded fro! asubjecti"e or an objecti"e point of "iew, and uness we are to eFcudea ideas of justice, we are ed to the doctrine which is weaccepted in Brah!anis! and Buddhis!, that the subjecti"e conditions inwhich, as we as the objecti"e conditions under which, e"ery !an isborn, are the !ora conseDuences of a pre"ious eFistence#

?acchia"ei, who see!s to ha"e taken no interest whate"er inphiosophica specuations, is drawn by the keen subtety of his "ery

uniDue understanding into the foowing obser"ation, which possessesa reay deep !eaning# 7t shows that he had an intuiti"e knowedge ofthe entire necessity with which, characters and !oti"es being gi"en,a actions take pace# ;e !akes it at the beginning of the proogueto his co!edy 6itia# 7f, he says, the sa!e !en were to recurin the word in the way that the sa!e circu!stances recur, a hundredyears woud ne"er eapse without our finding ourse"es together once!ore, and doing the sa!e things as we are doing now%%Se ne !ondotornassino i !edesi!i uo!ini, co!o tornano i !edesi!i casi, nonpassarebbono !ai cento anni che noi non ci tro"assi!o un atra "otainsie!e, a fare e !edesi!e cose che hora# ;e see!s howe"er to ha"e



been drawn into the re!ark by a re!iniscence of what Augustine says inhis )e 6i"itate )ei, bk# Fii#, ch# Fiii#

Again, :ate, or the 0Greek ei!ar!enae5 of the ancients, is nothingbut the conscious certainty that a that happens is fast bound by achain of causes, and therefore takes pace with a strict necessitythat the future is aready ordained with absoute certainty and canundergo as itte ateration as the past# 7n the fataistic !yths of

the ancients a that can be regarded as fabuous is the predictionof the future that is, if we refuse to consider the possibiity of!agnetic cair"oyance and second sight# 7nstead of trying to eFpainaway the funda!enta truth of :atais! by superficia twadde andfooish e"asion, a !an shoud atte!pt to get a cear knowedge andco!prehension of it for it is de!onstraby true, and it heps us in a"ery i!portant way to an understanding of the !ysterious ridde ofour ife# Predestination and :atais! do not differ in the !ain# Theydiffer ony in this, that with Predestination the gi"en character andeFterna deter!ination of hu!an action proceed fro! a rationa Being,and with :atais! fro! an irrationa one# But in either case theresut is the sa!e that happens which !ust happen#

On the other hand the conception of ?ora :reedo! is inseparabefro! that of Originaity# A !an !ay be said, but he cannot beconcei"ed, to be the work of another, and at the sa!e ti!e be free inrespect of his desires and acts# ;e who caed hi! into eFistence outof nothing in the sa!e process created and deter!ined his nature%%inother words, the whoe of his Duaities# :or no one can create withoutcreating a so!ething, that is to say, a being deter!ined throughoutand in a its Duaities# But a that a !an says and does necessariyproceeds fro! the Duaities so deter!ined for it is ony theDuaities the!se"es set in !otion# 7t is ony so!e eFterna i!pusethat they reDuire to !ake their appearance# As a !an is, so !ust heact and praise or ba!e attaches, not to his separate acts, but tohis nature and being#

That is the reason why Theis! and the !ora responsibiity of !an areinco!patibe because responsibiity aways re"erts to the creator of!an and it is there that it has its centre# @ain atte!pts ha"e been!ade to !ake a bridge fro! one of these inco!patibes to the other by!eans of the conception of !ora freedo! but it aways breaks downagain# hat is free !ust aso be origina# 7f our wi is free,our wi is aso the origina ee!ent, and con"ersey# Pre%>antiandog!atis! tried to separate these two predica!ents# 7t was therebyco!peed to assu!e two kinds of freedo!, one cos!oogica, of thefirst cause, and the other !ora and theoogica, of hu!an wi# Theseare represented in >ant by the third as we as the fourth anti!ony offreedo!#

On the other hand, in !y phiosophy the pain recognition of thestricty necessary character of a action is in accordance with thedoctrine that what !anifests itsef e"en in the organic and irrationaword is wi# 7f this were not so, the necessity under whichirrationa beings ob"iousy act woud pace their action in confictwith wi if, 7 !ean, there were reay such a thing as the freedo!of indi"idua action, and this were not as stricty necessitated ase"ery other kind of action# But, as 7 ha"e just shown, it is this sa!edoctrine of the necessary character of a acts of wi which !akes itneedfu to regard a !an's eFistence and being as itsef the work of



his freedo!, and conseDuenty of his wi# The wi, therefore, !ustbe sef%eFistent it !ust possess so%caed a%se%ity# <nder theopposite supposition a responsibiity, as 7 ha"e shown, woud be atan end, and the !ora ike the physica word woud be a !ere !achine,set in !otion for the a!use!ent of its !anufacturer paced so!ewhereoutside of it# So it is that truths hang together, and !utuayad"ance and co!pete one another whereas error gets josted at e"erycorner#

hat kind of infuence it is that !ora instruction !ay eFerciseon conduct, and what are the i!its of that infuence, are Duestionswhich 7 ha"e sufficienty eFa!ined in the twentieth section of !ytreatise on the :oundation of ?oraity# 7n a essentia particuarsan anaogous infuence is eFercised by eFa!pe, which, howe"er, hasa !ore powerfu effect than doctrine, and therefore it deser"es abrief anaysis#

7n the !ain, eFa!pe works either by restraining a !an or byencouraging hi!# 7t has the for!er effect when it deter!ines hi! toea"e undone what he wanted to do# ;e sees, 7 !ean, that other peopedo not do it and fro! this he judges, in genera, that it is not

eFpedient that it !ay endanger his person, or his property, or hishonour#

;e rests content, and gady finds hi!sef reie"ed fro! eFa!ininginto the !atter for hi!sef# Or he !ay see that another !an, who hasnot refrained, has incurred e"i conseDuences fro! doing it this iseFa!pe of the deterrent kind# The eFa!pe which encourages a !anworks in a twofod !anner# 7t either induces hi! to do what he woudbe gad to ea"e undone, if he were not afraid est the o!ission !ightin so!e way endanger hi!, or injure hi! in others' opinion or ese itencourages hi! to do what he is gad to do, but has hitherto refrainedfro! doing fro! fear of danger or sha!e this is eFa!pe of theseducti"e kind# :inay, eFa!pe !ay bring a !an to do what he woud

ha"e otherwise ne"er thought of doing# 7t is ob"ious that in this astcase eFa!pe works in the !ain ony on the inteect its effect onthe wi is secondary, and if it has any such effect, it is by theinterposition of the !an's own judg!ent, or by reiance on the personwho presented the eFa!pe#

The whoe infuence of eFa!pe%%and it is "ery strong%%rests on thefact that a !an has, as a rue, too itte judg!ent of his own, andoften too itte knowedge, o eFpore his own way for hi!sef, andthat he is gad, therefore, to tread in the footsteps of so!e oneese# Accordingy, the !ore deficient he is in either of theseDuaities, the !ore is he open to the infuence of eFa!pe and wefind, in fact, that !ost !en's guiding star is the eFa!pe of others

that their whoe course of ife, in great things and in s!a, co!esin the end to be !ere i!itation and that not e"en in the pettiest!atters do they act according to their own judg!ent# 7!itation andcusto! are the spring of a!ost a hu!an action# The cause of itis that !en fight shy of a and any sort of refection, and "erypropery !istrust their own discern!ent# At the sa!e ti!e thisre!arkaby strong i!itati"e instinct in !an is a proof of his kinshipwith apes#

But the kind of effect which eFa!pe eFercises depends upon a !an'scharacter, and thus it is that the sa!e eFa!pe !ay possiby seduce



one !an and deter another# An easy opportunity of obser"ing this isafforded in the case of certain socia i!pertinences which co!e into"ogue and graduay spread# The first ti!e that a !an notices anythingof the kind, he !ay say to hi!sef :or sha!eH how can he do itH howsefish and inconsiderate of hi!H reay, 7 sha take care ne"er todo anything ike that# But twenty others wi think AhaH if he doesthat, 7 !ay do it too#

As regards !oraity, eFa!pe, ike doctrine, !ay, it is true, pro!oteci"i or ega a!eioration, but not that inward a!end!ent which is,stricty speaking, the ony kind of !ora a!eioration# :or eFa!peaways works as a persona !oti"e aone, and assu!es, therefore,that a !an is susceptibe to this sort of !oti"e# But it is just thepredo!inating sensiti"eness of a character to this or that sort of!oti"e that deter!ines whether its !oraity is true and rea though,of whate"er kind it is, it is aways innate# 7n genera it !ay be saidthat eFa!pe operates as a !eans of pro!oting the good and the badDuaities of a character, but it does not create the! and so itis that Seneca's !aFi!, "ee non discitur%%wi cannot beearned%%aso hods good here# But the innateness of a truy !oraDuaities, of the good as of the bad, is a doctrine that consorts

better with the !ete!psychosis of the Brah!ins and Buddhists,according to which a !an's good and bad deeds foow hi! fro! oneeFistence to another ike his shadow, than with *udais!# :or *udais!reDuires a !an to co!e into the word as a !ora bank, so that, in"irtue of an inconcei"abe free wi, directed to objects whichare neither to be sought nor a"oided%%iberu! arbitriu!indifferentiae%%and conseDuenty as the resut of reasonedconsideration, he !ay choose whether he is to be an ange or a de"i,or anything ese that !ay ie between the two# Though 7 a! we awarewhat the *ewish sche!e is, 7 pay no attention to it for !y standardis truth# 7 a! no professor of phiosophy, and therefore 7 do not find!y "ocation in estabishing the funda!enta ideas of *udais! at anycost, e"en though they for e"er bar the way to a and e"ery kind of

phiosophica knowedge# &iberu! arbitriu! indifferentiae underthe na!e of !ora freedo! is a char!ing do for professors ofphiosophy to dande and we !ust ea"e it to those inteigent,honourabe and upright gente!en#

6;A(A6TE(#

?en who aspire to a happy, a briiant and a ong ife, instead of toa "irtuous one, are ike fooish actors who want to be aways ha"ing

the great parts,%%the parts that are !arked by spendour and triu!ph#They fai to see that the i!portant thing is not what or how !uch,but how they act#

Since a !an does not ater, and his !ora character re!ainsabsoutey the sa!e a through his ife since he !ust pay out thepart which he has recei"ed, without the east de"iation fro! thecharacter since neither eFperience, nor phiosophy, nor reigioncan effect any i!pro"e!ent in hi!, the Duestion arises, hat is the!eaning of ife at aJ To what purpose is it payed, this farcein which e"erything that is essentia is irre"ocaby fiFed and



deter!inedJ

7t is payed that a !an !ay co!e to understand hi!sef, that he !aysee what it is that he seeks and has sought to be what he wants, andwhat, therefore, he is# This is a knowedge which !ust be i!partedto hi! fro! without# &ife is to !an, in other words, to wi, whatche!ica re%agents are to the body it is ony by ife that a !anre"eas what he is, and it is ony in so far as he re"eas hi!sef

that he eFists at a# &ife is the !anifestation of character, of theso!ething that we understand by that word and it is not in ife, butoutside of it, and outside ti!e, that character undergoes ateration,as a resut of the sef%knowedge which ife gi"es# &ife is onythe !irror into which a !an gaMes not in order that he !ay get arefection of hi!sef, but that he !ay co!e to understand hi!sef bythat refection that he !ay see what it is that the !irror shows#&ife is the proof sheet, in which the co!positors' errors are broughtto ight# ;ow they beco!e "isibe, and whether the type is arge ors!a, are !atters of no conseDuence# =either in the eFternas of ifenor in the course of history is there any significance for as it isa one whether an error occurs in the arge type or in the s!a, soit is a one, as regards the essence of the !atter, whether an e"i

disposition is !irrored as a conDueror of the word or a co!!onswinder or i%natured egoist# 7n one case he is seen of a !en inthe other, perhaps ony of hi!sef but that he shoud see hi!sef iswhat signifies#

Therefore if egois! has a fir! hod of a !an and !asters hi!, whetherit be in the for! of joy, or triu!ph, or ust, or hope, or franticgrief, or annoyance, or anger, or fear, or suspicion, or passion ofany kind%%he is in the de"i's cutches and how he got into the! doesnot !atter# hat is needfu is that he shoud !ake haste to get out ofthe! and here, again, it does not !atter how#

7 ha"e described character as theoreticay an act of wi ying

beyond ti!e, of which ife in ti!e, or character in action, is thede"eop!ent# :or !atters of practica ife we a possess the one aswe as the other for we are constituted of the! both# 6haracter!odifies our ife !ore than we think, and it is to a certain eFtenttrue that e"ery !an is the architect of his own fortune# =o doubt itsee!s as if our ot were assigned to us a!ost entirey fro! without,and i!parted to us in so!ething of the sa!e way in which a !eodyoutside us reaches the ear# But on ooking back o"er our past, we seeat once that our ife consists of !ere "ariations on one and the sa!ethe!e, na!ey, our character, and that the sa!e funda!enta basssounds through it a# This is an eFperience which a !an can and !ust!ake in and by hi!sef#

=ot ony a !an's ife, but his inteect too, !ay be possessed of acear and definite character, so far as his inteect is appied to!atters of theory# 7t is not e"ery !an, howe"er, who has an inteectof this kind for any such definite indi"iduaity as 7 !ean isgenius%%an origina "iew of the word, which presupposes an absouteyeFceptiona indi"iduaity, which is the essence of genius# A !an'sinteectua character is the the!e on which a his works are"ariations# 7n an essay which 7 wrote in ei!ar 7 caed it the knackby which e"ery genius produces his works, howe"er "arious# Thisinteectua character deter!ines the physiogno!y of !en ofgenius%%what 7 !ight ca the theoretica physiogno!y%%and gi"es it



that distinguished eFpression which is chiefy seen in the eyes andthe forehead# 7n the case of ordinary !en the physiogno!y presents no!ore than a weak anaogy with the physiogno!y of genius# On the otherhand, a !en possess the practica physiogno!y, the sta!p of wi,of practica character, of !ora disposition and it shows itsefchiefy in the !outh#

Since character, so far as we understand its nature, is abo"e and

beyond ti!e, it cannot undergo any change under the infuence of ife#But athough it !ust necessariy re!ain the sa!e aways, it reDuiresti!e to unfod itsef and show the "ery di"erse aspects which it !aypossess# :or character consists of two factors one, the wi%to%i"eitsef, bind i!puse, so%caed i!petuosity the other, the restraintwhich the wi acDuires when it co!es to understand the word and theword, again, is itsef wi# A !an !ay begin by foowing the cra"ingof desire, unti he co!es to see how hoow and unrea a thing isife, how deceitfu are its peasures, what horribe aspects itpossesses and this it is that !akes peope her!its, penitents,?agdaenes# =e"ertheess it is to be obser"ed that no such changefro! a ife of great indugence in peasure to one of resignation ispossibe, eFcept to the !an who of his own accord renounces peasure#

A reay bad ife cannot be changed into a "irtuous one# The !ostbeautifu sou, before it co!es to know ife fro! its horribe side,!ay eagery drink the sweets of ife and re!ain innocent# But itcannot co!!it a bad action it cannot cause others suffering to doa peasure to itsef, for in that case it woud see ceary whatit woud be doing and whate"er be its youth and ineFperience itpercei"es the sufferings of others as ceary as its own peasures#That is why one bad action is a guarantee that nu!beress others wibe co!!itted as soon as circu!stances gi"e occasion for the!# So!ebodyonce re!arked to !e, with entire justice, that e"ery !an had so!ething"ery good and hu!ane in his disposition, and aso so!ething "ery badand !aignant and that according as he was !o"ed one or the other ofthe! !ade its appearance# The sight of others' suffering arouses, not

ony in different !en, but in one and the sa!e !an, at one !o!ent anineFhaustibe sy!pathy, at another a certain satisfaction and thissatisfaction !ay increase unti it beco!es the crueest deight inpain# 7 obser"e in !ysef that at one !o!ent 7 regard a !ankind withheartfet pity, at another with the greatest indifference, on occasionwith hatred, nay, with a positi"e enjoy!ent of their pain#

A this shows "ery ceary that we are possessed of two different,nay, absoutey contradictory, ways of regarding the word oneaccording to the principe of indi"iduation, which eFhibits acreatures as entire strangers to us, as definitey not ourse"es# ecan ha"e no feeings for the! but those of indifference, en"y, hatred,and deight that they suffer# The other way of regarding the word

is in accordance with what 7 !ay ca theTat%twa!%asi%%this%is%thysef principe# A creatures areeFhibited as identica with ourse"es and so it is pity and o"ewhich the sight of the! arouses#

The one !ethod separates indi"iduas by i!passabe barriers the otherre!o"es the barrier and brings the indi"iduas together# The one !akesus fee, in regard to e"ery !an, that is what 7 a! the other,that is not what 7 a!# But it is re!arkabe that whie the sight ofanother's suffering !akes us fee our identity with hi!, and arousesour pity, this is not so with the sight of another's happiness# Then



we a!ost aways fee so!e en"y and e"en though we !ay ha"e no suchfeeing in certain cases,%%as, for instance, when our friends arehappy,%%yet the interest which we take in their happiness is of a weakdescription, and cannot co!pare with the sy!pathy which we fee withtheir suffering# 7s this because we recognise a happiness to be adeusion, or an i!pedi!ent to true wefareJ =oH 7 a! incined to thinkthat it is because the sight of the peasure, or the possessions,which are denied to us, arouses en"y that is to say, the wish that

we, and not the other, had that peasure or those possessions#

7t is ony the first way of ooking at the word which is founded onany de!onstrabe reason# The other is, as it were, the gate out ofthis word it has no attestation beyond itsef, uness it be the "eryabstract and difficut proof which !y doctrine suppies# hy the firstway predo!inates in one !an, and the second in another%%though perhapsit does not eFcusi"ey predo!inate in any !an why the one or theother e!erges according as the wi is !o"ed%%these are deep probe!s#The paths of night and day are cose together

0Greek Engus gar nuktos de kai ae!atos eisi keeuthoi#5

7t is a fact that there is a great and origina difference betweenone e!pirica character and another and it is a difference which,at botto!, rests upon the reation of the indi"idua's wi to hisinteectua facuty# This reation is finay deter!ined by thedegree of wi in his father and of inteect in his !other and theunion of father and !other is for the !ost part an affair of chance#This woud a !ean a re"oting injustice in the nature of theword, if it were not that the difference between parents and son ispheno!ena ony and a chance is, at botto!, necessity#

As regards the freedo! of the wi, if it were the case that the wi!anifested itsef in a singe act aone, it woud be a free act# Butthe wi !anifests itsef in a course of ife, that is to say, in a

series of acts# E"ery one of these acts, therefore, is deter!ined asa part of a co!pete whoe, and cannot happen otherwise than it doeshappen# On the other hand, the whoe series is free it is si!py the!anifestation of an indi"iduaised wi#

7f a !an fees incined to co!!it a bad action and refrains, he iskept back either K+L by fear of punish!ent or "engeance or K-L bysuperstition in other words, fear of punish!ent in a future ife orK3L by the feeing of sy!pathy, incuding genera charity or K/L bythe feeing of honour, in other words, the fear of sha!e or K8L bythe feeing of justice, that is, an objecti"e attach!ent to fideityand good%faith, couped with a reso"e to hod the! sacred, becausethey are the foundation of a free intercourse between !an and

!an, and therefore often of ad"antage to hi!sef as we# This astthought, not indeed as a thought, but as a !ere feeing, infuencespeope "ery freDuenty# 7t is this that often co!pes a !an of honour,when so!e great but unjust ad"antage is offered hi!, to reject it withconte!pt and proudy eFcai! 7 a! an honourabe !anH :or otherwisehow shoud a poor !an, confronted with the property which chance ore"en so!e worse agency has bestowed on the rich, whose "ery eFistenceit is that !akes hi! poor, fee so !uch sincere respect for thisproperty, that he refuses to touch it e"en in his need and athoughhe has a prospect of escaping punish!ent, what other thought is itthat can be at the botto! of such a !an's honestyJ ;e is reso"ed not



to separate hi!sef fro! the great co!!unity of honourabe peopewho ha"e the earth in possession, and whose aws are recognisede"erywhere# ;e knows that a singe dishonest act wi ostracise andproscribe hi! fro! that society for e"er# =oH a !an wi spend !oneyon any soi that yieds hi! good fruit, and he wi !ake sacrificesfor it#

ith a good action,%%that, e"ery action in which a !an's own ad"antage

is ostensiby subordinated to another's,%%the !oti"e is either K+Lsef%interest, kept in the background or K-L superstition, in otherwords, sef%interest in the for! of reward in another ife or K3Lsy!pathy or K/L the desire to end a heping hand, in other words,attach!ent to the !aFi! that we shoud assist one another in need, andthe wish to !aintain this !aFi!, in "iew of the presu!ption that so!eday we ourse"es !ay find it ser"e our turn# :or what >ant cas agood action done fro! !oti"es of duty and for the sake of duty, thereis, as wi be seen, no roo! at a# >ant hi!sef decares it to bedoubtfu whether an action was e"er deter!ined by pure !oti"es of dutyaone# 7 affir! !ost certainy that no action was e"er so done it is!ere babbe there is nothing in it that coud reay act as a !oti"eto any !an# hen he sheters hi!sef behind "erbiage of that sort, he

is aways actuated by one of the four !oti"es which 7 ha"e described#A!ong these it is ob"iousy sy!pathy aone which is Duite genuine andsincere#

Good and bad appy to character ony potiori that is to say,�we prefer the good to the bad but, absoutey, there is no suchdistinction# The difference arises at the point which ies betweensubordinating one's own ad"antage to that of another, and notsubordinating it# 7f a !an keeps to the eFact !idde, he is just#But !ost !en go an inch in their regard for others' wefare to twentyyards in regard for their own#

The source of good and of bad character, so far as we ha"e any

rea knowedge of it, ies in this, that with the bad character thethought of the eFterna word, and especiay of the i"ing creaturesin it, is acco!panied%%a the !ore, the greater the rese!bancebetween the! and the indi"idua sef%%by a constant feeing of not 7,not 7, not 7#

6ontrariy, with the good character Kboth being assu!ed to eFist ina high degreeL the sa!e thought has for its acco!pani!ent, ike afunda!enta bass, a constant feeing of 7, 7, 7# :ro! this springbene"oence and a disposition to hep a !en, and at the sa!e ti!e acheerfu, confident and tranDui fra!e of !ind, the opposite of thatwhich acco!panies the bad character#

The difference, howe"er, is ony pheno!ena, athough it is adifference which is radica# But now we co!e to the hardest of aprobe!s ;ow is it that, whie the wi, as the thing%in%itsef, isidentica, and fro! a !etaphysica point of "iew one and the sa!ein a its !anifestations, there is ne"ertheess such an enor!ousdifference between one character and anotherJ%%the !aicious,diaboica wickedness of the one, and set off against it, the goodnessof the other, showing a the !ore conspicuousy# ;ow is it that weget a Tiberius, a 6aigua, a 6arcaa, a )o!itian, a =ero and on theother hand, the Antonines, Titus, ;adrian, =er"aJ ;ow is it that a!ongthe ani!as, nay, in a higher species, in indi"idua ani!as, there is



a ike differenceJ%%the !aignity of the cat !ost strongy de"eopedin the tiger the spite of the !onkey on the other hand, goodness,fideity and o"e in the dog and the eephant# 7t is ob"ious that theprincipe of wickedness in the brute is the sa!e as in !an#

e !ay to so!e eFtent !odify the difficuty of the probe! byobser"ing that the whoe difference is in the end ony one of degree#7n e"ery i"ing creature, the funda!enta propensities and instincts

a eFist, but they eFist in "ery different degrees and proportions#This, howe"er, is not enough to eFpain the facts#

e !ust fa back upon the inteect and its reation to the wi itis the ony eFpanation that re!ains# A !an's inteect, howe"er, byno !eans stands in any direct and ob"ious reation with the goodnessof his character# e !ay, it is true, discri!inate between two kindsof inteect between understanding, as the apprehension of reationin accordance with the Principe of Sufficient (eason, and cognition,a facuty akin to genius, which acts !ore directy, is independent ofthis aw, and passes beyond the Principe of 7ndi"iduation# The atteris the facuty which apprehends 7deas, and it is the facuty whichhas to do with !oraity# But e"en this eFpanation ea"es !uch to

be desired# :ine !inds are sedo! fine sous was the correctobser"ation of *ean Pau athough they are ne"er the contrary# &ordBacon, who, to be sure, was ess a fine sou than a fine !ind, was ascoundre#

7 ha"e decared space and ti!e to be part of the Principe of7ndi"iduation, as it is ony space and ti!e that !ake the !utipicityof si!iar objects a possibiity# But !utipicity itsef aso ad!itsof "ariety !utipicity and di"ersity are not ony Duantitati"e, butaso Duaitati"e# ;ow is it that there is such a thing as Duaitati"edi"ersity, especiay in ethica !attersJ Or ha"e 7 faen into anerror the opposite of that in which &eibnitM fe with his identitasindiscernibiiu!J

The chief cause of inteectua di"ersity is to be found in thebrain and ner"ous syste!# This is a fact which so!ewhat essens theobscurity of the subject# ith the brutes the inteect and the brainare stricty adapted to their ai!s and needs# ith !an aone thereis now and then, by way of eFception, a superfuity, which, if it isabundant, !ay yied genius# But ethica di"ersity, it see!s, proceedsi!!ediatey fro! the wi# Otherwise ethica character woud not beabo"e and beyond ti!e, as it is ony in the indi"idua that inteectand wi are united# The wi is abo"e and beyond ti!e, and eternaand character is innate that is to say, it is sprung fro! the sa!eeternity, and therefore it does not ad!it of any but a transcendentaeFpanation#

Perhaps so!e one wi co!e after !e who wi throw ight into thisdark abyss#

?O(A& 7=ST7=6T#

An act done by instinct differs fro! e"ery other kind of act in that



an understanding of its object does not precede it but foows uponit# 7nstinct is therefore a rue of action gi"en priori# e !ay be�unaware of the object to which it is directed, as no understanding ofit is necessary to its attain!ent# On the other hand, if an act isdone by an eFercise of reason or inteigence, it proceeds accordingto a rue which the understanding has itsef de"ised for the purposeof carrying out a preconcei"ed ai!# ;ence it is that action accordingto rue !ay !iss its ai!, whie instinct is infaibe#

On the priori character of instinct we !ay co!pare what Pato says�in the Phiebus# ith Pato instinct is a re!iniscence of so!ethingwhich a !an has ne"er actuay eFperienced in his ifeti!e in thesa!e way as, in the Phaedo and esewhere, e"erything that a !anearns is regarded as a re!iniscence# ;e has no other word to eFpressthe priori ee!ent in a eFperience#�

There are, then, three things that are priori�

K+L Theoretica (eason, in other words, the conditions which !ake aeFperience possibe#

K-L 7nstinct, or the rue by which an object pro!oting the ife of thesenses !ay, though unknown, be attained#

K3L The ?ora &aw, or the rue by which an action takes pace withoutany object#

Accordingy rationa or inteigent action proceeds by a rue aiddown in accordance with the object as it is understood# 7nstincti"eaction proceeds by a rue without an understanding of the object ofit# ?ora action proceeds by a rue without any object at a#

Theoretica (eason is the aggregate of rues in accordancewith which a !y knowedge%%that is to say, the whoe word of

eFperience%%necessariy proceeds# 7n the sa!e !anner 7nstinct is theaggregate of rues in accordance with which a !y action necessariyproceeds if it !eets with no obstruction# ;ence it see!s to !e that7nstinct !ay !ost appropriatey be caed practica reason, for iketheoretica reason it deter!ines the !ust of a eFperience#

The so%caed !ora aw, on the other hand, is ony one aspect of thebetter consciousness, the aspect which it presents fro! the point of"iew of instinct# This better consciousness is so!ething ying beyonda eFperience, that is, beyond a reason, whether of the theoreticaor the practica kind, and has nothing to do with it whist it is in"irtue of the !ysterious union of it and reason in the sa!e indi"iduathat the better consciousness co!es into confict with reason, ea"ing

the indi"idua to choose between the two#

7n any confict between the better consciousness and reason, if theindi"idua decides for reason, shoud it be theoretica reason, hebeco!es a narrow, pedantic phiistine shoud it be practica, arasca#

7f he decides for the better consciousness, we can !ake no furtherpositi"e affir!ation about hi!, for if we were to do so, we shoudfind ourse"es in the rea! of reason and as it is ony what takespace within this rea! that we can speak of at a it foows that we



cannot speak of the better consciousness eFcept in negati"e ter!s#

This shows us how it is that reason is hindered and obstructedthat theoretica reason is suppressed in fa"our of genius, andpractica reason in fa"our of "irtue# =ow the better consciousnessis neither theoretica nor practica for these are distinctions thatony appy to reason# But if the indi"idua is in the act of choosing,the better consciousness appears to hi! in the aspect which it assu!es

in "anDuishing and o"erco!ing the practica reason Kor instinct, touse the co!!on wordL# 7t appears to hi! as an i!perati"e co!!and, anought# 7t so appears to hi!, 7 say in other words, that is theshape which it takes for the theoretica reason which rendersa things into objects and ideas# But in so far as the betterconsciousness desires to "anDuish and o"erco!e the theoretica reason,it takes no shape at a on the si!pe ground that, as it co!esinto pay, the theoretica reason is suppressed and beco!es the !ereser"ant of the better consciousness# That is why genius can ne"er gi"eany account of its own works#

7n the !oraity of action, the ega principe that both sides are tobe heard !ust not be aowed to appy in other words, the cai!s of

sef and the senses !ust not be urged# =ay, on the contrary, as soonas the pure wi has found eFpression, the case is cosed necaudienda atera pars#

The ower ani!as are not endowed with !ora freedo!# Probaby this isnot because they show no trace of the better consciousness which in usis !anifested as !oraity, or nothing anaogous to it for, if thatwere so, the ower ani!as, which are in so !any respects ikeourse"es in outward appearance that we regard !an as a species ofani!a, woud possess so!e raison d' tre entirey different fro! our�own, and actuay be, in their essentia and in!ost nature, so!ethingDuite other than ourse"es# This is a contention which is ob"iousyrefuted by the thoroughy !aignant and inherenty "icious character

of certain ani!as, such as the crocodie, the hyaena, the scorpion,the snake, and the gente, affectionate and contented character ofothers, such as the dog# ;ere, as in the case of !en, the character,as it is !anifested, !ust rest upon so!ething that is abo"e and beyondti!e# :or, as *acob B h!e says,0+5 there is a power in e"ery ani!a�which is indestructibe, and the spirit of the word draws it intoitsef, against the fina separation at the &ast *udg!ent# Thereforewe cannot ca the ower ani!as free, and the reason why we cannotdo so is that they are wanting in a facuty which is profoundysubordinate to the better consciousness in its highest phase, 7 !eanreason# (eason is the facuty of supre!e co!prehension, the idea oftotaity# ;ow reason !anifests itsef in the theoretica sphere >anthas shown, and it does the sa!e in the practica it !akes us capabe

of obser"ing and sur"eying the whoe of our ife, thought, and action,in continua connection, and therefore of acting according to genera!aFi!s, whether those !aFi!s originate in the understanding asprudentia rues, or in the better consciousness as !ora aws#

0:ootnote + Epistes, 8N#5

7f any desire or passion is aroused in us, we, and in the sa!e way theower ani!as, are for the !o!ent fied with this desire we are aanger, a ust, a fear and in such !o!ents neither the betterconsciousness can speak, nor the understanding consider the



conseDuences# But in our case reason aows us e"en at that !o!entto see our actions and our ife as an unbroken chain,%%a chainwhich connects our earier resoutions, or, it !ay be, the futureconseDuences of our action, with the !o!ent of passion which now fisour whoe consciousness# 7t shows us the identity of our person, e"enwhen that person is eFposed to infuences of the !ost "aried kind, andthereby we are enabed to act according to !aFi!s# The ower ani!ais wanting in this facuty the passion which seiMes it co!petey

do!inates it, and can be checked ony by another passion%%anger, forinstance, or ust, by fear e"en though the "ision that terrifies doesnot appea to the senses, but is present in the ani!a ony as a di!!e!ory and i!agination# ?en, therefore, !ay be caed irrationa, if,ike the ower ani!as, they aow the!se"es to be deter!ined by the!o!ent#

So far, howe"er, is reason fro! being the source of !oraity that itis reason aone which !akes us capabe of being rascas, which theower ani!as cannot be# 7t is reason which enabes us to for! an e"iresoution and to keep it when the pro"ocation to e"i is re!o"ed itenabes us, for eFa!pe, to nurse "engeance# Athough at the !o!entthat we ha"e an opportunity of fufiing our resoution the better

consciousness !ay !anifest itsef as o"e or charity, it is by forceof reason, in pursuance of so!e e"i !aFi!, that we act against it#Thus Goethe says that a !an !ay use his reason ony for the purpose ofbeing !ore bestia than any beast

Er hat @ernunft, doch braucht er sie aein <! theirischer as jedes Thier Mu sein#

:or not ony do we, ike the beasts, satisfy the desires of the!o!ent, but we refine upon the! and sti!uate the! in order to preparethe desire for the satisfaction#

hene"er we think that we percei"e a trace of reason in the ower

ani!as, it fis us with surprise# =ow our surprise is not eFcited bythe good and affectionate disposition which so!e of the! eFhibit%%werecognise that as so!ething other than reason%%but by so!e action inthe! which see!s to be deter!ined not by the i!pression of the !o!ent,but by a resoution pre"iousy !ade and kept# Eephants, for instance,are reported to ha"e taken pre!editated re"enge for insuts ong afterthey were suffered ions, to ha"e reDuited benefits on an opportunitytardiy offered# The truth of such stories has, howe"er, no bearing ata on the Duestion, hat do we !ean by reasonJ But they enabe us todecide whether in the ower ani!as there is any trace of anythingthat we can ca reason#

>ant not ony decares that a our !ora senti!ents originate in

reason, but he ays down that reason, in !y sense of the word, isa condition of !ora action as he hods that for an action to be"irtuous and !eritorious it !ust be done in accordance with !aFi!s,and not spring fro! a reso"e taken under so!e !o!entary i!pression#But in both contentions he is wrong# 7f 7 reso"e to take "engeance onso!e one, and when an opportunity offers, the better consciousness inthe for! of o"e and hu!anity speaks its word, and 7 a! infuenced byit rather than by !y e"i resoution, this is a "irtuous act, for itis a !anifestation of the better consciousness# 7t is possibe toconcei"e of a "ery "irtuous !an in who! the better consciousness isso continuousy acti"e that it is ne"er sient, and ne"er aows his



passions to get a co!pete hod of hi!# By such consciousness he issubject to a direct contro, instead of being guided indirecty,through the !ediu! of reason, by !eans of !aFi!s and !ora principes#That is why a !an !ay ha"e weak reasoning powers and a weakunderstanding and yet ha"e a high sense of !oraity and be e!inentygood for the !ost i!portant ee!ent in a !an depends as itte oninteectua as it does on physica strength# *esus says, Bessedare the poor in spirit# And *acob B h!e has the eFceent and nobe�

obser"ation hoso ies Duiety in his own wi, ike a chid in thewo!b, and ets hi!sef be ed and guided by that inner principe fro!which he is sprung, is the nobest and richest on earth#0+5

0:ootnote + Epistes, 32#5

ET;76A& (E:&E6T7O=S#

The phiosophers of the ancient word united in a singe conception

a great !any things that had no connection with one another# Of thise"ery diaogue of Pato's furnishes abundant eFa!pes# The greatestand worst confusion of this kind is that between ethics and poitics#The State and the >ingdo! of God, or the ?ora &aw, are so entireydifferent in their character that the for!er is a parody of theatter, a bitter !ockery at the absence of it# 6o!pared with the ?ora&aw the State is a crutch instead of a i!b, an auto!aton instead of a!an#

9 9 9 9 9

The principe of honour stands in cose connection with hu!anfreedo!# 7t is, as it were, an abuse of that freedo!# 7nstead of

using his freedo! to fufi the !ora aw, a !an e!poys his powerof "ountariy undergoing any feeing of pain, of o"erco!ing any!o!entary i!pression, in order that he !ay assert his sef%wi,whate"er be the object to which he directs it# As he thereby showsthat, unike the ower ani!as, he has thoughts which go beyond thewefare of his body and whate"er !akes for that wefare, it has co!eabout that the principe of honour is often confused with "irtue# Theyare regarded as if they were twins# But wrongy for athough theprincipe of honour is so!ething which distinguishes !an fro! theower ani!as, it is not, in itsef, anything that raises hi! abo"ethe!# Taken as an end and ai!, it is as dark a deusion as any otherai! that springs fro! sef# <sed as a !eans, or casuay, it !ay beproducti"e of good but e"en that is good which is "ain and fri"oous#

7t is the !isuse of freedo!, the e!poy!ent of it as a weapon foro"erco!ing the word of feeing, that !akes !an so infinitey !oreterribe than the ower ani!as for they do ony what !o!entaryinstinct bids the! whie !an acts by ideas, and his ideas !ay entaiuni"ersa ruin before they are satisfied#

There is another circu!stance which heps to pro!ote the notion thathonour and "irtue are connected# A !an who can do what he wants to doshows that he can aso do it if what he wants to do is a "irtuous act#But that those of our actions which we are ourse"es obiged to regardwith conte!pt are aso regarded with conte!pt by other peope ser"es



!ore than anything that 7 ha"e here !entioned to estabish theconnection# Thus it often happens that a !an who is not afraid of theone kind of conte!pt is unwiing to undergo the other# But when weare caed upon to choose between our own appro"a and the word'scensure, as !ay occur in co!picated and !istaken circu!stances, whatbeco!es of the principe of honour thenJ

Two characteristic eFa!pes of the principe of honour are to be found

in Shakespeare's ;enry @7#, Part 77#, Act 7@#, Sc# +# A pirate isanFious to !urder his capti"e instead of accepting, ike others, aranso! for hi! because in taking his capti"e he ost an eye, andhis own honour and that of his forefathers woud in his opinion bestained, if he were to aow his re"enge to be bought off as though hewere a !ere trader# The prisoner, on the other hand, who is the )ukeof Suffok, prefers to ha"e his head grace a poe than to unco"er itto such a ow feow as a pirate, by approaching hi! to ask for !ercy#

*ust as ci"ic honour%%in other words, the opinion that we deser"e tobe trusted%%is the paadiu! of those whose endea"our it is to !aketheir way in the word on the path of honourabe business, so knightyhonour%%in other words, the opinion that we are !en to be feared%%is

the paadiu! of those who ai! at going through ife on the pathof "ioence and so it was that knighty honour arose a!ong therobber%knights and other knights of the ?idde Ages#

9 9 9 9 9

A theoretica phiosopher is one who can suppy in the shape of ideasfor the reason, a copy of the presentations of eFperience just aswhat the painter sees he can reproduce on can"as the scuptor, in!arbe the poet, in pictures for the i!agination, though they arepictures which he suppies ony in sowing the ideas fro! which theysprang#

A so%caed practica phiosopher, on the other hand, is one who,contrariy, deduces his action fro! ideas# The theoretica phiosophertransfor!s ife into ideas# The practica phiosopher transfor!s ideasinto ife he acts, therefore, in a thoroughy reasonabe !anner heis consistent, reguar, deiberate he is ne"er hasty or passionatehe ne"er aows hi!sef to be infuenced by the i!pression of the!o!ent#

And indeed, when we find ourse"es a!ong those fu presentations ofeFperience, or rea objects, to which the body beongs%%since the bodyis ony an objectified wi, the shape which the wi assu!es in the!ateria word%%it is difficut to et our bodies be guided, not bythose presentations, but by a !ere i!age of the!, by cod, coouress

ideas, which are reated to eFperience as the shadow of Orcus to ifeand yet this is the ony way in which we can a"oid doing things ofwhich we !ay ha"e to repent#

The theoretica phiosopher enriches the do!ain of reason by adding toit the practica phiosopher draws upon it, and !akes it ser"e hi!#

9 9 9 9 9

According to >ant the truth of eFperience is ony a hypotheticatruth# 7f the suppositions which underie a the inti!ations of



eFperience%%subject, object, ti!e, space and causaity%%were re!o"ed,none of those inti!ations woud contain a word of truth# 7n otherwords, eFperience is ony a pheno!enon it is not knowedge of thething%in%itsef#

7f we find so!ething in our own conduct at which we are secretypeased, athough we cannot reconcie it with eFperience, seeing thatif we were to foow the guidance of eFperience we shoud ha"e to

do precisey the opposite, we !ust not aow this to put us outotherwise we shoud be ascribing an authority to eFperience whichit does not deser"e, for a that it teaches rests upon a !eresupposition# This is the genera tendency of the >antian Ethics#

9 9 9 9 9

7nnocence is in its "ery nature stupid# 7t is stupid because the ai!of ife K7 use the eFpression ony figurati"ey, and 7 coud justas we speak of the essence of ife, or of the wordL is to gain aknowedge of our own bad wi, so that our wi !ay beco!e an objectfor us, and that we !ay undergo an inward con"ersion# Our body isitsef our wi objectified it is one of the first and fore!ost of

objects, and the deeds that we acco!pish for the sake of the bodyshow us the e"i inherent in our wi# 7n the state of innocence,where there is no e"i because there is no eFperience, !an is, asit were, ony an apparatus for i"ing, and the object for which theapparatus eFists is not yet discosed# An e!pty for! of ife ikethis, a stage untenanted, is in itsef, ike the so%caed rea word,nu and "oid and as it can attain a !eaning ony by action, byerror, by knowedge, by the con"usions of the wi, it wears acharacter of insipid stupidity# A goden age of innocence, a foos'paradise, is a notion that is stupid and un!eaning, and for that"ery reason in no way worthy of any respect# The first cri!ina and!urderer, 6ain, who acDuired a knowedge of guit, and throughguit acDuired a knowedge of "irtue by repentance, and so ca!e to

understand the !eaning of ife, is a tragica figure !ore significant,and a!ost !ore respectabe, than a the innocent foos in the wordput together#

9 9 9 9 9

7f 7 had to write about !odesty 7 shoud say 7 know the estee!edpubic for which 7 ha"e the honour to write far too we to dare togi"e utterance to !y opinion about this "irtue# Personay 7 a! Duitecontent to be !odest and to appy !ysef to this "irtue withthe ut!ost possibe circu!spection# But one thing 7 sha ne"erad!it%%that 7 ha"e e"er reDuired !odesty of any !an, and any state!entto that effect 7 repe as a sander#

The patry character of !ost !en co!pes the few who ha"e any !eritor genius to beha"e as though they did not know their own "aue, andconseDuenty did not know other peope's want of "aue for it isony on this condition that the !ob acDuiesces in toerating !erit# A"irtue has been !ade out of this necessity, and it is caed !odesty#7t is a piece of hypocrisy, to be eFcused ony because other peopeare so patry that they !ust be treated with indugence#

9 9 9 9 9



;u!an !isery !ay affect us in two ways, and we !ay be in one of twoopposite !oods in regard to it#

7n one of the!, this !isery is i!!ediatey present to us# e fee itin our own person, in our own wi which, i!bued with "ioent desires,is e"erywhere broken, and this is the process which constitutessuffering# The resut is that the wi increases in "ioence, asis shown in a cases of passion and e!otion and this increasing

"ioence co!es to a stop ony when the wi turns and gi"es way toco!pete resignation, in other words, is redee!ed# The !an who isentirey do!inated by this !ood wi regard any prosperity which he!ay see in others with en"y, and any suffering with no sy!pathy#

7n the opposite !ood hu!an !isery is present to us ony as a factof knowedge, that is to say, indirecty# e are !ainy engaged inooking at the sufferings of others, and our attention is withdrawnfro! our own# 7t is in their person that we beco!e aware of hu!an!isery we are fied with sy!pathy and the resut of this !ood isgenera bene"oence, phianthropy# A en"y "anishes, and insteadof feeing it, we are rejoiced when we see one of our tor!entedfeow%creatures eFperience any peasure or reief#

After the sa!e fashion we !ay be in one of two opposite !oods inregard to hu!an baseness and depra"ity# 7n the one we percei"e thisbaseness indirecty, in others# Out of this !ood arise indignation,hatred, and conte!pt of !ankind# 7n the other we percei"e it directy,in ourse"es# Out of it there arises hu!iiation, nay, contrition#

7n order to judge the !ora "aue of a !an, it is "ery i!portant toobser"e which of these four !oods predo!inate in hi!# They go inpairs, one out of each di"ision# 7n "ery eFceent characters thesecond !ood of each di"ision wi predo!inate#

9 9 9 9 9

The categorica i!perati"e, or absoute co!!and, is a contradiction#E"ery co!!and is conditiona# hat is unconditiona and necessary is a!ust, such as is presented by the aws of nature#

7t is Duite true that the !ora aw is entirey conditiona# Thereis a word and a "iew of ife in which it has neither "aidity norsignificance# That word is, propery speaking, the rea word inwhich, as indi"iduas, we i"e for e"ery regard paid to !oraity is adenia of that word and of our indi"idua ife in it# 7t is a "iewof the word, howe"er, which does not go beyond the principe ofsufficient reason and the opposite "iew proceeds by the intuition of7deas#

9 9 9 9 9

7f a !an is under the infuence of two opposite but "ery strong!oti"es, A and B, and 7 a! greaty concerned that he shoud choose A,but sti !ore that he shoud ne"er be untrue to his choice, and bychanging his !ind betray !e, or the ike, it wi not do for !e to sayanything that !ight hinder the !oti"e B fro! ha"ing its fu effectupon hi!, and ony e!phasise A for then 7 shoud ne"er be abe toreckon on his decision# hat 7 ha"e to do is, rather, to put both!oti"es before hi! at the sa!e ti!e, in as "i"id and cear a way as



possibe, so that they !ay work upon hi! with their whoe force# Thechoice that he then !akes is the decision of his in!ost nature, andstands fir! to a eternity# 7n saying 7 wi do this, he has said7 !ust do this# 7 ha"e got at his wi, and 7 can rey upon itsworking as steadiy as one of the forces of nature# 7t is as certainas fire kindes and water wets that he wi act according to the!oti"e which has pro"ed to be stronger for hi!# 7nsight and knowedge!ay be attained and ost again they !ay be changed, or i!pro"ed, or

destroyed but wi cannot be changed# That is why 7 apprehend, 7percei"e, 7 see, is subject to ateration and uncertainty 7 wi,pronounced on a right apprehension of !oti"e, is as fir! as natureitsef# The difficuty, howe"er, ies in getting at a rightapprehension# A !an's apprehension of !oti"e !ay change, or becorrected or per"erted and on the other hand, his circu!stances !ayundergo an ateration#

9 9 9 9 9

A !an shoud eFercise an a!ost boundess toeration and pacabiity,because if he is capricious enough to refuse to forgi"e a singeindi"idua for the !eanness or e"i that ies at his door, it is doing

the rest of the word a Duite un!erited honour#

But at the sa!e ti!e the !an who is e"ery one's friend is no one'sfriend# 7t is Duite ob"ious what sort of friendship it is which wehod out to the hu!an race, and to which it is open to a!ost e"ery!an to return, no !atter what he !ay ha"e done#

9 9 9 9 9

ith the ancients friendship was one of the chief ee!ents in!oraity# But friendship is ony i!itation and partiaity it isthe restriction to one indi"idua of what is the due of a !ankind,na!ey, the recognition that a !an's own nature and that of !ankind

are identica# At !ost it is a co!pro!ise between this recognition andsefishness#

9 9 9 9 9

A ie aways has its origin in the desire to eFtend the do!inion ofone's own wi o"er other indi"iduas, and to deny their wi in orderthe better to affir! one's own# 6onseDuenty a ie is in its "erynature the product of injustice, !ae"oence and "iainy# That is whytruth, sincerity, candour and rectitude are at once recognised and"aued as praiseworthy and nobe Duaities because we presu!e thatthe !an who eFhibits the! entertains no senti!ents of injustice or!aice, and therefore stands in no need of conceaing such senti!ents#

;e who is open cherishes nothing that is bad#

9 9 9 9 9

There is a certain kind of courage which springs fro! the sa!e sourceas good%nature# hat 7 !ean is that the good%natured !an is a!ost asceary conscious that he eFists in other indi"iduas as in hi!sef# 7ha"e often shown how this feeing gi"es rise to good%nature# 7taso gi"es rise to courage, for the si!pe reason that the !an whopossesses this feeing cares ess for his own indi"idua eFistence,as he i"es a!ost as !uch in the genera eFistence of a creatures#



Accordingy he is itte concerned for his own ife and itsbeongings# This is by no !eans the soe source of courage for it isa pheno!enon due to "arious causes# But it is the nobest kind ofcourage, as is shown by the fact that in its origin it is associatedwith great genteness and patience# ?en of this kind are usuayirresistibe to wo!en#

9 9 9 9 9

A genera rues and precepts fai, because they proceed fro! thefase assu!ption that !en are constituted whoy, or a!ost whoy,aike an assu!ption which the phiosophy of ;e"etius eFpressy!akes# hereas the truth is that the origina difference betweenindi"iduas in inteect and !oraity is i!!easurabe#

9 9 9 9 9

The Duestion as to whether !oraity is so!ething rea is the Duestionwhether a we%grounded counter%principe to egois! actuay eFists#

As egois! restricts concern for wefare to a singe indi"idua,

"iM#, the !an's own sef, the counter%principe woud ha"e to eFtendit to a other indi"iduas#

9 9 9 9 9

7t is ony because the wi is abo"e and beyond ti!e that the stingsof conscience are ineradicabe, and do not, ike other pains,graduay wear away# =oH an e"i deed weighs on the conscience yearsafterwards as hea"iy as if it had been freshy co!!itted#

9 9 9 9 9

6haracter is innate, and conduct is !erey its !anifestation the

occasion for great !isdeeds co!es sedo! strong counter%!oti"es keepus back our disposition is re"eaed to ourse"es by our desires,thoughts, e!otions, when it re!ains unknown to others# (efecting ona this, we !ight suppose it possibe for a !an to possess, in so!esort, an innate e"i conscience, without e"er ha"ing done anything"ery bad#

9 9 9 9 9

)on't do to others what you woudn't ike done to yoursef# This is,perhaps, one of those argu!ents that pro"e, or rather ask, too !uch#:or a prisoner !ight address it to a judge#

9 9 9 9 9

Stupid peope are generay !aicious, for the "ery sa!e reason as theugy and the defor!ed#

Si!iary, genius and sanctity are akin# ;owe"er si!pe%!inded a saint!ay be, he wi ne"ertheess ha"e a dash of genius in hi! and howe"er!any errors of te!pera!ent, or of actua character, a genius !aypossess, he wi sti eFhibit a certain nobiity of disposition bywhich he shows his kinship with the saint#



9 9 9 9 9

The great difference between &aw without and &aw within, betweenthe State and the >ingdo! of God, is "ery cear# 7t is the State'sbusiness to see that e"ery one shoud ha"e justice done to hi!it regards !en as passi"e beings, and therefore takes no account ofanything but their actions# The ?ora &aw, on the other hand, isconcerned that e"ery one shoud do justice it regards !en as

acti"e, and ooks to the wi rather than the deed# To pro"e that thisis the true distinction et the reader consider what woud happen ifhe were to say, con"ersey, that it is the State's business that e"eryone shoud do justice, and the business of the ?ora &aw that e"eryone shoud ha"e justice done to hi!# The absurdity is ob"ious#

As an eFa!pe of the distinction, et !e take the case of a debtor anda creditor disputing about a debt which the for!er denies# A awyerand a !oraist are present, and show a i"ey interest in the !atter#Both desire that the dispute shoud end in the sa!e way, athough whatthey want is by no !eans the sa!e# The awyer says, 7 want this !anto get back what beongs to hi! and the !oraist, 7 want that !anto do his duty#

7t is with the wi aone that !oraity is concerned# hether eFternaforce hinders or fais to hinder the wi fro! working does not in theeast !atter# :or !oraity the eFterna word is rea ony in so faras it is abe or unabe to ead and infuence the wi# As soon asthe wi is deter!ined, that is, as soon as a reso"e is taken, theeFterna word and its e"ents are of no further !o!ent andpractica do not eFist# :or if the e"ents of the word had anysuch reaity%%that is to say, if they possessed a significance inthe!se"es, or any other than that deri"ed fro! the wi which isaffected by the!%%what a grie"ance it woud be that a these e"entsie in the rea! of chance and errorH 7t is, howe"er, just this whichpro"es that the i!portant thing is not what happens, but what is

wied# Accordingy, et the incidents of ife be eft to the pay ofchance and error, to de!onstrate to !an that he is as chaff before thewind#

The State concerns itsef ony with the incidents%%with what happensnothing ese has any reaity for it# 7 !ay dwe upon thoughts of!urder and poison as !uch as 7 pease the State does not forbid !e,so ong as the aFe and rope contro !y wi, and pre"ent it fro!beco!ing action#

Ethics asks hat are the duties towards others which justice i!posesupon usJ in other words, hat !ust 7 renderJ The &aw of =ature askshat need 7 not sub!it to fro! othersJ that is, hat !ust 7 sufferJ

The Duestion is put, not that 7 !ay do no injustice, but that 7!ay not do !ore than e"ery !an !ust do if he is to safeguard hiseFistence, and than e"ery !an wi appro"e being done, in order thathe !ay be treated in the sa!e way hi!sef and, further, that 7 !aynot do !ore than society wi per!it !e to do# The sa!e answer wiser"e for both Duestions, just as the sa!e straight ine can be drawnfro! either of two opposite directions, na!ey, by opposing forcesor, again, as the ange can gi"e the sine, or the sine the ange#

7t has been said that the historian is an in"erted prophet# 7n thesa!e way it !ay be said that a teacher of aw is an in"erted !oraist



K"iM#, a teacher of the duties of justiceL, or that poitics arein"erted ethics, if we eFcude the thought that ethics aso teachesthe duty of bene"oence, !agnani!ity, o"e, and so on# The State isthe Gordian knot that is cut instead of being untied it is 6ou!bus'egg which is !ade to stand by being broken instead of baanced, asthough the business in Duestion were to !ake it stand rather than tobaance it# 7n this respect the State is ike the !an who thinks thathe can produce fine weather by !aking the baro!eter go up#

9 9 9 9 9

The pseudo%phiosophers of our age te us that it is the object ofthe State to pro!ote the !ora ai!s of !ankind# This is not trueit is rather the contrary which is true# The ai! for which !ankindeFists%%the eFpression is paraboic%%is not that a !an shoud act insuch and such a !anner for a opera operata, things that ha"eactuay been done, are in the!se"es !atters of indifference# =oH theai! is that the i, of which e"ery !an is a co!pete speci!en%%nay,is the "ery i itsef%%shoud turn whither it needs to turn thatthe !an hi!sef Kthe union of Thought and iL shoud percei"e whatthis wi is, and what horrors it contains that he shoud show the

refection of hi!sef in his own deeds, in the abo!ination of the!#The State, which is whoy concerned with the genera wefare, checksthe !anifestation of the bad wi, but in no wise checks the wiitsef the atte!pt woud be i!possibe# 7t is because the Statechecks the !anifestation of his wi that a !an "ery sedo! sees thewhoe abo!ination of his nature in the !irror of his deeds# Or doesthe reader actuay suppose there are no peope in the word as bad as(obespierre, =apoeon, or other !urderersJ )oes he fai to see thatthere are !any who woud act ike the! if ony they coudJ

?any a cri!ina dies !ore Duiety on the scaffod than !any anon%cri!ina in the ar!s of his fa!iy# The one has percei"ed what hiswi is and has discarded it# The other has not been abe to discard

it, because he has ne"er been abe to percei"e what it is# The ai!of the State is to produce a foo's paradise, and this is in directconfict with the true ai! of ife, na!ey, to attain a knowedge ofwhat the wi, in its horribe nature, reay is#

9 9 9 9 9

=apoeon was not reay worse than !any, not to say !ost, !en# ;e waspossessed of the "ery ordinary egois! that seeks its wefare at theeFpense of others# hat distinguished hi! was !erey the greater powerhe had of satisfying his wi, and greater inteigence, reason andcourage added to which, chance ga"e hi! a fa"ourabe scope for hisoperations# By !eans of a this he did for his egois! what a thousand

other !en woud ike to do for theirs, but cannot# E"ery feebe adwho by itte acts of "iainy gains a s!a ad"antage for hi!sef byputting others to so!e disad"antage, athough it !ay be eDuay s!a,is just as bad as =apoeon#

Those who fancy that retribution co!es after death woud de!and that=apoeon shoud by unutterabe tor!ents pay the penaty for a thenu!beress caa!ities that he caused# But he is no !ore cupabe thana those who possess the sa!e wi, unacco!panied by the sa!e power#

The circu!stance that in his case this eFtraordinary power was added



aowed hi! to re"ea the whoe wickedness of the hu!an wi and thesufferings of his age, as the necessary ob"erse of the !eda, re"eathe !isery which is ineFtricaby bound up with this bad wi# 7t isthe genera !anipuation of this wi that constitutes the word# Butit is precisey that it shoud be understood how ineFtricaby the wito i"e is bound up with, and is reay one and the sa!e as, thisunspeakabe !isery, that is the word's ai! and purpose and it is anai! and purpose which the appearance of =apoeon did !uch to assist#

=ot to be an un!eaning foos' paradise but a tragedy, in which thewi to i"e understands itsef and yieds%%that is the object forwhich the word eFists# =apoeon is ony an enor!ous !irror of thewi to i"e#

The difference between the !an who causes suffering and the !an whosuffers it, is ony pheno!ena# 7t is a a wi to i"e, identicawith great suffering and it is ony by understanding this that thewi can !end and end#

9 9 9 9 9

hat chiefy distinguishes ancient fro! !odern ti!es is that in

ancient ti!es, to use =apoeon's eFpression, it was affairs thatreigned es paroes auF choses# 7n !odern ti!es this is not so#hat 7 !ean is that in ancient ti!es the character of pubic ife,of the State, and of (eigion, as we as of pri"ate ife, was astrenuous affir!ation of the wi to i"e# 7n !odern ti!es it is adenia of this wi, for such is the character of 6hristianity# Butnow whie on the one hand that denia has suffered so!e abate!ent e"enin pubic opinion, because it is too repugnant to hu!an character, onthe other what is pubicy denied is secrety affir!ed# ;ence it isthat we see haf !easures and fasehood e"erywhere and that is why!odern ti!es ook so s!a beside antiDuity#

9 9 9 9 9

The structure of hu!an society is ike a penduu! swinging between twoi!puses, two e"is in poar opposition, despotis! and anarchy#The further it gets fro! the one, the nearer it approaches the other#:ro! this the reader !ight hit on the thought that if it were eFacty!idway between the two, it woud be right# :ar fro! it# :or thesetwo e"is are by no !eans eDuay bad and dangerous# The for!er isinco!paraby ess to be feared its is eFist in the !ain ony aspossibiities, and if they co!e at a it is ony one a!ong !iionsthat they touch# But, with anarchy, possibiity and actuaity areinseparabe its bows fa on e"ery !an e"ery day# Therefore e"eryconstitution shoud be a nearer approach to a despotis! than toanarchy nay, it !ust contain a s!a possibiity of despotis!#

End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Essays Of Arthur Schopenhauer



by Arthur Schopenhauer

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