Essay Writing CatherineSchwerin

8/12/2019 Essay Writing CatherineSchwerin

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Essay Writing:

Developing Academic Writing Skills inEnglish

Catherine Schwerin

Designed for use in theobligatory academic writing courses

in the second module of studies at the

Institut fr Anglistik und AmerikanistikUniversitt Hamburg

Von-Melle-Park 620146 Hamburg

Germany

1999 Catherine [email protected]

Second revision October 2007


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Essay-writing brochure 2007 Catherine Schwerin IAA Universitt Hamburg

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ContentsContents ...................................................................................................................................... 1Essay Checklists ......................................................................................................................... 1

Sample Essays ............................................................................................................................ 1Before you begin ........................................................................................................................ 2Parts of an Essay ........................................................................................................................ 5Introductions ............................................................................................................................... 6Body ........................................................................................................................................... 6Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 7Organising Principle ................................................................................................................... 7Developing a Paragraph ............................................................................................................. 9TV Step 1: Preparing ................................................................................................................ 13TV Step 2: Brainstorming ........................................................................................................ 14TV Step 3: Organising and Adapting ....................................................................................... 15

TV Step 4: Final Plan ............................................................................................................... 16Media Violence Step 1: Preparing ........................................................................................... 21Media Violence Step 2: Brainstorming .................................................................................... 22Media Violence Step 3: Organising and Adapting ................................................................... 24Media Violence Step 4: Final Plan ........................................................................................... 26

Essay Checklists

Checklist: Procedure .................................................................................................................. 3Standard Essay Outline .............................................................................................................. 8Readership, content and style ................................................................................................... 18Some Useful Links ................................................................................................................... 32

Sample Essays

Sample essay on Paragraphs .................................................................................................... 11Sample Essay on Paragraphs: examination of structure ........................................................... 12Simple Essay: The Importance of Television ......................................................................... 19Complex Essay: Violence in the Media ................................................................................... 29


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Essay Writing

Before you begin

Essays are instruments of communication. Your essay should be a structured treatmentof a particular topic , presented in a standard form and in a readable , fluent and logical manner. Your essay is a tool that communicates your ideas (though of course you may betalking about other peoples ideas or even quoting them) and should reflect yourinterest in the topic. Being able to write essays is an essential skill in your studies andforms the basis of all academic writing. However, to make the most of your essay, thereare some things to remember:

Check, check, and check again! Develop the text in stages of writing,revising and rewriting. This ensures that the final version of the text flowslogically and communicatively towards its conclusion and that unintentionalhiccups and breaks in style do not occur.

Write from the perspective of the reader . In this manner, aspects ofregister and style remain more consistent.

Plan well and be clear about your topic . Lay the thought basis of thecompleted text in the introduction , develop the ideas in the body and tie theseideas together in the conclusion.

Later you may be writing texts other than essays, so you will also have to payattention to additional features . Research papers, for example,characteristically have headings, deal with many aspects of a particular theme insome detail, and will use references, frequently in the form of footnotes orendnotes, to relate the contents to the academic context in which the knowledgehas evolved. For this sort of writing you will also need to consult a style manualsuch as the MLA Style Manual to help you.

Let's begin now by looking at a checklist of the general procedure for planning and

writing an essay. Then we will examine the different parts of an essay before turning tolook at how to write one in more detail.
http://www.mla.org/http://www.mla.org/http://www.mla.org/http://www.mla.org/


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Checklist: Procedure

Taking a systematic approach to essay writing ensures that you thoroughly develop thenecessary skills for a meaningful and well-balanced piece of writing. Practise following

the steps outlined here. Examples will be provided in the following sections.

1. Preparing :

What is the general subject? What is the specific purpose of the essay? Formulate a preliminary thesis statement if possible at this stage

2. Brainstorming:

Write down all the ideas related to your topic, including seemingly bizarreor outlandish ones. Allow your thoughts free range - you can include sketches, diagrams,

tables if necessary.

3. Organising and adapting:

Choose the elements relevant to the specific purpose of your essay andarrange them in thematic groups and these in turn in logical steps.Discard those ideas which do not relate to your purpose.

Adapt the subject to your own sphere of interest and knowledge.

4. Gather material:

Information on your subject. Quotes, examples that illustrate certain points, references.

5. Make a logical outline:

Plan the structure of your essay, keeping in mind the main purpose. It may

help to refer to the essay outline template provided in the followingpages. Your outline will serve as a kind of check-list to consult while youare writing.

Note the sub-elements under each particular section heading. Modify the outline so that it indicates thesis statement, topic sentences

and supporting points

6. Check outline

Check topic sentences against thesis statement Check supporting points against topic sentences

7. Write according to your outline:


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At this stage you are more or less "padding out" your outline. You expandeach section heading, fill in the details, provide examples or descriptions,connect the ideas logically.

Who are your readers? This will influence your choice of style and yourapproach.

8. Check 1st draft:

Check against outline to ensure you have covered all points. Check grammar and spelling. Check logic (within the sentence, between the sentences, in relation to

the topic sentences, in relation to the thesis). Check flow (Do the ideas flow or jump around? Is it readable? Is it easy

to follow?)

Is the style and the approach appropriate for your target group?9. Revise draft:

And check again!

10. Write the final version.


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Parts of an Essay

Essentially an essay consists of three major parts:

the introduction

the main body

the conclusion

Each of these parts has a function.

The introduction is intended to lead the reader into the topic and clarify whatthe essay will specifically deal with. It usually consists of one paragraph, but this

depends on the length of the essay and the amount of background informationthe context requires. The introduction will contain a key sentence (or, ifnecessary, more than one) that represents the thread running through the wholeessay. This sentence is called the thesis statement.

The main body deals with the major ideas that support the thesis statement.Each main idea is presented in a separate paragraph (one notion, one paragraph)and developed with supporting ideas in the form of explanations, definitions, orsimilar, and illustrated with examples where appropriate or necessary.

The conclusion brings the reader back to the purpose of the essay and draws allthe points together before making a final comment on the result of thediscussion/argument. Often this final comment will point towards someconsequence the discussion ma y have for the future or make some observationabout what the discussion has revealed on a general level.

Ultimately an essay will show a progression from a general level (in the introduction)down to the specific (thesis statement and body) and back up to the general level again(conclusion). The reader will be expecting this so it gives your essay a sense ofcompletion.


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Introductions

The introduction lays the basis for the whole of the rest of the essay. It should tellthe reader about the topic and how the topic will be dealt with. However, an abrupt

statement of the topic and the controlling idea makes the readers feel uncomfortableand does not give them time to warm up to the topic. Therefore it is best to lead in tothe topic by making a general statement about it, then narrowing the topic down beforedealing with the issue itself.

Note: Unlike the German Aufsatz, the English essay requires that you take astandpoint at the beginning of the essay so that the reader knows what he is to expect.English essays are "reader friendly" and guide the readership through theargumentation. Do not leave the reader guessing about your opinion until the conclusion.This gives the English- speaking reader the feeling that you werent sure about your ownopinion and that the essay was not sufficiently planned. This means your thesisstatement must clearly show your position on the topic.

Make a general statement about your topic

Narrow down the topic to lead towards your theme

State the issue/question you are dea ling with

State your thesis/ controlling idea for the whole essay

Body

The body of the essay will contain several paragraphs, each dealing with one major ideathat supports the thesis statement. The major idea for the paragraph is given in a topicsentence and all the other sentences in the paragraph are linked to this idea in someform or another. The paragraphs should also contain a transition between the ideas, i.e.moving from the introduction to the first topic sentence and between the bodyparagraphs. This can be done in sentences or with individual words such as discourse

markers (linking words). Topic sentence

Supporting ideas

Examples


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Conclusions

In the conclusion you are drawing your ideas and observations together to make yourfinal point. Do not be afraid if it seems like you are repeating your ideas. It is part of

the task to remind the reader of your aims and your main discussion points. Thisclarifies your purpose. However, do not just repeat word-for-word what you have saidbefore. Contextualise what you are saying.

Remind the reader of your topic and intention

Show the reader how the discussion has underlined this aim (in a way you aresummarising the topic sentences of the developmental paragraphs here)

State your perspective as a result of the discussion

Sum up the whole concept, e.g. by stating what this may mean for the future

Organising Principle

You can use the standard outline on the following page as a framework when preparingfor most kinds of essays. It may have to be varied according to the organising principleand the aim involved, but serves as a solid basis.

The organising principle is the logic according to which you put together your ideas.Your choice of organising principle will depend on the effect you want to achieve andthe expectations of your readership. For instance:

Organising principle Possible effect

Least important to mostimportant point

Climb in tension to climax;dramatic

Most to least important The readers are confronted with themost convincing point at the outset;memorable

Chronological Narrative effect; familiar structure,easy to follow and remember

Reverse chronological Depending on focus, can highlight anissue of change; contemplative


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Standard Essay Outline

You can use the following as a checklist. Remember: while you are writing always

consider your readership and your aims. In the body you will need to have a clearorganising principle.

Introduction

1. Introduce general topic

2. Narrow down topic

3. Restate question

4. State thesis (controlling idea)

There are, of course other ways of approaching the lead-in to the issues inthe essay. For instance, you could start by introducing the opposite viewpoint(e.g. Many people believe that television is beneficial ) and arrive at yourstandpoint by pointing out that you do not agree with the other view andindicate why ( However, the harmful effects of television far outweigh itsbenefits ), which is then expanded in the essay.

Body (consisting of several developmental paragraphs )

Each paragraph consists of:

1. Topic sentence (topic and controlling idea)

2. Supporting ideas

3. Details

Facts, data, quotes Examples Description Explanation Comparison, etc.

Conclusion

1. Restate thesis (topic focus and controlling idea of essay)

2. Synthesise the main ideas of the developmental paragraphs (restate topicsentences)

3. State your opinion/ preference; give solution; make prediction...

4. Final statement (summing thought) . This rounds off the essay and brings it backto a general level.


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Developing a Paragraph

Your essay will consist of a series of paragraphs. Each paragraph is made up of a set ofrelated sentences all connected with a single idea and (apart from the introduction and

conclusion, because their purpose is slightly different) is constructed according tosimilar principles. In order to effectively convey your ideas, each paragraph shouldcontain certain features. It should have a topic sentence, follow a single idea, beappropriately developed, and be cogent. In addition, there is a formal feature toconsider: paragraphs in printed publications or in handwritten texts generally have anindented first line to clearly indicate where it begins (thus clearly identifying it as aunit). In some forms of writing, for example business letters, paragraphs are indicatedby leaving a line before and after. The preferred form for academic writing isindentation. In any case, this formal feature helps the reader identify and process theideas.

1. The topic sentence:A topic sentence indicates what idea or argument the paragraph is going to deal with.For academic writing it is most effective if the topic sentence is the first sentence ofthe paragraph because it makes it easier for the reader to follow the argumentationwithout having to do additional processing. If you are not yet used to writing in Englishor are in general an inexperienced writer, it is better for you to place your topicsentence at the beginning of the paragraph.

2. One paragraph, one notion:Your paragraph should focus on the idea set out in the topic sentence. You should notintroduce other ideas or go off on a tangent. If you have finished an idea, you begin anew paragraph. If your discussion of one idea is going to be lengthy, subdivide yourparagraph into two or more sub-notions and link them with new topic sentences / linkingsentences.

3. Sufficient developmentThe idea you introduce with your topic sentence should be sufficiently fleshed out toget across your idea properly. The way you do this in each paragraph may vary,

depending on what you aim to achieve, for instance you might use examples, givedefinitions, provide data, refer to other authors or quote them, outl ine causes andeffects, compare and contrast, summarise or explain.

4. Cogency:This refers to clarity of thought and argumentation. It is the result of writingcoherently and cohesively. It makes the paragraph fluent, logical, and easilyunderstandable. This means putting the ideas in a logical order and using strategies oflinking them up. You can do this using:

logical bridges: The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence An idea is built on from one sentence to the next


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grammatical structures: Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form Successive sentences can be constructed inversely.linguistic bridges: Repetition of key words over several sentences Use of synonyms throughout the paragraph Pronouns and deictic term s to refer back (or forward) to nouns or whole ideas in

other sentences Lexical phrases and conjunctions can be used to link ideas from different

sentences or indicate attitude

On the following pages you will see an example of an essay based on some of theinformation you have been given so far - an essay about essays. This is followed by ananalysis of its structure. Then I lead you through two essay-writing tasks, one on theimportance of television and the other on violence in the media, which both concludewith sample essays.


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Sample essay on Paragraphs

An essay is an instrument of communication. It is a structured treatment of aparticular topic, presented in a standard form and in a readable, fluent and logical

manner. To write a cogent and communicative essay , you must master the structure ofits building blocks, its paragraphs. Paragraphs are expected to have certaincharacteristics and the paragraphs in the different sections of an essay fulfilparticular functions to provide a well-rounded essay. Firstly, the essay begins with anintroduction, a paragraph which tells the reader what the essay is about and how theinformation will be presented. Then, paragraphs which support and develop the ideapresented in the introduction form the body of the essay, and finally, the concludingparagraph brings all these parts together again.

The introductory paragraph lays the basis for the whole of the rest of theessay. It should tell the reader about the topic and how the topic will be dealt with.

However, an abrupt statement of the topic and the controlling idea makes the readersfeel uncomfortable and does not give them time to warm up to the topic. Therefore, itis best to lead into the topic by making a general statement about it, then narrowing thetopic down before dealing with the issue itself. The key element in the introduction isthe thesis statement, which provides the focus for the rest of the essay and is usuallyfound at the end of the introduction.

The introduction is followed by the developmental paragraphs, each of whichdeals with one major idea that supports the thesis statement. The major idea for theparagraph is given in a topic sentence, which, in an academic essay, is usually at thebeginning of the paragraph. This topic sentence states the topic (i.e. who or what) andindicates the controlling idea (i.e. how, when, where, why, etc.). All the other sentencesin the paragraph are linked to this idea in some form or another. Since all theparagraphs (specifically, the topic sentences) in an essay should support the thesispresented in the introduction, you can say that the structure of a paragraph is a minireflection of the structure of the essay.

Finally, in the concluding paragraph, you draw your ideas and observationstogether. You remind your reader of your aims and your main supporting arguments,synthesising them (not repeating them verbatim) to make your final point. What seemsobvious to you may no longer be obvious to the reader, so it is part of the task toclarify your overall purpose here and arrive at a final conclusion.

Thus, although all the paragraphs in an essay will essentially follow the onenotion, one paragraph principle, they will vary in character according to the functionthey serve, i.e. whether they are introductory, developmental or concluding paragraphs.They will also share the character of linking the ideas within and between them. Andwhen the paragraphs fulfil the requirement of supporting the thesis as they should, youwill find you have a readable, clear and well-rounded essay.


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TV Step 1: Preparing

Deciding on your thesis and approach

Simple example: We cant live witho ut television

Very often the topic you will be writing on is already set, in which case the approach isrelatively clear. However, sometimes you most respond to a question or a statement.This means you have to examine the question or statement carefully.

What are the key words?

What is the general topic area?

What issue/problem is it focusing on?

Is it formulated in a provocative way? Will I have to relativise it or put it intoperspective?

What is my view of the topic? Do I agree or disagree with the viewpresented? To what extent?

For the sake of simplicity, let us imagine you have been asked to write in response to

the statement:We cant live without television .

The key words are television and we and cant live without it. Television is thegeneral topic. We suggests it is a social phe nomenon. And cant live without itsuggests a dependency. The last phrase is emotive and perhaps too categoric. What arewe really talking about? Perhaps whether television is really important in our lives. Whatdo you think? Is television important? Is it beneficial? Or is it rather a problem?

If you are not sure yet what you would like to focus on, it would be best to brainstormthe topic and then decide. Brainstorming is a strategy that you can use during moststeps of your writing, especially if you find your ideas running low.

If you already have an idea of where you stand, you can loosely formulate a preliminarythesis statement , which will be your guiding thought throughout the essay. This neednot be your final thesis statement but it clarifies what you intend to show in your essay.This is important so that you maintain a consistent line in your discussion and because itneeds to be made clear in the introduction what you intend to do in your essay. Once youhave formulated an initial thesis statement, your next step will be focused on

brainstorming the aspects of this.

We will proceed as if you were not entirely sure of your view.


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TV Step 2: Brainstorming

Collecting ideas and formulating / refining a thesis

Simple example: We cant live withou t television

If you are not sure yet what you would like to focus on, it is best to brainstorm thetopic to get some ideas and then decide. Brainstorming is a strategy that you can useduring most steps of your writing, especially if you find your ideas running low.

When you brainstorm an idea, you collect ALL the ideas you can think of which relate tothe topic, directly or indirectly. Let the ideas flow as rapidly and spontaneously aspossible, and do not worry about the order or the value of the ideas. Our example willremain with the subject of television:

TV guide

Entertainment

Information

Weather

Everywhere

Education

Instruction

Cartoons

Films

Small world

News

Documentaries

Sports

Violence

Colour

Advertisements

Up-to-date

Technology

Sound

Picture

There are two main groupings we can identify: types of programmes (sports, news,films...) and what TV can offer (en tertainment, education ...). A focus you could choosebased on the latter grouping would be:

How big a role television plays in our daily lives.

Now it is time to formulate a preliminary thesis statement , that is, a statementoutlining what you want to show in your essay. This statement clarifies what you intendto show in your essay. For this topic your preliminary thesis statement could besomething like the following:

Television is important for our society today.

Once you have settled on your focus, you can use the ideas you have already collected,or brainstorm further with the focus in mind. The next step is to sort out and selectthe ideas you will be using.


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TV Step 3: Organising and Adapting

Selecting and Organising the relevant ideas

Simple example: We cant live without television

Now organise and select the ideas you will use for the essay.

Which ideas can you leave out? Which ideas belong together? Can you organise them under one heading? Is there more than one way to group the ideas?

In order to avoid rewriting at this point, you can use symbols or highlighter to group the

ideas:

TV guide

Entertainment

Information

Weather

Everywhere

Knowledge of theworld

Education

Instruction

Cartoons

Films

Small world

Schoolprogrammes

News

Documentaries

Sports

Violence

Colour

Vivid images

Advertisements

Up-to-date

Technology

Sound

Picture

Realism

The symbols stand for the following ideas:

What TV offers

Types of programmes

Method

Character of content

Ideas I think I dont need

Now you can decide on the structure

your essay will take.


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TV Step 4: Final Plan

Devising a final outline of the structure

Simple example: We cant live without television

This is the point where the ideas should be organised into the final framework you willuse to guide you in your writing. You may wish to look at the outline template beforehand to assist you.

Here is a final overview of the ideas that will be presented in the essay. First, Idecided to leave out the paragraph on methods because it does not fit the main topic sowell. Second, I have changed the order of the ideas so that they flow more logically.Finally, I have added the outline of an introduction and a conclusion to round off the

plan.

NOTE: As a rule, the introduction and the conclusion can only be planned AFTER youhave planned the body of the essay, since you cannot introduce the argumentation if youhave not planned it, and by the same token, you cannot conclude /draw the ideastogether if you do not know what they will be. Thus, I only made the outline of theintroduction and the conclusion after I had finished making the outline of the body.

The importance of television

Introduction TV common in households Cant imagine no TV TV important for us today (thesis) TV can serve many purposes; offers variety of valuable programmes and content

(reasons and guide to reader)

Body1) Variety of programmes

Weather Cartoons Films School programmes News Documentaries

Sports Advertisements


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2) Informative content Up-to-date Realism Accessible (Everywhere)

3) TV offers us other benefits Entertainment Information Education Instruction Knowledge of the world

Conclusion Value of range and form of TV content, many purposes

Types of programmes, character of content, what TV offers TV is an integral and vital medium today TV can contribute positively to society in education and awareness

Now you can begin writing the essay following your outline. Look at the comments onreadership before you begin. If you like, you can look at another, more complex examplefirst in the sections following Sample Essay 1, focusing on the topic Violence in theMedia .


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Readership, content and style

Addressing the reader appropriately

It is important to write your essay with your readers directly in mind. Address them with thewords you write. It will help to ask yourself the following questions before you begin:

Who are my readers?

Are they specialists or non-specialists in the subject?

What are they likely to know about the topic already?

What will they want to learn from me?

What is their attitude likely to be?

How can I maintain the attention of those who have little interest?

What aspects of the subject may be of particular importance to them?

Will it be more appropriate to be personal or impersonal in approach?

Opening

Introduce topic as if the title doesn't exist (who, what, how, when, where, why).

T ry to arouse the readers' interest (e.g. question, anecdote).

Save formal introductions for long and complex reports or investigations

Main Body

Deal with each point systematically

Avoid unnecessary explanations and indirect approaches as these destroy the impact.

Be simple and direct.

Do not over-generalise. You will only undermine your own credibility.

Provide examples, descriptions, explanations, personal experiences (if appropriate).

If necessary, make footnotes or endnotes . Indicate sources (see MLA citation styleat http://www.liunet.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citmla.htm ).

Conclusion

Recap all the main points and draw them together to support the point you wish tomake

If necessary, point out what direction your conclusions may lead for futurediscussion.
http://juno.concordia.ca/faqs/mlanetscape.htmlhttp://juno.concordia.ca/faqs/mlanetscape.htmlhttp://juno.concordia.ca/faqs/mlanetscape.htmlhttp://juno.concordia.ca/faqs/mlanetscape.htmlhttp://juno.concordia.ca/faqs/mlanetscape.htmlhttp://juno.concordia.ca/faqs/mlanetscape.htmlhttp://www.liunet.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citmla.htm


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Simple EssayThe Importance of Television

To show how the outline fits with the essay itself, I have placed each paragraph next toa basic general outline. The points follow in the same order.

Outline Essay

Introduction1. Introduce general topic (TV) 2. Narrow down topic (household without

TV?) 3. Focus on thesis (TV important) 4. Reasons and reader guide (valuable

programmes, content, purposes)

Today it is very common inindustrialised countries for a household tohave at least one television. In fact, it isso common that it is difficult to imagine ahousehold without TV. This shows justhow significant television is to us, but wecan see that its importance is far greater

than just being an object we own if welook at the variety of programmes andvaluable content it offers and thepurposes it serves in daily life.

Body: developmental paragraph 1 (Varietyof programmes) 1. Topic sentence (topic and controlling

idea: many programme types)

2. Supporting ideas (list some types) 3. Details (function)

First of all, there are many differenttypes of programmes on television thatare useful. The viewer can watch aweather report to prepare for the day.

Cartoons and sport provide relaxation andfun. School programmes, documentariesand the news teach us about the world.And advertisements inform us aboutproducts and new ideas.

Body: developmental paragraph 2(Informative character of content) 1. Topic sentence (topic and controlling

idea: what makes content attractive)2. Supporting ideas (realistic, etc.) 3. Details (value for viewers)

Secondly, the content is relevantbecause it is realistic and up to date. AsTV is a medium that combines moving,colour images and sound, it resembles reallife, so the viewers can identify with whatthey see. Furthermore, modern technologymeans that the content is up to date, forexample, news reports can be broadcastlive and from all over the world. Thismeans that information is available almostanywhere at any time.

Body: developmental paragraph 3 (servesmany beneficial purposes in daily life) 1. Topic sentence (topic and controlling

Finally, TV can be used to enhancemany important aspects of everyday life.People seek entertainment anddistraction, and TV can give us that in the


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idea: how does TV meet peoples n eeds)2. Supporting ideas (peoples needs)3. Details (specific functions)

form of films or cartoons. People wanteducation, information and instructionbecause they are inquisitive and like tolearn. TV gives us these in documentariesor educational programmes, in reports orcultural magazines. People enjoycreativity, and TV gives us that in thework of all the people involved in creatingclever film scripts, effective scenery,witty dialogues or magnificent camerashots. TV gives us the world, othercultures, other people, languages andideas. It introduces us to knowledge.

Conclusion1. Restate thesis (controlling idea of

essay: valuable programmes, content,purposes)

2. Restate each topic sentence fromdevelopmental paragraphs (programmetypes, character of content, what TVoffers)

3. State your opinion/ preference; give

solution; make prediction... (TV vitaland integral)

4. Final statement (summing thought:education, awareness )

As we have seen, television offers us awide range of valuable programmes andcontent and serves many purposes in ourdaily lives. Television not only providesmany types of programmes withinteresting and broad content, but alsoserves to fulfil our needs in terms ofentertainment and knowledge. It is farmore than just an object we own. It is anintegral and vital medium today, which cancontribute positively to the education ofsociety and to people's awareness ofothers.


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Media Violence Step 1: Preparing

Identifying the topic and the task

Complex example: Violence in the Media

Most of the time your essay will be based on a prescribed topic. If you have a questionor a statement requiring a response, you will need to read the question carefully and ask

yourself 2 main questions:

What is it about?What am I expected to do?

To ensure you identify the whole task, underline the key elements and, if necessary,number them. Look at the following task, which is based on a past TOEFL writing testquestion:

Task: Violence in the media has been blamed for the rising incidence ofcrime in our (western) society. However, many people disagree thatviolence in society can be related to violence in the media. Discuss thepossible reasons for both points of view and give your own opinion as towhether or not violent programs should be censored

So proceeding step by step we ask ourselves:

.

What is it about?

The question is about VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA.

What am I expected to do?

1. Discuss reasons for both points of view.

a. Media violence is the cause of violence in societyb. Media violence is not the cause of violence in society

2. My opinion of censorship question

Now you can formulate a preliminary thesis statement. In this case, your preliminarythesis statement may be something like the following:

There are two sides to the question of whether media violence causesviolence in society, both of which have strong arguments. However,censorship is a dubious solution which will cause its own problems.

Once you are clear about what the question requires of you, you may beginbrainstorming your first ideas.


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Media Violence Step 2: Brainstorming


You have now identified the topic and the task you are expected to carry out: At thisstage you should write down as many ideas on the topic you can think of. Limit yourselfto 4 or 5 minutes. If you have difficulty starting, it is often helpful to start by askingand answering the following basic questions:

What is meantby...?

Media = TV, radio, Internet, newspapers, magazines,books...

Who Esp. children affected; programmers who decide, ...

What Crime, blackmail, theft, even murder, particularly gruesomeacts

How Desensitising, bad examples, ...

When Now

Where Europe, America

Why Shown as normal, social problems, children copy 'heroes',TV ubiquitous

This will help us think of concrete examples and reasons when we are developing ouressay, and provide a basis for more encompassing comments.

In addition in this case, as the question already indicates three major areas, it will helpif we collect the ideas under each area:


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Media cause of violence Media NOT cause ofviolence

Censorship

Accent on violence innews

Children copy

Violent cartoons

Heroes violent

Heroes outsiders

Ideas for crime

Lack of positive example

Lower threshold

Sensationalism

Social pressures

Arbitrary release ofaggressive feelings

TV educational

Individualism andmaterialism

Lack of parental help

People can't cope

Unable to find help

Unemployment

Who should decide?

What will be censored?

What else might go?

Broadcasting controls

Change channels

Critical viewing

Education of viewers

Viewers can switch off

TV entertaining

Include all the ideas you think of even if they seem far-fetched to begin with. You maybe able to use these ideas later to give your essay an unusual perspective. Note anyexamples or anecdotes which may occur to you, or even diagrams or sketches. Currentevents may also provide illustration for your topic, for example, the spate of schoolchildren running amok with weapons in the United States is a topical illustration for thisessay.

If you run out of ideas and feel what you have is not sufficient, focus on one of thesub-points and work on from there. You can also try simple word association to set youon track again.

Once you have gathered enough ideas, move on to step 3: organising and adapting .


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Media Violence Step 3: Organising and Adapting

Collating, selecting and organising the material


Please note, the time you spend on planning and the amount of detail you include will ofcourse depend on constraints such as time or space placed on the essay. This essay isbeing planned in greater detail than you may be required to use. However theframework of your essay will emerge from the time you allot to your planning. Our 2 nd sample essay here consists of a relatively high degree of detail since we are movingstep by step through the task. To begin with we have our topic and task:

VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA

1. Discuss reasons for both points of view.a. Media violence is the cause of violence in

societyb. Media violence is not the cause of violence

in society2. My opinion of censorship question

I have gathered a number of ideas in table form since a general grouping was apparentfrom the start. Now organise and select the ideas to be used for the essay.

Which ideas can you discard? Which ideas belong together? Can you organise them under one heading? Is there more than one way to group the ideas?

A Media cause of violence B Media NOT cause ofviolence

C Censorship

Accent on violence innews

Children copy

Violent cartoons

Heroes violent

Society to blame

Arbitrary release ofaggressive feelings

TV educational

Individualism andmaterialism

Who should decide?

What will becensored?

What else might go?

Broadcasting controls


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Heroes outsiders

Ideas for crime

Lack of positiveexample

Lower threshold

Sensationalism

Lack of parental help

People can't cope

Unable to find helpUnemployment

Change channels

Critical viewing

Education of viewersViewers can switch

off

TV entertaining

Evidence notconclusive

These are categorised in the following way:

A Media violence is to blame:

1. Violence is normal2. Violence is entertainment3. Negative example only4. Children particularly susceptible

B Media violence not to blame:

1. Social pressure/ social change to blame2. Individual inability to cope3. Parental guidance lacking

C Should there be censorship?

1. Problems2. Alternatives3. Individual behaviour

4. Additional considerations

This is merely one approach to grouping the ideas that can be used for this material.You may prefer a different method or include other ideas, but once you have reachedthis stage, the next step is to plan the outline .


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Media Violence Step 4: Final Plan


Let us reconsider the question:

Question: Violence in the media has been blamed for the rising incidenceof crime in our (western) society. However, many people disagree thatviolence in society can be related to violence in the media. Discuss thepossible reasons for both points of view and give your own opinion as towhether or not violent programs should be censored

We have identified the main elements:

.

VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA

1. Discuss reasons for both points of view.

a. Media violence is the cause of violence insociety

b. Media violence is not the cause of violencein society

1. My opinion of censorship question

Moreover we have formulated a preliminary thesis statement:

There are two sides to the question of whether media violence causesviolence in society, both of which have strong arguments. However,censorship is a dubious solution which will cause its own problems.

It is now necessary to collate the ideas you sifted through in the organising stage andset them out in a logical order, making alterations and additions where necessary. Theintroduction will largely be based on the question, the task identification and the thesisstatement. The conclusion will refer back to these and the main points of the bodybefore making a final pronouncement. Thus our outline could take the following form:

A Media violence is to blame:

Violence is presented as normal or even entertainment

a. Violence in news, cartoons, films, radio, papers. Films without violence orweapons rare

b. Violence is a source of 'humour' (children's cartoons)c. Yellow press/ reality TV present sensationalism as pseudo-information


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d. Many musicians and songwriters glorify/condone violence in their lyricsand performances

Negative example is not balanced by a positive view

a. 'Heroes' are frequently violent, take law into own hands, outs idersb. Lack of positive examplesc. Violence is frequently presented as the only solution to a problem

Result

a. Threshold to committing violence loweredb. People get ideas for crime from film, newspapersc. Children are particularly susceptible - cannot distinguish between reality

and fantasyd. Children copy dangerous and unacceptable behaviour and learn

unacceptable values

B Media violence not to blame:

Social pressure and social change to blame

a. Pressures of modern society: unemployment, homelessness, pressure tosucceed, lack of perspective for young people

b. Individualism and materialism leave emotional emptinessc. Responsibility shirked

Individual inability to cope

a. Inability of individuals to cope with new social and economic situations(divorce, workplace pressures

b. Inability to seek/find helpc. Aggressive feelings vicariously released

Parental guidance lacking

a. Parents do not supervise children enough: emotional and moral guidancelacking

b. Parents do not guide their children's TV viewing habits or taste inentertainment

c. People should question and be critical

C Should there be censorship?

Problems of censorship

a. Who will be responsible for censorship?


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Complex EssayViolence in the Media

In recent years we have witnessed an alarming increase in the crime rate, especiallyamong young people. We have been left shocked and at a loss to find explanations forwhy teenagers rob and blackmail, why young people commit physical violence, whychildren become murderers. Some people place the blame on the way violence isrepresented in the media and, as a consequence, demand that there should be strictercontrols, or even censorship, put in place. However, this way of dealing with the problemis not undisputed. It is necessary to take a closer look at whether or not violence in themedia really is responsible for this development and then to examine what censorshipmay entail before taking such a far-reaching decision, as it may, in fact lead to moreproblems rather than providing solutions.

Many concerned people, ranging from worried parents through to reputablepsychologists, deplore the ever-present nature of violence in the media, claiming thatthis is the reason why people are increasingly prepared to commit violent acts. Theyargue that violence is being propagated as normal or even entertaining. Violence is in thenewspapers, on the news, in film plots and in cartoons. Violence is a source of laughter inchildren's programmes; films present it as staple fare; it is served as pseudo-information in sensation-hungry newspapers and on reality TV; and it is even glorified bysome musicians in their lyrics and performances. In fact in the public domain, it isdifficult to find material that is not linked to violence in some form.

Those who are worried by this development also point out that the negative examplesprovided by the media are not balanced by a positive view. Criminals are often seen asdaredevil and debonair or are presented so as to arouse sympathy. The so-called'heroes' in TV series and films, be they Dirty Harry, the Power Rangers, Butch Cassidyor the Mighty Ducks, are frequently violent and tend to take the l aw into their ownhands. Not only this, the situations are often so contrived that the hero apparently hasno other choice but to turn to violence to solve his problem. Thus, success in mediaterms means achieving a goal by means of violence and crime, so people naturally seethis means as an acceptable alternative for achieving what they want too.

Since the media depicts violence as a normal state of affairs and an acceptableproblem-solving option, this is seen as inevitably leading to a lowering of the thresholdto committing violence and crime. It does not stop here, for film, television and thepopular press even offer ideas for ways to commit crime and violent acts. Indeed, thedetail given and emotional involvement evoked in film in particular even provide ideas asto how to carry out certain crimes. A prime example is the recent report of the highschool massacre in Littleton in the United States, where the teenage killers woretrench coats and mowed down their victims in a manner reminiscent of scenes from apopular film. The teenagers and children of today are immersed in the media, andchildren above all are particularly susceptible to its influence, as they are not yet in aposition to be able to distinguish adequately between reality and fantasy. They grow upexperiencing violent acts being committed daily in cartoons, in films and on the news, soit is not surprising if they believe that violent behaviour is normal behaviour. They copy


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this dangerous and unacceptable behaviour and assimilate dangerous and unacceptablevalues.

Nevertheless, there are voices which challenge the assumption that violence in themedia is the cause of increased violence in society. They would say that society itselfwas to blame as a result of the social pressure and social change people must face.Modern society subjects individuals to an array of pressures such as the lack ofperspective for young people, the threat of unemployment or homelessness, as well asthe necessity to succeed in economic terms and terms of status. Furthermore, there isa lacking sense of responsibility and a tendency to pass the blame. Individualism andmaterialism leave little room for the fulfilment of emotional needs.

This situation is coupled with the inability of the individuals themselves to cope withnew social and economic situations such as divorce or the changing demands of the

workplace. Once caught up in a cycle of strife, people frequently find themselves unableto seek or find help. They are trapped in an anonymous and seemingly uncaring world. Asa result, feelings of frustration, despair or aggression build up until they can no longerbe contained and are then suddenly, horrifically and vicariously released.

There is also the suggestion that the society 'outside' is not the only source ofconcern, that in fact a great deal of blame lies at the feet of thoughtless orirresponsible parents. Parental guidance is said to be lacking because parents do notsupervise their children enough to guide their emotional and moral development. Veryoften the much-berated media is employed as a babysitter: TV and video games keep

the children and teenagers occupied and out of the way. What is missing is the sharedexperience, the guidance in viewing habits and taste in entertainment, and the criticaldiscussion and explanation of what the children have encountered in the media. Parentsmust teach their children to question what they see and hear and be there for them.

So in all of this, is there a need for censorship in the media? The question ofcensorship raises a number of problems. Decisions would need to be made as to just whowould be responsible for carrying out the task and in what form. Would it be the taskof one person or a committee? Who would have the right - or the privilege - to berepresented on a committee of this nature? The range of groups who would wish for a

say extends from parents through church groups to the media representativesthemselves, and this would clearly present a tug-o-war on many levels of interest: moral,educational, economic, aesthetic, and exploitative, to name a few. In addition, there isno guarantee that the criteria for determining the suitability of content nominated bythis committee would better protect viewers than the arbitrarily functioning dynamicscurrently operating. In fact, there may be a need to set up controls to regulate whatwill happen if censors overstep their responsibilities and interpret their task toostrictly or even irrationally. Indeed, this raises a further question: who would be theone to censor the censors?

There are certain alternatives to the extreme of censorship. Rather than rigidlysetting up regulations to be strictly enforced, media groups could be encouraged toestablish a code of practice. In addition to this, programmers need to define the


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content appropriate for particular broadcasting times, which would, for example, easethe difficulties that parents may have in supervising their children's viewing habits.This is already in practice to some degree in many places, but the difficulty is to ensurethat the guidelines are followed. Further to this, script-writers need to be encouragedto offer more balanced content. There is a belief, whether well-founded or not, thatviolence sells and this can only be overcome if producers and programmers are preparedto move in other directions, accepting more variety in content, and viewers are preparedto show that the belief has little basis.

Viewers, readers and listeners need to become more aware of their power and learnto be selective and critical of what the media offers for consumption. The TV viewer'sprogramming desires can be demonstrated by switching off the television or changingchannels if the programmes meet his disapproval. The reader can take active steps bynot purchasing papers or magazines that glorify or sensationalise violent content. The

listener can also switch stations or call in on that talk-back programme to state hisopinion. Audiences can boycott products that are advertised during films or otherprogrammes that show inappropriate content or are shown at inappropriate times. Thus,individuals must be aware that they are to some extent also responsible for thecontent, since the signals they give to filmmakers and advertisers suggest that violenceis indeed what they want.

This brings us back to the point of what role violence in the media has to play ininfluencing society's behaviour. The discussion has shown that while violence appearsalmost ubiquitously in the media, providing a lopsided view of acceptable beh aviour and

how to deal with problems, thus certainly having at least the potential to influencethose exposed to it, it need not be the sole cause of the rising incidence of violence inthe community. There are enough examples of the difficulties and complexities ofsociety that people must face today to show that violence may stem from failure tocope with these pressures and lack of outlet for emotional problems. In other words, itmay be that the media reflects life, rather than life reflecting the media. Whateverthe case, the role of parents and guardians in supervising and guiding the mediaconsumption of those in their care cannot be underestimated. Censorship would onlyremove the responsibility out of the control of the people who are most directlyaffected by programming content, and is thus not a desirable alternative to the presentsituation. Measures such as responsible programming, incentives for more creative andwell-balanced scripting and production, and encouragement of reflection on the part ofbroadcasters and the press to the point of even establishing a code of practice wouldbe preferable steps to take. But above all, people need to be taught to be selective andresponsible in dealing with not only the media, but all aspects of everyday life, and torecognise that they as individuals must make decisions and take action themselves inorder to influence not just the media, but the fabric of the whole of our community.


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Some Useful Links

Grammar and

Writing Skills

http://www.englishgrammar.org/

Style Manuals http://www.mla.org/ http://webster.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtml http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/chicagogd.html

Bibliographystyles

http://www.aresearchguide.com/12biblio.html

WritersWorkshops

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/table_of_contents.htm

MLA CitationStyle

http://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla#mla

Elements ofgrammar andstyle

http://www.bartleby.com/141/index.html

British CouncilUK

http://www.britishcouncil.org/

IELTS http://www.ielts.org/

TOEFL test http://www.toefl.org/

1999 Catherine SchwerinSecond revision October 2007

Institut fr Anglistik und AmerikanistikUniversitt Hamburg

Von-Melle-Park 620146 Hamburg

Germany

[email protected]
http://www.englishgrammar.org/http://www.englishgrammar.org/http://www.mla.org/http://www.mla.org/http://webster.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtmlhttp://webster.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtmlhttp://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/chicagogd.htmlhttp://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/chicagogd.htmlhttp://www.aresearchguide.com/12biblio.htmlhttp://www.aresearchguide.com/12biblio.htmlhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/http://owl.english.purdue.edu/http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/table_of_contents.htmhttp://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/table_of_contents.htmhttp://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla#mlahttp://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla#mlahttp://www.bartleby.com/141/index.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/141/index.htmlhttp://www.britishcouncil.org/http://www.britishcouncil.org/http://www.ielts.org/http://www.ielts.org/http://www.toefl.org/http://www.toefl.org/http://www.toefl.org/http://www.ielts.org/http://www.britishcouncil.org/http://www.bartleby.com/141/index.htmlhttp://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla#mlahttp://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/table_of_contents.htmhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/http://www.aresearchguide.com/12biblio.htmlhttp://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/chicagogd.htmlhttp://webster.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtmlhttp://www.mla.org/http://www.englishgrammar.org/

Essay Writing CatherineSchwerin

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