ESSAY RACE, CASTE, AND HUNGER

1103

ESSAY

RACE,CASTE,ANDHUNGER

RamyaJawaharKudekallu*

I. THEINDIANCASTESYSTEM-AHISTORYAND

CONTEMPORARYIMPLICATIONS..................................1106 II. CASTEASARACIALCONSTRUCT...................................1109 III. WHERECASTEANDRACEDIVERGE.............................1113 IV. CASTE-BASEDANDRACIALDISCRIMINATION

ADDRESSEDININTERNATIONALHUMANRIGHTS........................................................................................................1115 A. Race......................................................................................1116 B. Caste.....................................................................................1118

V. YOUAREWHATYOUEAT…..............................................1122 VI. ANDYOUEATWHATYOUARE.......................................1124 VII. CASTEONTHEMENU..........................................................1126 VIII. LETTHEMEATCAKE...........................................................1130

Thevalueofamanwasreducedtohisimmediateidentityandnearestpossibility.Toavote.Toanumber.Toathing.Neverwasamantreatedasamind.Asagloriousthingmadeupofstardust.Ineveryfield,instudies,instreets,inpolitics,andindyingandliving.Mybirthismyfatalaccident.-ExcerptfromDalitPHDscholar,RohitVemula’slastletter.1Traditionally, American sociologists have argued for a

separation between race and caste. Oliver. C Cox, in 1945,

* Research Fellow, Leitner Center for International Law and Justice, Fordham

UniversitySchoolofLaw1. RohithVemula,Fulltext:DalitScholarRohithVemula’sSuicideNote,TIMESOFINDIA

(Jan. 19, 2016), https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Full-text-Dalit-scholar-Rohith-Vemulas-suicide-note/articleshow/50634646.cms[https://perma.cc/99HL-PAUW].

1104 FORDHAMINTERNATIONALLAWJOURNAL [Vol.43:4

comparingthecastesystemtothatofa“colonyofbees,wherewitheachclassofinsectsdoingitsworknaturallyandharmoniously.”2PerhapsCoxdidnottakethetimetowonderwhetherbeesenjoyedthisimposition.

Herein, with the romanticizing of a harmful social practicethat segregates, discriminates, and oppresses lies problem. Sowhatcouldbethereasonforthenationstate,India,3torefusetoconsider caste as a form of racial discrimination as understoodunderInternationalConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination(“CERD”)?4Whyisitthatagovernment,withthememoryofbeingsubjugatedbycolonizersandwithahistoryofdeniedautonomy,identity,andresourcesforovertwohundredyearsdoesnotwanttoengageinaconversationaboutasystemofdiscriminationasinsidious?Perhapsthetreacheroustruthisthat,thepracticeofcasteprevailswithcelebration,ithasbeenthrivingall along, and that had little to do with the ascension of whitesupremacy.5

Thecaste-basedhierarchyistheoldestformofsystemicsocialdiscrimination, 6 that has furthered the sustained oppression ofthousands. Though older conceptually than race, caste-baseddiscriminationinbothcultureandpracticehasmultipleparallelswiththeconstructofrace.Theconsiderationsofongoingstruggles

2. OliverC.Cox,RaceandCaste:ADistinction,50AM.J.ofSOC.360,361(1945).3. India hasmaintained before the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of

RacialDiscriminationthatDiscrimination based on caste falls outside the scope of article 1 of theConvention.However,afteranextensiveexchangeofviewswiththeStateparty,theCommitteemaintain[ed]itspositionexpressedingeneralrecommendationNo.29-thatdiscriminationbasedon‘descent’includesdiscriminationagainstmembersofcommunitiesbasedon formsofsocialstratificationsuchascasteandanalogoussystemsof inheritedstatuswhichnullifyor impair theirequalenjoyment of human rights. Therefore, the Committee reaffirms thatdiscrimination based on the ground of caste is fully covered by article 1 of[CERD]Convention.

See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination, International Convention on theElimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), Vol. 660 at 195, U.N. Doc.CERD/C/IND/CO/19(1969).

4. Id.5. SeegenerallyFrancesLeeAnsley,StirringtheAshes:Race,ClassandtheFutureof

CivilRightsScholarship,73CORNELLL.REV.1024(1989).6. HumanRightsWatch,CASTEDISCRIMINATION:AGLOBALCONCERN,HUM.RTS.WATCH2

(Sept. 2001), https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/globalcaste/index.htm#TopOfPage[https://perma.cc/Z48S-WXVT][hereinafterHumanRightsWatch].

2020] RACE,CASTEANDHUNGER 1105

between communities marginalized based on identity markerssuchascasteandrace,arerootedinnotionsofbirth,ethnicity,and“purity.”7Governments, policy, and even legislation has ensuredthedeliberatedismissalofspecificlower[ed]communitiesinIndiathatisnotdissimilartotheexperiencesofthoseerasedbecauseofracialbiasintheUnitedStates.8

ThisEssayprovidessomecontexttothehistoryandstructureofcasteinIndiaandcontendsthatcaste-baseddiscriminationisaform racial discrimination. This Essay will illustrate this bycomparingandcontrastingexperiencesofcastewithracethroughthe lens of both domestic law and International Law. Finally, toinvestigateaspecificdimensiontothesubjectmatter, thisEssaywillpresentsomeevidenceofthepracticeofdiscriminationinthepoliticsoffoodandnutrition.

Theparametersofthiscommentary,forthepurposesofthisEssay,willgravitatebetweenIndiaandtheUnitesStates.This isnottosaythattherelevantandimportantframeworksdonotexistinotherpartsoftheworld.ThisEssaymerelyattemptsrestraintandfocus.IfthisEssayexpandedfurtheronthesubjectmatter,therestoftheinvestigationwouldinclude(butnotbelimitedto)theimperative history of South Africa’s Apartheid, the HaitianRevolution of 1791,9 the Romani Community’s experience withuntouchabilityinEurope,10andtheexistingcastesystemofLatin

7. C. J. Fuller,HomoHierarchicus: The Caste Systemand its Implications, 5MODERN

ASIANSTUDIES405(1971)(reviewingLOUISDUMONT,HOMOHIERARCHICUS:THECASTESYSTEMANDITSIMPLICATIONS(MarkSainsburytrans.,1970)).

8. ProminentDalitactivists,scholars,journalists,andleadersarespecificabouthowtoreferencethelargelyacceptedtermLowerCaste.Inlightofthehistoricaloppressionofsuch identities andongoingdiscrimination, these communities preferLoweredCaste; atermwhichmoreaccuratelyreflectsimposedconditionandsocialcontext.Foritsusage,seeRahulSonpimple,DalitConversions:anactofRebellionAgainstCasteSupremacy,ALJAZEERA(June14,2018),https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/dalit-conversions-act-rebellion-caste-supremacy-180614100002526.html [https://perma.cc/6MW5-FGDH].

9. Claudia Sutherland,Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), BLACKPAST (July 16, 2007),https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/haitian-revolution-1791-1804/[https://perma.cc/Q68K-XNKG].

10. LizFekete,EuropeAgainsttheRoma,3RACE&CLASS60,60-70(2014).


America, 11 where currently a varna type labor hierarchy isdeterminedbyanindividual’sracialancestry.12

I.THEINDIANCASTESYSTEM-AHISTORYANDCONTEMPORARYIMPLICATIONS

The caste system in India is a mammoth social, religious,political, andeconomicsystemof societalhierarchy.Discussionson its originwouldbe tediousbecause it remains controversial,dueinparttoitscloserelationwiththefabricofHindureligionandHindu ritual practices. 13 However, what is evident is that thesystemwasinexistencefrom1250BCbasedoffitsdocumentationintheManusmiriti.14

Tounderstandthefundamentals,thesocialstructureismadeup of 4 main castes or “varnas” (groups). The hierarchy is asfollows:

Brahmins – The uppermost caste or the priestly caste arepredominantlyvegetarian,historicallyhavehadfullaccesstoeducation,haveparticipated inestablishing institutions,andare viewed as gatekeepers of knowledge, be it cultural,scientific,orsocial.Kshatriyas–Thecastecomposingsoldiersorwarriors,oftenthecasteofmonarchicalfamilies.Vaishyas – The caste composed of farmers, merchants, andtraders.Shudras – The caste composed of manual laborers anddomesticservants.15

11. See generally Robert H. Jackson,Race/Caste and the Creation and Meaning of

IdentityinColonialSpanishAmerica,55REVISTADEINDIAS150(1995).12. SeegenerallyDipankarGupta,FromVarnatoJati:TheIndianCasteSystem,from

theAsiatictotheFeudalModeofProduction,10J.CONTEMPORARYASIA249(1980).13. NICHOLASB.DIRKS,CASTESOFMIND:COLONIALISMANDTHEMAKINGOFMODERNINDIA

7(2001)14. WILLIAMWILSONHUNTER,THE INDIANEMPIRE: ITSPEOPLE,HISTORYANDPRODUCTS

114(1924).15. Irawati Karve, What is Caste?, ECON. WEEKLY 150 (Jan. 1958), available at

https://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1959_11/456/what_is_casteiv_castesociety_and_vedantic_thought.pdf[https://perma.cc/7M77-WJLD].


Thefifthexcludedfractionis“Dalits,”16whowereseenoutsideofthe larger system. Dalits are comprised of tribal communities,nomadicclanswhowouldberesponsibleformanualscavenging,tannery, and sweeping.17Dalits are “untouchable,”whichmeansthat they are not allowed to participate in any activitywith theotherfourcastes.18Thisexclusionisliteralandineveryaspectofdaily life, including entering temples, residential homes, sharingspacesofeducation,andusingthesamewatersupply,utensils,andtoilets.19Castehassurvivedthemanychangesinthesubcontinent,whichduringtheebbsandflowsofitspoliticalhistory,wasavastcollection of kingdoms, villages, regions, tribal turfs, and clanterritory. Discriminatory and degrading treatment of over 165millionpeopleinIndia,currently,hasbeenjustifiedbycaste.20

TheBritishwereamongthemostprominentandsuccessfulofthe European colonizers in India, with a two-hundred-yearoccupation in South Asia, which includes present day Pakistan,Bangladesh,andSriLanka.21Historian,KevinHobsonstatedthatcaste, to the British, was the existing system that definedoccupation,socialstanding,and intellectualability.22 Itwasalsosomething of ease for colonial power to adopt given this socialstratification. It was not uncommon to them, because of theprevalenceof feudalism inEngland.23The first formsofwesterndata collection came fromquestions on caste identity thatwereincludedincensuscollectionbycolonialrevenuecollectors.24

16. Dalits,alsoformerlyknownasthe“untouchables”arepeopleoutsideoftheCaste

System,whoareseenasspirituallyandphysicallypollutingtoUpperCaste-edHindus.17. SeeKarve,supranote15.18. Id.19. See Human Rights Watch, Hidden Apartheid: Discrimination Against India’s

“Untouchables”, HUM. RTS. WATCH (Feb. 2007),https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/india0207webwcover_0.pdf[https://perma.cc/HP5Y-64UD].

20. Id.21. BURTONSTEIN,AHISTORYOFINDIA107(2010).22. KevinHobson,EthnographicMappingandtheConstructionoftheBritishCensus

in India, THE BRITISH EMPIRE, http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/castesystem.htm[https://perma.cc/74W8-78UF](lastvisitedFeb.24,2020).

23 . N. Patrick Peritore, Feudalism—Critique of a Model of Society and PoliticalEconomy,12ALTERNATIVES61(1987).

24. Id.


Britishconceptionsofracialpuritywereinterwovenwiththecategorizationofcommunitiesbasedoncensusesresults.ThoughcastehaditstiestoHinduism,itdidnotevadethosewhoconvertedtootherfaiths,whoremainedloweredbasedontheirlineage.TheearlycensuscollectionbytheBritishoftheIndianpopulation,hasthelargestimpactinthewayIndiatodaycategorizeshieraticallythevariouscastesandsubcastegroups.Indians,assubjectsfortheEmpire,wereusedasbothcensustakersandasadvisorsregardingthe caste system of hierarchy.25 Brahmins, as the most literate,seeingtheascendancyofBritishpower,alliedthemselvestothisperceived new ruling class and attempted to gain influencethroughit.26Theywereplacedinpositionsofpower,alreadyhadaccess to education, and eventually quarteredoff all facilities tofurthertheirownsect.27

The myriad associations with the caste division benefitedcolonizersthemostwhenitcametolabor.OneoftheauthorsoftheIndianConstitutionandDalitleader,BRAmbedkarstatedthe

system,asadivisionof[laborers],whichisquitedifferentfromdivisionof[labor]—itisahierarchyinwhichthedivisionsof[laborers](themselves)aregradedoneabovetheother.Thisdivisionof[labor]broughtabout[bytheCasteSystem]isnotbasedonchoice.Individualsentiment,individualpreference,hasnoplaceinit.Itisbasedonthedogmaofpredestination.28Ambedkar, however, rejected the notion that caste was a

racial divide.29In his analysis, he believedmuchof the ideas onracewerebasedonassertionsofbiologicaldifferences,ofprimarycolor segregation. Here, he presented, “[The] Caste system is asocial division of people of the same race. His position becameimportant because in international law forums for addressingracialdiscrimination,Indiapositioneditselffirmly,thatcasteisnotanissueofrace,oftenpivotingon‘evenAmbedkarsaidso.”30Tobe

25. Id.26. KevinHobson,EthnographicMappingandtheConstructionoftheBritishCensus

in India, THE BRITISH EMPIRE, http://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/castesystem.htm[https://perma.cc/7SN5-6M6V](lastvisitedFeb.24,2020).

27. Id.28. BHIMRAORAMJIAMBEDKAR,ANNIHILATIONOFCASTE17(1990).29. See id.Seealso 2DR.BABASAHEBAMBEDKAR:WRITINGSANDSPEECHES21 (1st ed.

1982).30. B.R. Ambedkar, Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development,

IndianAntiquary41,para.46(1917).


born into a specific caste is to inherit all the privileges ordetriments, to hold all the social currency or suffer imposedpoverty,tobeabletoaccesseducationorexcludedfromit,tohaveverylimitedchoices(ingeneral)inassociation,beitinmarriage,friendship,orevenoccupyingthesamephysicalspacewithothers.

The first semblanceofdismantling somepractices in caste-based discrimination—such as untouchability and socialsegregation—wasconsideredduringtherumblingsofdissentandthe freedom struggle in the 18th and 19th century. As politicalgroups within India started uniting toward a common goal ofbreaking the yoke of colonization, caste lines blurred. 31 Since1947,andtheIndianstate’sindependence,theIndianConstitutionandthepoliticalclimateofasocialistwelfarenationwasgearedinprovidingdistinctmeasureforthe“upliftment”oftheoppressionlowercastesandDalitsfaced.32

II.CASTEASARACIALCONSTRUCTCaste-based discrimination is seen as a form of racial

discrimination in International Human Rights Law’s definitionsand mechanisms. The advantage in examining caste-baseddiscriminationthroughthelensofraceandracialdivideisthatitallowsforanexpansionofforumsformarginalizedcommunities.“Caste” as a term is itself of European inheritance, translated toinclude, in meaning “race, lineage or breed.” 33 The historicalunderstandingofrace—particularlywhenassessingtheneedforsucha construct—did in fact includecaste.MichelleAlexander’sbook,TheNewJimCrow,intentionallyreferstotheexperienceandhistoryofracialbias intheUnitedStatesofAmerica,as“aracialcastesystem.”34Herbooktouchesonevidenceofsegregationanddirect discrimination, in spite of US constitutional amendmentsandlandmarkjudgmentstoeliminateracism.35Shestatesthat:

31 . Freedom Struggle is part of India’s independence movement, which was a

culminationofevents,groupsandactsofresistanceagainsttheBritishOccupation.32. August15,1947isIndia’sIndependenceDay.33. JulianPitt-Rivers,OntheWord‘Caste’,TRANSLATIONOFCULTURE231(1971).34 . MICHELLE ALEXANDER, THE NEW JIM CROW: MASS INCARCERATION IN THE AGE OF

COLORBLINDNESS34-35(Paperbacked.2012).35. Cases such as, Brown v.Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954); Bailey v.

Patterson,369U.S.31(1962);Batsonv.Kentucky476US79(1986).CasessuchasBrown


[h]istory seemed to repeat itself. Just as thewhite elite hadsuccessfullydrivenawedgebetweenpoorwhitesandblacksfollowingBacon’sRebellionbycreatingtheinstitutionofblackslavery,anotherracialcastesystemwasemergingnearlytwocenturies later, in part due to efforts by white elites todecimateamultiracialallianceofpoorpeople.Bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,everystateintheSouthhadlawsonthebooksthatdisenfranchisedblacksanddiscriminatedagainsttheminvirtuallyeverysphereoflife.36Alexander’sreferenceto“caste”isimportantontwocounts:

first,thedevelopmentofanequationbetweencastewithracehasacommonsocioeconomicfoundation.Bothconceptswerecreatedwith an agenda to exploit specific communities for labor.37Thepractice of both relied on social segregation and isolation, anaspect key to labelling communities “polluted” and perceivedlesser than human.38Second, in spite of previous constitutionallegislative efforts, these systems continue to exist today,oppressingAfricanAmericanandDalitcommunities.39

One of the primary features of casteism is the practice ofuntouchability.Asidefromtheliteralunderstanding,thatthoseoflower castes cannot be touched, the practice comprehensivelyincludes an active and intentional exclusion of specificcommunitiesbasedontheircaste(lowbirth).40Womenof lowercastes are disproportionately higher in numbers as victims ofsexual violence, more than any other identity. 41 Rape andharassmentareamongthemanyhabitualformsofcasteatrocitiesDalits are subjected to. Human Rights Watch’s 2001 Report onCasteDiscriminationpresents“Untouchability”asahegemonythat

v.BoardofEducation,347U.S.483 (1954);BaileyvPatterson369U.S.31 (1962);andBatsonv.Kentucky,476U.S.79(1986).

36. ALEXANDER,supranote34,at34-35.37. AmbrosePinto.UNConferenceAgainstRacism: is CasteRace?, 36ECON.&POL.

WKLY.2817,2819(2001).38. Id.39. Id.40. SeegenerallyRadhamanySooryamoorthy,UntouchabilityinModernIndia,23INT’

SOC.283(2008).41. SeegenerallyALOYSIUSIRUDAYAMETAL.,DALITWOMENSPEAKOUT:CASTE,CLASSAND

GENDERVIOLENCEININDIA204-05(2014);seeALOYSIUSIRUDAYAMETAL.,DALITWOMENSPEAKOUT:VIOLENCEAGAINSTDALITWOMENININDIA(2006).


is reinforced by state allocation of resources and facilities; 42separate facilities are provided for separate caste-basedneighborhoods.Dalitsoftenreceivethepoorerofthetwo,iftheyreceive any at all. 43 In many villages, the state administrationinstalls electricity, sanitation facilities, and water pumps in theupper-castesection,butneglectstodothesameintheneighboring,segregatedDalitarea.44

Similarities can be found in the treatment of AfricanAmericansintheUnitedStates.Formalinstitutionsheretoo,havehadahistoryreinforcingofsubjudicationbasedonracialidentity.Toconsider,forexample,in1906,BereaCollegeappealedbeforeaKentuckyCourt,45againsttwoindictmentsthatprohibitwhiteandblackpersonsfromattendingthesameschool.TheCourtreversedtheconvictionunderthechargethatthecollegewasmaintainingandoperatingacollegewherepersonsofthepeopleofbothraceswerereceivedaspupilsforinstructionwithinadistanceoftwenty-fivemilesofeachother.46Theunderpinningsofracialsegregationand the court’s assertions for justifying the practice are notdissimilar tohow“untouchability”wasunderstood in India.ThejudgesintheBereaCollegeCaseattemptedtoexplainthevalueinsegregationstating“[t]hedangertothepeaceengenderedbythefeeling of aversion between individuals of the different racescannotbedenied.Itisthefactwithwhichthecompanymustdeal.[…]Itismuchwisertoaverttheconsequencesofrepulsionofracebyseparation.”47

Dalits are placed outside the “Varna” system andwere notgivenanystatus in thecastesocialhierarchy.48Inboth traditionandreligiousdoctrine,Dalitsareconsidered“polluted.”49Inmanyways, the caste system goes further than racial segregationbecauseitnotonlyimposessegregation,butdictateswhatDalits

42. HumanRightsWatch,supranote6,at6.43. Id.44. Id.at7.45. BereaColl.v.Commonwealth,29Ky.L.Rptr.284,94S.W.623(1906).46. Id.47. Id.48. HUNTER,supranote14,at114.49.ShaliniRanderia,CarrionandCorpses:Conflict inCategorizingUntouchability in

Gujarat,30EUR.J.SOC.171,172(1989).


dointheirsegregatedspace.50Thejobsconsideredrepulsiveandimpure are reserved for Dalits, and they are prevented fromengaginginanyotherwork.51Thesejobsincluderemovinghumanwaste(knownasmanualscavenging),draggingawayandskinninganimal carcasses, tanning leather,making and fixing shoes, andwashing clothes. 52 Not only are they restricted in terms ofworkspace, but their houses are also supposed to be inferior inquality and devoid of any facilities like a fresh water supply.UntouchabilitywasabolishedbytheIndianConstitutionin1950,53anddespitetheGovernmentof India’sassertionsthat legislationandpolicyestablishedaffirmativeaction,non-discriminationandaccess to justice, lower caste communities remainmarginalized.Representingover one-sixth of India’s population,Dalits endurenearcompletesocialostracization.54

Thereinforcementoftheinterpretationofcasteasanotionofracial purity was also adopted by Nazi Germany’s usage of thewordof Indianorigin “Aryan.”55Theeugenicprogramof lawsofsterilization, which lead to the holocaust, was rooted in theconditionofthe“Germanstock.”56TheAryansintheIndiancontextareclaimedasanIndo-Europeanpopulationofhighbirth(orgoodgeneticstock).57Thoughthetheoryonwhetherthepopulationwasnativetothesubcontinentorpartofahugemigrationisstillbeing

50. According to a 1979 study, Punjabi Christians of the sweeper castewere also

reportedlytreatedasuntouchablesinPakistan.Historically,PunjabiChristiansbelongedtoalow-casteHindugroupcalledtheChuhras.AfterthepartitionofIndiain1947,manymigratedtoPakistanwheretheytookonoccupationsthatothersconsideredtobeimpure,suchassweepingandscavenging.Theywereregardedand treatedasuntouchables,aswerethosereferredtoasMusallis,untouchableconvertstoIslam.Sweeperswereconfinedto live in segregated areas, such as the slaughterhouse neighborhood in Karachi. Suchneighborhoods were extremely poor and squalid. Members of the sweeper and otheruntouchable castes were also forbidden from entering Muslim tea houses. PIETER H.STREEFLAND,THE SWEEPERS OF THE SLAUGHTERHOUSE: CONFLICT AND SURVIVAL IN A KARACHINEIGHBORHOOD13-15(1979).

51. Randeria,supranote49,at172.52. Id.53. INDIACONST.art.17.54. HumanRightsWatch,supranote6,at7.55. MADANGOPAL,INDIATHROUGHTHEAGES70(K.S.Gautamed.1990).56. DAVIDKEANE,CASTEBASEDDISCRIMINATION IN INTERNATIONALHUMANRIGHTSLAW

102(2007).57. Id.


debated,theassociationmadewiththeAryanshasbeenthattheyare“raciallypure”oruppercaste.

The late Father Ambrose Pinto, a prominent scholar andactivist,arguedfortheconsiderationofcaste-baseddiscriminationto be seen within the purview of racism. He presented severalparallels.Heprovidedthefollowinginsight:

The catena of judgments relating to the caste-baseddiscrimination [...] shows that caste is recognised andacknowledgedbythejudicialdecisionsasaprohibitedgroundofdiscriminationnotonlyatparwithrace,butalsoasaformof racial discrimination. The different definitions of casteadoptedbytheseveraldecisionsoftheSupremeCourtofIndiashow that for thepurposesof treatingcasteasaprohibitedgroundofdiscrimination,casteisraceintheIndiancontext(KCVasantKumarvsstateofKarnataka,1985(Supp)SCR352).Inthesaiddecisioncasteisevenidentifiedasaraceorunitofrace, as per the definition of caste accepted by justiceVenkataramaiahinthesaidcase.58

Thus, casteism as racism is not wholly alien by manyinterpretations.Moreover,Article341of the IndianConstitutionreferstoScheduledCast(“SC”59)groupsincludingrace.60

III.WHERECASTEANDRACEDIVERGEThegovernmentofIndiahaspositioneditselfconsistentlyon

thestancethat“caste”isnot“race.”61Ithasbeenasaferandmorepoliticallyneutralassertiontoprescribecasteasaformofethnic-class stratification. An ethnic group consists of people who

58. Pinto,supranote37,at2820.59. Scheduled Castes (“SCs”) and Scheduled Tribes (“STs”) are communities

categorizedasdisadvantagedsocio-economicgroupsinIndia.RightsofthesegroupsarerecognizedandsafeguardedbyvirtueoftheIndianConstitution’sexplicitaimto‘protectaffirm,anddevelop’theirrights.TheNationalCommissionforScheduledCastesandtheNational Commission for Scheduled Tribes are responsible for overseeing welfaremeasure,policy,orlegislationconcerningSCandSTgroups.

60 . Article 341 of the Indian Constitution mentions Scheduled Castes—(1) Thepresidentmaywith[...]specifythecastes,racesortribesorpartsoforgroupswithincastes,racesortribeswhichshallforthepurposesofthisConstitutionbedeemedtobescheduledcastesinrelationtothatstateorunionterritory,asthecasemaybe.INDIACONST.art.341.

61. ConclusionsandRecommendationsoftheCommitteeontheEliminationofRacialDiscrimination,India,U.N.Doc.CERD/C/IND/CO/19(May5,2007).


conceive of themselves as being alike by virtue of commonancestry, real or fictitious, and are so regarded by others as “adistinctcategoryofthepopulationinalargersocietywhosecultureis usually different from its own.” 62 This commonality is heldresponsible for such characteristics as shared appearance,intelligence, personality, morality, capability, purity, honor,custom,speech,religion,andsoforth.63However,VanDenBerghehas held that “ethnic” should be distinguished from “race” or“caste”inthattheformerimpliesreal,important,andoftenvaluedsocial and cultural differences (language, values, socialorganization), while the latter are artificial and invidiousdistinctions reflecting irrelevant (and sometimes non-existent)differencesinphysiognomy,orartificialdifferencesinsocialrole.64

The Indian Constitution and the Indian legal system haverecognized and acknowledged the existence in Indian society ofdiscrimination based on caste.65This discrimination because offorced occupation has been the subject matter of a number oflegislative measures including constitutional provisions andjudicialdecisionsoftheSupremeCourtofIndiaandthehighcourtsofdifferentstates.66Article17oftheIndianConstitutionabolishedthe practice of “untouchability,” including any disability ordiscriminationarisingfromthepractice.67It is importanttonotethat “untouchability” as a practice is not expressly defined. Theoutcomehasbeencontroversial,withprominentcontributorsatthe time theConstitutionwasbeingdrafted—likeRohiniKumarChowdary—demanding for the practice of untouchability to beexpresslydefined.68ThePresidentat the timeand theAssemblyarrived at a consensus that the government would be able torealize the Constitution’s vision through enactment of law, andthusthetermremainedundefined.Untouchabilitymayhavebeenoutlawed, but the caste system itself remains intact.69Promotha

62. Gerald D. Berreman, Race, Caste, and Other Invidious Distinctions in SocialStratification13RACE385,388(1972).

63. Id.64. Id.65. INDIACONST.arts.15-16.66. Pinto,supranote37,at2819.67. INDIACONST.art.17.68. INDIA,3CONSTITUENTASSEMBLYDEBATES:OFFICIALREPORT434(1999).69. Id.


Rajan Thakur, the leader of All India Depressed Classes Leaguefounded in 1935 to represent the Dalits in attaining equality,commented on the advisory committee’s Interim Report onFundamentalRightsduringthedrafting,statingthat:

Idonotunderstandhowyoucanabolishmentuntouchabilitywithout abolishing the very caste system. Untouchability isnothingbut thesymptomof thedisease[....]Unlesswedoawaywithcastesystemalltogetherthereisnousetinkeringwiththeproblemofuntouchabilitysuperficially.70

Article 46 of the Indian Constitution explicitly recognizes thelowest strata of the caste hierarchy (Scheduled Castes andScheduledTribes)withtheintentionofpromoting“specialcareinthe education and economic interest of communities, protectingthemfromsocialinjusticeandallformsofexploitation.”71

Many contemporary post-colonial constitutions—such asthose of India and South Africa—align with the expansion ofeconomic,socialandculturalrights.Thetreatmentof the IndianConstitution towards caste is one that acknowledges the socio-economic disparities of the various [historically] oppressedcommunities. This perspective is among themost prominent indetaching“caste”fromtheideaofrace.Thesystemicchallenges(asdiscussedandconsideredintheConstituentAssemblydebatesof1947)72Dalitandother lower-castecommunities face isgraspedas a problem of class disparity. The hierarchy, or the “Varna”system,wasclaimed tobeadivisionbasedon labordictatedbyscripturesassociatedwithHinduism.Thisresultedinclearnotionsofwhowaswhatcastedependingonhistoricalaccesstoresources,land,education,andsocialliberties.ThisallowsaclaimthatlittlenormativeimpositionofracialdiscriminationorsegregationlawsinthehistoryofIndianlegislation,andthereforeIndiahadno“JimCrow”ordidnotseerace.

IV.CASTE-BASEDANDRACIALDISCRIMINATIONADDRESSEDININTERNATIONALHUMANRIGHTS

Yeah,yourConstitution,

70. INDIA,supranote68,at403.71. INDIACONST.art.46.72. 1947istheyearofindependencefortheRepublicofIndia.


Well,myfriend,it’sgonnahavetobend.I’mheretotellyouaboutdestruction—Ofalltheevilthatwillhavetoend.—NinaSimoneandWeldonIrvine,Revolution73

A.RaceRace and racial discrimination initially foundboth text and

interpretation in International Human Rights Law through thework of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization’s (“UNESCO”) statements. 74 Countries and expertsdid not come to a consensus on the scope of ‘race’ or theimplications of the concept. The influence, however, of thesestatementsledtotheadoptionoftheInternationalConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination(“ICERD”)in1965. 75 The Convention departed from UNESCO’s attempts todefine or construct an understanding of race and the languagefocusedmore on addressing forms of discrimination as well asproviding redressals. 76 The ICERD was among the first of thehumanrightstreatiestoestablishamonitoringbodyofitskind.77The document and its subsequent procedures and functionsremains the most momentous collective global stance againstracism.

The American Civil Liberties Union (“ACLU”) clarifies theimportanceoftheICERDwithregardtoUSdomesticlaw:

[b]ysigningandratifyingICERDin1994,the[UnitedStates]has legally agreed to be bound by its requirements and isobligated to protect and promote equality and non-discriminationintheenjoymentofhumanrights,includingintheareasofeducation,housing,criminaljustice,health,voting,labour,accesstojustice,andmore.ThisisimportantbecauseICERD requires that countries eliminate both intentional

73. NINASIMONE&WELDONIRVINE,REVOLUTION(RCARecords1969).74. G.A.Res.1904(XVIII)(Nov.20,1963).75. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination,openedforsignatureDec.21,1965,S.Exec.Doc.C,95-2(1978);S.TreatyDoc.95-18;660U.N.T.S.195,212[hereinafterICERD].

76. See generally Patrick Thornberry, Confronting Racial Discrimination: A CERDPerspective,5HUM.RTS.L.REV.239(2005).

77. Id.


discrimination and discrimination in effect. While the U.S.Constitutionanddomesticlawshavemechanismsinplacetoreduce the frequencyof racialdiscrimination,both formsofdiscriminationarestillpervasiveintheUnitedStates.78

TheICERDdefinesracialdiscriminationas:anydistinction,exclusion,restrictionorpreferencebasedonrace,colour,descent,ornationalorethnicoriginwhichhasthepurpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition,enjoymentorexercise,onanequal footing,ofhumanrightsand fundamental freedoms in thepolitical, economic, social,culturaloranyotherfieldofpubliclife.79Theexpansionofthegroundsofidentity—thatisrace,color,

descent, or national or ethnic origin—intentionally includes allmanifestations of descent-based discrimination.80Scholar DavidKeanestatedthattherewasanefforttoinclude“color”amongthegrounds,buttheCommitteeassuredthisinterpretationwouldbeencompassed in “descent.”81 The Convention and its associatedmeasures place the onus on countries to eliminate all forms ofdiscrimination pertaining to the identities described. However,thisalonedoesnotfulfilthestate’sresponsibility.Theobligations

78. FrequentlyAskedQuestions:ConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacial

Discrimination, AM. C.L. UNION [ACLU],https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/cerd_faqs.pdf[https://perma.cc/YZ3T-SP3C](lastvisitedFeb.26,2020).

79. ICERD,supranote75,art.1.80. CERDGeneralRecommendationXXIXonArticle1,Paragraph1,oftheConvention

(Descent)(Nov.1,2002)[hereinafterCERDGeneralRecommendation].81. KEANE,supranote56,at180.Seeid.


under Articles 2(1), 82 3, 83 and 7, 84 include that states should“promote an understanding between all races” and “encouragewhereappropriatemultiracialorganisationsandmovements foreliminatingthebarriersofrace.”85

B.CasteTheterm“caste”isnotexplicitlyincludedinanyInternational

Human Rights treaties, ICERD being no exception. 86 Under thetremendousadvocacyandinitiativeofDalitgroupsinIndia,withsupport from racial minorities around the world, there was ademand forredressals forcaste-basedatrocities in InternationalHumanRights Law aswell as to recognize caste as a ground ofracial discrimination. India’s contribution to the negotiationsregarding the provisions of ICERD was one of discomfort and

82. ICERD,supranote75,art.2para.1.States Parties condemn racial discrimination and undertake to pursue by allappropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating racialdiscrimination in all its formsandpromotingunderstandingamongall races,and,tothisend:(a)EachStatePartyundertakestoengageinnoactorpracticeofracialdiscriminationagainstpersons,groupsofpersonsorinstitutionsandtoensurethatallpublicauthoritiesandpublicinstitutions,nationalandlocal,shallact in conformitywith thisobligation; (b)EachStatePartyundertakesnot tosponsor, defend or support racial discrimination by any persons ororganizations; (c) Each State Party shall take effective measures to reviewgovernmental,nationalandlocalpolicies,andtoamend,rescindornullifyanylaws and regulationswhich have the effect of creating or perpetuating racialdiscriminationwhereveritexists;(d)EachStatePartyshallprohibitandbringto an end, by all appropriate means, including legislation as required bycircumstances,racialdiscriminationbyanypersons,groupororganization;(e)Each State Party undertakes to encourage, where appropriate, integrationistmultiracial organizations and movements and other means of eliminatingbarriersbetweenraces,andtodiscourageanythingwhichtendstostrengthenracialdivision.83. ICERD, supra note 75, art. 3. States Parties particularly condemn racial

segregationandapartheidandundertaketoprevent,prohibitanderadicateallpracticesofthisnatureinterritoriesundertheirjurisdiction.

84. ICERD,supranote75,art.7. StatesPartiesundertake toadopt immediateandeffective measures, particularly in the fields of teaching, education, culture andinformation,withaviewtocombatingprejudiceswhichleadtoracialdiscriminationandto promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among nations and racial orethnicalgroups,aswellastopropagatingthepurposesandprinciplesoftheCharteroftheUnitedNations,theUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,theUnitedNationsDeclarationontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination,andthisConvention.

85. Id.86. SeeICERD,supranote75.


reservations,takingissuewithanyinclusionofcasteaspartoftheConvention’s mandate. 87 However, since its independence, thegovernmentofIndiahasbeendeeplyinvestedinitsreputationintheinternationalcommunity,88andthisgeo-politicalpremisehasdrivenalllegislativeactiontoaddresscaste-baseddiscriminationwithin the country. India alleged that the country had alreadyaddressed (dare we say eradicated) caste-based discriminationthrough the Articles of the Indian Constitution and domesticstatutes ensuring civil, political, economic, social and culturalrightstolow-castegroups.89

The ICERD, in its general commentNo. 29,90included castewithin the comprehensive understanding and meaning of“descent.”91The definition of descent by the ICERD included aninheritance of characteristics that resulted in stratification.92Inspite of India’s reports to the Committee on Elimination of AllFormsofRacialDiscrimination (“CERD”)protesting that caste isnot understood as an identity of “descent,” the CERD and theUnitedNationshavemaintainedtheirconclusions.Itisinterestingtonote thatpushing theUNcountries and the ICERD to expandtheirunderstandingofdescentwasanassertionmadebyanumberof other communities around the world, including Nepal, Mali,Yemen, Senegal, and Micronesia. 93 Expanding on the work andinvestmentin“descent”wasalsoimportantforpeopleofAfricanDescent.94

87. Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Rep. Submitted by States

Parties under Article 9 of the Convention U.N. Doc. CERD/C/IND/19 (Mar. 29, 2006)(reiterating thepositionmade in its report in1996 that ‘caste’ cannotbeequatedwith‘race’orcoveredunder‘descent’underArticle1oftheConvention).

88. See George W. Downs, & Michael A. Jones, Reputation, Compliance, andInternationalLaw,31J.LEGALSTUD.S95(2002).

89. UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Addendum to theNineteenthPeriodicReportsofStatesPartiesDuein2006,India,CERD/C/IND/19(Mar.29,2006)[hereinafterAddendum].

90. Comm.ontheEliminationofRacialDiscrimination,GeneralRecommendation29,DiscriminationBasedonDescent,at111,U.N.Doc.A/57/18(Nov.1,2002).

91. Id.92. Comm.ontheEliminationofRacialDiscrimination,61stSess.,1531stmtg.,at5,

U.N.Doc.CERD/C/SR.1531(Aug.9,2002).93. HumanRightsWatch,supranote6,at4.94. Id.


TheWorldConferenceagainstRacism,RacialDiscrimination,XenophobiaandRelatedIntoleranceheldinDurbanin2001wasanopportunitytoaddressthetermalongwithintersectionalityasa collective of inequalities faced by communities of color.95Thejuxtapositionbetweenthesentimentsofpoliticalleaderstocaterto the vast number of Dalit voters in the country, yetmaintainopticsbeforeothergovernments,wasevidentwhen then IndianPrime Minister Manmohan Singh became the first leader tocomparetheconditionoflow-casteHinduswiththatofblackSouthAfricans under apartheid. 96 At a conference in India on socialinjusticesbasedoncaste identity,PrimeMinisterSinghspoketothefailureofpost-independencepoliciesandalackofshiftinsocialattitude:

[e]venafter[sixty]yearsofconstitutionalandlegalprotectionandsupport,thereisstillsocialdiscriminationagainstDalitsin many parts of our country. Dalits have faced a uniquediscrimination inour society that is fundamentallydifferentfrom the problems of minority groups in general. The onlyparalleltothepracticeofuntouchabilitywasapartheid.97ThestatementirkedthelargestoppositionalrightwingHindu

conservative Bharatiya Janata Party (“BJP”), but echoed thestrugglethatDalitandScheduleTribemovementshasexpressedfordecades,thatnotenoughhasbeendonetoaddressatrocitiesand it is unacceptable that the situation has not beenacknowledgedasamasshumanrightsviolation.98DalitDiaspora,intheUnitedStates—whoalignthemselveswiththeDalitRightsmovement—pushedforchangestobemadebeyondthebordersofIndia.SonotlongafterPrimeMinsterSingh’sstatement,the110thUSCongresspassedConcurrentResolution139,urgingUScitizensworkinginIndiato“avoiddiscriminationtowardtheDalitsinallbusinessinteractions.”99

95. Id.96. Comm.ontheEliminationofRacialDiscrimination,ConcludingObservationsof

theCommittee,Canada,¶6,CERD/C/IND/CO/19(May25,2007).97. IndianPrimeMinisterManmohanSingh,AddressinNewDelhiattheCenterfor

SocialJustice(Dec.27,2006).98. HumanRightsWatch,“WEHAVENOORDERSTOSAVEYOU”:StateParticipation

and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat, HUM. RTS. WATCH 39-46 (Apr. 2002),https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/india/gujarat.pdf[https://perma.cc/LY86-3PLR].

99. H.R.Con.Res.139,110thCong.§7(asreferredinSenate,July24,2007).


Muchofthehesitationinembracinganunderstandingofcasteasaracialdiscriminationcanalsobeattributedtothefactthatthecaste system has intimate ties with the practice of the HinduReligion.Theargumentofculturalrelativismhaslonglimitedthefullrealizationoftheuniversalityofhumanrights.100Ambedkar’sdisaffection and finally total dismissal of Hinduism can beattributed his distinct experiences. 101 India is a majority HinducountrywithovereightypercentofthepopulationidentifyingwiththeHindufaith.102Inlightofthis,thereisaresistancetopinracismorracistbehaviortothefaith.103AllattemptstoreformHinduismtoexcludetheritualofcastehavefailedorifthereisanysuccess,the ideology has been diverted so expansively, it can barely berecognizedas“Hindu”anylonger.104

ToaccountforonlyEuropeanorWesternanthropologistsastheonlyexpertsonraceorcasteisahugedisservicetothemanyDalit thinkerswho, inpursuitofrightsandequality,approachedthesubjectmatterforadvocacyandresearch.TheDalitmovementsees itself and the violations of the caste system as thosecomparable with racial discrimination. 105 The Civil RightsMovement in theUnitedStateshashadaprofound influenceonmanymovementsaroundtheworldandDalitRightsactivismisnodifferentinitsreverence.TheconsiderationisnottohomogenizethemanygroupsthatfallintoScheduledCaste,ScheduledTribeorOtherBackwardCastecategories,106buttounifytheirchallenges.AsthePeople’sUnionforCivilLibertiesMemberandHumanRightsLawyer,KalpanaKannabiranappropriatelyasked,“[i]sitpolitical

100. SeeAddendum,supranote89.101. SeegenerallyAnneM.Blackburn,Religion,KinshipandBuddhism:Ambedkar's

VisionofaMoralCommunity,16J.INT’LASS’NBUDDHISTSTUD.1(1993).102 . Religion, OFF. OF THE REGISTRAR GENERAL & CENSUS COMMISSIONER, INDIA,

http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/religion.aspx [https://perma.cc/SV3M-MRFV](lastvisitedFeb.26,2020).

103. SeeDIRKS,supranote13.104. Id.105. ChristopherQueen,WhatAmbedkar's Anti-caste Struggle SharedWith theUS

CivilRightsMovement,SCROLL.IN(Oct.14,2016),https://scroll.in/article/818942/what-ambedkars-anti-caste-movement-shares-with-martin-luther-kings-civil-rights-movement-in-the-us[https://perma.cc/WSW8-LD9C].

106 . Categories set by the Indian Constitution as ‘low caste’ groups. KalpanaKannabiran, Race and Caste: A Response to Andre Beteille, PUCL BULL. (Aug. 2001),http://www.doccentre.org/docsweb/CasteRace/documents_caste/beteille_response.htm[https://perma.cc/YH78-5BCX].


mischief to say that Blacks and Dalits share a history ofsubjugation,slaveryandsocialexclusion,thathaschangedonlyinformandcontinuesuntrammelledeventodayandthatbothmusthave recourse to common international instruments ofredress?”107

V.YOUAREWHATYOUEAT…TheAuthor’sinterestinincludinganapproachtothesubject

matterthroughfoodcomesfrompolarexperiences:aloveforallfoodandpersonalexperiencesassomeonepersonallypolicedforfoodchoicesasaloweredcasteindividual.Thus,thisEssaymovesawayfromthemorecommonthemesofhousing,education,healthandemployment,butaninvestigationthroughfoodtouchesonalltheaboveinnumberofways.Byprovidingsomeinsight,thisEssayto engage with idea that food policing transcends immediatediscrimination, asserting that it has implications that are far-reaching,intergenerational,withlong-termharmtocommunities’nutritionandwellness.

Food,Rights,andDignityThe right to food rhetoric isoftenunderstoodas tobe free

from hunger. Identifying food andwater as themost importantsource forhumansustenancemeans thatour imaginationof therights that are associated with it are limited to certainassumptions. “Do not waste food” the western world is told,“someone in Africa or India is starving”. These assumptionsunderminearealopportunity forallofus,acrossregions, races,castes and classes to think more comprehensively about food,thereinalackofit.Thisisnottodismisstherealnessofhunger,buttoplaceacasteandracelenstohungerasverymuchacentralissueof systemic oppression. If our most conventional experience ofstarvation is a lack of nutrition, are we open to considering animposition of food practices without any nutritional value also“starving”?

“Therighttofoodistherightofeveryfellowhumanbeingtoliveindignity.”108Hungerisaconstantstateofdistractionandto

107. Id.108. Jacques Diouf, Director-General, Food and Agriculture Organisation,Keynote

SpeechattheInternationalConferenceontheRighttoFoodandtheCostsofHunger(June20,2003).


beeverengagedinthecyclictraumaofnothavinganythingtoeat,quite possiblymeans an inability tomeaningfully participate associal and political being. The Universal Declaration on HumanRights recognizes the “right to food” through Article 25, whichstates that “[e]veryone has the right to a standard of livingadequateforthehealthandwell-beingofthemselvesandoftheirfamily, including food […].”109Much of the current internationaladvocacy around food was established in by 1996World FoodSummit. The Summit called for and concluded with a “plan ofaction,”where by theUNHigh Commissioner forHumanRightsformed intergovernmental mechanisms to realize the right tofood.110

One of the most important follow up documents from theSummitwastheMay1999,theUNCommitteeonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(“CESCR”)releasing itsGeneralComment12The Right to Adequate Food. 111 The expansion from mereconsumption to understanding the food more broadly was animportant step. The Committee proposed that the right toadequate food be legally binding on all countries party to theConventiononEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsasapositivehumanright.Statesnowhadacoreobligationtotakethenecessaryactiontomitigateandalleviatehungerevenintimesofnaturalorother disasters. 112 The Comment was also intentional in itsapproachtohungerasanissueofpoliticalwill.Itdrewadistinctionbetween availability and access, whereby “fundamentally, therootsof theproblemofhungerandmalnutritionarenot lackoffood but lack of access to available food, inter alia because ofpoverty,bylargesegmentsoftheworld’spopulation.”113

ThreekeyresponsibilitieswerescopedforCountries:respect,protect, facilitate and provide. The following enumerates themeaningofeach:

109. G.A.Res.217(III)A,UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(Dec.10,1948).110 . Rome Declaration on World Food Security Objective 7.4, Nov. 13, 1996,

available at http://www.fao.org/3/w3613e/w3613e00.htm#Note1[https://perma.cc/V82A-ND2J].

111. UNComm.onEcon.,Soc.and&CulturalRts.(CESCR),GeneralCommentNo.12:TheRighttoAdequateFood(Art.11)(May12,1999).

112. “Adequacy,” intheGeneralCommentmeantthatanaccountmustbetakenofwhat is appropriate under given circumstances. Food security implies food beingaccessibleforbothpresentandfuturegenerations.Id.

113. Id.atpara.5.


Respect. “The obligation to respect existing access toadequate food requires States parties not to take anymeasuresthatresultinpreventingsuchaccess.”Protect.“TheobligationtoprotectrequiresmeasuresbytheStatetoensurethatenterprisesorindividualsdonotdepriveindividualsoftheiraccesstoadequatefood.”Fulfil(facilitate).“Theobligationtofulfil(facilitate)meanstheState must pro-actively engage in activities intended tostrengthenpeople’saccesstoandutilizationofresourcesandmeanstoensuretheirlivelihood,includingfoodsecurity.”Fulfil(provide).“Finally,wheneveranindividualorgroupisunable,forreasonsbeyondtheircontrol,toenjoytherighttoadequatefoodbythemeansattheirdisposal,Stateshavetheobligationtofulfil(provide)thatrightdirectly.Thisobligationalsoapplies forpersonswhoarevictimsofnaturalorotherdisasters.”114

All these obligations were conceived to comprehensive includeotherhumanrightsandfreedomssuchasliberty,equaltreatment,andalifeofdignity.

VI.ANDYOUEATWHATYOUARE.“Youcan’teatadeaddog,canyou?”115– Excerpt from ‘“Black Boy” by African American Author,RichardWrightTheUnitedStatesofAmericadoesnotsupportthe“rightto

food” idea as prescribed by theUnitedNations and the GeneralComment.116WithintheUnitedStates,theSupplementalNutritionAssistance Program (SNAP, formerly known as the Food StampProgram), the National School Lunch Program, and the SpecialSupplementalNutritionProgramforWomen,InfantsandChildren(WIC)provideacriteriaforindividualtobeeligible.117Inrealizingthe normative value to “right to food” though the GeneralComment,itwouldbeimportanttoaccountforaccesstoinclude

114. Idatpara.15.115. RICHARDWRIGHT,BLACKBOY71(1945).116. U.S.ExplanationofVoteontheRighttoFood,U.S.MISSIONTOINT’LORGS.INGENEVA,

https://geneva.usmission.gov/2017/03/24/u-s-explanation-of-vote-on-the-right-to-food/[https://perma.cc/RG24-R764].

117. GeorgeKent,TheHumanRighttoFoodandDignity,37HUM.RTS.MAG.(2010).


dimensions of employment (livelihood), quality of produce, andthe government’s intention when allocating resources for thesupplyoffood.

FoodDeserts

A research initiative by the New York Law School RacialJustice Project and ACLU specifically tracks low-incomecommunities’ access to supermarkets in New York City. Theinquirywastofurtheranunderstandingofaphenomenaknownas“fooddeserts,”wherelowincomeneighborhoodblocksaremoredistantfromgrocerystoresthanotherblockswithinacity.118Withfooddeserts in theCityofChicago, theratioof thedistance toagrocerystorerelativetothedistancetoafastfoodrestauranthadanimpactonneighborhood’sfoodbalance.119

The report in its entirety is an alarming account of thedetrimentalimpactonthelackofnutritiousfoodproduceinlowincomeneighborhoods.Theseneighborhoodsarepredominantlycommunities of color or disproportionately African American.120Narratives include the stark reality of working parents whojuggletwotofourjobs,resortingtotheclosestsourcesofmealsfortheirchildrenatfastfoodchains.121Anyattempttoovercomethosechoices involve traveling great distances, diminishing time andfinancesavailable.Thelong-termimpactonhealthisreflectedwithindividuals living in deserts have a higher predisposition todiabetes and cardiovascular disease compared to high income(predominantly white) neighborhoods. 122 Professor AndreaFreemanattheUniversityofHawai’iassertsthattheissueisevenmoresystemicreferringtothefactthatpoornutritionallabelling

118. N.Y. L. Sch. Racial Just. Project, Unshared Bounty: How Structural Racism

ContributestotheCreationandPersistenceofFoodDeserts,RACIALJUST.PROJECT19(June2012),https://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=racial_justice_project[https://perma.cc/447W-YL3D].

119. MARI GALLAGHER, MARI GALLAGHER RESEARCH & CONSULTING GROUP, GOOD FOODEXAMININGTHEIMPACTOFFOODDESERTSONPUBLICHEALTHINCHICAGO6(2006).

120. Id.121. SeeN.Y.L.Sch.RacialJust.Project,supranote118.122. Id.at6-8.


doubly marginalizes low income communities. 123 With afundamentalrestraintonchoice,coupledwithnoinformationonwhat is being eaten, extremely harmful food additives in cheapmealsarebeingconsumedindangerouslylargequantitiesbylowincomefamilies.ShearguesthattheFederalgovernment’sinabilitytoregulatelabellingrequirementsisthestate’swayofcontributingtostructuralinequalitiesandracialmarginalization.124

Freeman’s definition of food oppression is astoundinglyaccurate,describingitas

the institutional, systemic, food-relatedactionorpolicy thatphysicallydebilitatesasociallysubordinatedgroup.Politicallyandfinanciallyweakcommunitiesabsorbtheexternalcostsoffoodoppression,renderingthesecostslargelyinvisibletothemainstream. The effects of the oppression also increase theharmed groups’ vulnerability by constraining their politicalvoices,reducingtheirworkcapacity,anddrainingtheenergyofhouseholdandcommunitymemberswhomustcareforthesickandtakeontheresponsibilitiesthatillmemberscannotfulfill. In the long term, food oppression diminishes alreadyvulnerable populations in numbers and in power. Illnessarising fromfoodoppressionalso leads tosocial invisibility,decreasedsocialstatus,depression,anddespair.125

VII.CASTEONTHEMENU“Dal means split, an etymology that comes from how weprepare pulses. Most Indian pulses are dicotyledons, seedswithtwohalves.Tomakethemeasiertocookwecrushtheminamill,simultaneouslysplittinganddehuskingthemtoyieldthe twobrokenhalveswhich aredal. The termDalit comesfromthesameroot,acoinagepopularisedbythosewhoknewwhatitwastobebrokenandcrushedbysociety.”-DalitPoet,NamdeoDhasal126

123. AndreaFreeman,TransparencyforFoodConsumers:NutritionLabelingandFood

Oppression,41AM.J.L.&MED.315(2015).124. Id.125. AndreaFreeman,TheUnbearableWhitenessofMilk:FoodOppressionand the

USDA,3U.C.IRVINEL.REV.1251,1253(2013).126. VikramDoctor,Dalit Food: How it Became aMeans of Oppression,THEECON.

TIMES (Apr. 12, 2008), https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/the-leisure-lounge/dalit-


Therighttofoodisapartoffundamentalrightsanddirectives

principles of the Indian Constitution. 127 The food habits areviewingglassintothevastandcomplexcasteassociationbasedonconsumptions. Known often as a nation that caters best tovegetarians,India’sreputationisbasedonthefoodhabitsofwhatisassumedasitsmajoritypreference.Inreality,however,seventypercent of Indians are non-vegetarian.128Dalits and other lowercastegroupsarealmostcompletelynon-vegetarianandconsumemost kinds of meat, dairy and egg products. 129 The mostcontroversialmeatinIndiaisbeefbecauseofHinduism’slongandveryvocalhistorywiththecowanditsdivinity.130

At the time of the Constitution was being drafted, cowslaughter was an issue of many debates. 131 The considerationdriftedfarfromthedeclarationof“secularism”thatisestablishedasoneofthecorevaluesoftheRepublic.Indiawasrecoveringfromthe large-scale exploitation and leeching of its resources by itscolonizers,andoneofthedeliberationswasthesignificanceofthe food-how-it-became-a-means-of-oppression/articleshow/2945790.cms?from=mdr[https://perma.cc/SV4G-S7RE].

127. TheNationalHumanRightsCommission,India,hastakentheviewthattheRightto Food is inherent to a lifewith dignity. Article 21 of the Constitution of IndiawhichguaranteesafundamentalrighttolifeandpersonallibertyshouldbereadwithArticles39(a)and47tounderstandthenatureoftheobligationsoftheStateinordertoensuretheeffective realization of this right. INDIA CONST. arts. 21, 39A, 47. Article 39(a) of theConstitution,enunciatedasoneoftheDirectivePrinciples,fundamentalinthegovernanceofthecountry,requirestheStatetodirectitspoliciestowardssecuringthatallitscitizenshavetherighttoanadequatemeansoflivelihood,whileArticle47spellsoutthedutyoftheStatetoraisethe levelofnutritionandstandardof livingof itspeopleasaprimaryresponsibility.INDIACONST.arts.39A,47.TheConstitutionthusmakestheRighttoFoodaguaranteed Fundamental Right, which is enforceable by virtue of the constitutionalremedyprovidedunderArticle32oftheConstitution.INDIACONST.art.32.

128. OFF. OF REGISTRAR GEN. & CENSUS COMM’R, INDIA, SAMPLE REGISTRATION SYSTEMBASELINE SURVEY (2014), available athttp://censusindia.gov.in/vital_statistics/BASELINE%20TABLES08082016.pdf[https://perma.cc/XL5B-8KWG].

129. Ashwaq Masoodi, A Story of Culinary Apartheid, LIVEMINT (Sept. 16, 2016),https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/wJzDhGEE4csaX2BjhjHMsL/A-story-of-culinary-apartheid.html[https://perma.cc/NG3M-WZFW].

130. MARGO DEMELLO, ANIMALS AND SOCIETY: AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN-ANIMALSTUDIES314(2012).

131. Lovish Garg,Examining the Constituent Assembly Debates on Cow Protection,WIRE.IN (Oct. 15, 2016), https://thewire.in/law/unveiling-indias-long-history-of-hypocrisy-on-cow-slaughter-laws[https://perma.cc/WJ9L-8QRQ].


agriculturaleconomyasbackboneaswellastherecourseforfoodsecurity. 132 Without the advantage of advanced technology infarming, bovines were important in all their functions. Theysupportedthemilkindustry,werebeastsofburden,necessaryforcultivationandtheleatherproduction.SethGovindDas,amemberof the Constituent Assembly, called for the prohibition of cowslaughter to be made part of the Constitution’s chapter onfundamental rights, on a par with the prohibition ofuntouchability.133Thecowwasbothsacredandaneconomicasset,sobynomeanswasittobefedon.Inordertosatisfythereligioussentiments of many (mostly upper caste leaders) and moveforward with more crucial aspects of the drafting, Assemblyreacheda compromise.Prohibitionof cowslaughterwouldbea“directiveprinciple”ofstatepolicy,notattainingenforceability.134Statesandtheirrespectivevoteswoulddecidewhethertheywouldimposesuchrestrictions.135ThesentimentsthatwerevocalizedatthetimetheConstitutionwasbeingdrafteddidnotaccountforthemany Hindu communities that do in fact eat beef, these beingHindus of the Dalit and lower caste groups. There was also noacknowledgementofthefoodhabitsofreligiousminoritiessuchastheMuslimsandChristians.

India’s central government is currently led by the BJP, thepoliticallyright-wingsectwithPrimeMinisterNarendraModiasits head. In June 2017, government issued the Prevention ofCrueltytoAnimals(RegulationofLivestockMarket)Rules.136Theorder issues a nationwide control prohibiting the sale of cows,buffaloesandoxen forslaughter.137Diverting fromastate-basedregulation, the order is treated as complete ban on beef forconsumption.Manystates,particularlythosewithpopulationsthateatbeef,havecondemnedtheorderandhavetakenstepstoresist

132. 3CONSTITUENTASSEMBLYOF INDIADEBATES (PROCEEDINGS) (1948),available at

https://www.constitutionofindia.net/constitution_assembly_debates/volume/7/1948-11-18[https://perma.cc/JFZ4-QDLL].

133. Id.134. Id.135. Id.136. PreventionofCrueltytoAnimals(RegulationofLivestockMarkets)Rules,2017,

GazetteofIndia,pt.IIsec.3(i)(May23,2017).137. Id.


the ban.138 Food policing has become the agenda of right-wingfringegroupswhoseekoutDalitsandMuslimsandkillthemforeatingbeef.139

While theslowwheelsof justice turn, thebeef industryhassustainedhugelossesinthelivelihoodofcattlefarmers,butchersand transporters,most ofwhom are from theMuslim andDalitcommunities. 140 Religious minorities are not beyond the casteboundaries, with almost fourty percent of India’s ChristianpopulationidentifyingasDalitorfromlowerscastes.Peggedasanissueofcommunaldisharmony,withHindusonesideandMuslimsonanother,the“beefban”isnotdeemedenoughasacasteatrocitythatfurthermarginalizesDalitcommunitieswhoseoccupation(anoccupationbeyondtheirchoice)reliesonthebeefindustry.141

Thebeefbanisnotisolatedinthelargerquestionofimpactonhealthandnutritionoflow[erd]castegroups.In2008,forty-threepercentofIndianchildrenundertheageoffivewereunderweight.142The corresponding figure for Somaliawas thirty-two percentandforRwandaitwaselevenpercent.143In2001,afterforty-seventribal people and Dalits were starved to death in southeasternRajasthan,despiteIndia’sfoodstockshavinganexcessofaroundforty million tons of food grain that year, activists andorganizationshadapproachedtheSupremeCourt toenforce therighttofoodforallcitizensandformamandateforthegovernmentassuring food security for all. 144 Beef is the cheapest source of

138. Kerala Adopts Resolution Asking Centre to Withdraw Cattle Slaughter Ban,ECON. TIMES (June 8, 2017), https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/kerala-adopts-resolution-asking-centre-to-withdraw-cattle-slaughter-ban/articleshow/59058287.cms[https://perma.cc/9SJC-RPMU].

139. Hum. Rts. Watch, Violent Cow Protection in India: Vigilante Groups AttackMinorities, HUM. RTS. WATCH (Feb. 18, 2019),https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/02/18/violent-cow-protection-india/vigilante-groups-attack-minorities[https://perma.cc/EMA4-RQHQ].

140. Id.141. Dalit Christians Demand SC Status, THEHINDU (Aug. 12, 2019),

https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/dalit-christians-demand-sc-status/article28986154.ece[https://perma.cc/E2F3-NRRJ].

142. ShoaibDaniyal,BetweenBannedBeefandExpensiveDal,HowArePoorIndiansSupposed to Get Enough Protein?, SCROLL.IN (OCT. 31, 2015),https://scroll.in/article/765001/between-banned-beef-and-expensive-dal-how-are-poor-indians-supposed-to-get-enough-protein[https://perma.cc/L96N-VUGP].

143. Id.144. Id.


protein in the country,withRupees0.77per gramcompared toRupees3.33forpulsesorRupees6.33formilk.145Soonafterthebeefbanwasissued,thecostofrice,othergrain,pulsesandwheatsoared.146

To equate an entire identity, its richness in culture, itstreasured recipes and preference of ingredients with “meat, nomeat”would be counter intuitivewhat this Essay seeks to shedlight on. The issue at hand is not classification of consumers toargue for a majoritarian food habit, just as the objective inaddressingfooddesertsisnottocriticizetheoccasionalpersonofcolorwholikestheirBigMac.Whatremainsamassviolationoftherights of these communities is the systemic coercion that limitstheiroptions.Theselimitationshaveveryparticularrepercussionsshouldered by them alone. This Essay could not begin to evenconsidertheencumbrancebeinggendered.WiththescaleofmassincarcerationofblackmenintheUnitedStates,mosthouseholdsarerunbywomendemonstratinginsurmountableresiliencewhiletheyfeedtheirfamilies.

VIII.LETTHEMEATCAKE“Shewouldnotsitnexttome,Ma.ShesaidIstankofliverandskin.Youwouldeatyourchildrenifyoucould,shesaid,youfilthything”–LamentationsofaDalitChildQueen Marie Antoinette never said these words, but she

would have to suffer their reference to her infinitely. 147 Theunderpinningsoftheassociationarereal,becauseitwasbelievedthat thiswas the responseof thoseofher class topeasants andfarmerswhoexpressedconcernsoverashortageoffoodinFrance.Perhaps much has not changed and myth is as real today.Oppressiveconditionsarenottheaccidentsofsociety,butrather,structured with enough and more facilitation through power,politics,policyandlaw.

InternationalHumanRightsLawhasbroadeneditshorizonstoconsideranexpansionofdefinitionsanddeterminationswhencomes to rights violations. The difficultly is the enforcement.

145. Id.146. Id.147. ÉVELYNELEVER&CATHERINETEMERSON,MARIE-ANTOINETTE:THELASTQUEENOF

FRANCE63-65(2000).


Unless there is statutory realization in domestic law that hasmeaningfulmechanisms for redressals, thesedebatesare lost towindsofacademia.India,admittedlycouldbenamedandshamedbytheUnitedNationsanditsagenciestoinchslightlyforward,butthere isnodoubtwith the currentpolitical climate, thismaynolongerdeliverfavorableresults.

Informulatingsomethoughtsandpossibilitieswithraceandcaste,thisEssayasksforconsiderationnotjustofthesimilaritiesinproblems,butarealopportunityforoverarchingsolutions.ThecastesystemisthelongestsurvivingsocialhierarchyintheworldandthediscriminationitperpetrateshasdeeprootsintheIndianidentity.Criticalracetheory,thoughmuchyounger,isamuchmoredeveloped framework, particularly when it comes to thearticulationofinequalities.Thefundamentalcontentionisnotthatraceandcastearethesame,butitisthatracialdiscriminationandcaste-baseddiscriminationarethesame.Theprejudicesfacedbycommunitiesentrenchedintherigidityoftheseidentitiescanberegardedawidespreadactofuntouchabilityincontinuum.

ESSAY RACE, CASTE, AND HUNGER

Documents

Transcript of ESSAY RACE, CASTE, AND HUNGER