Essay on Development Policy

Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries The Case of Labuan Bajo, Flores

(East Indonesia)

Manuela Stiffler

NADEL MAS-Cycle 2010 - 2012

February 2012

II

Abstract  Many developing countries face serious problems in managing their waste. The

present essay outlines the solid waste management (SWM) system of Labuan Bajo on

the island of Flores in East Indonesia. The SWM system in Labuan Bajo reflects the

major problem areas of SWM in developing countries. The areas studied cover the

service coverage for waste collection, resource recovery and recycling activities,

landfill disposal as well as the management of health care and hazardous wastes.

Based on the challenges and possible solutions for the improvement of SWM systems

in developing countries, possible solutions for Labuan Bajo are outlined.

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Table  of  contents  Abstract ......................................................................................................................... II  Table of contents .......................................................................................................... III  Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. IV  List of Figures ............................................................................................................. IV  1   Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1  2   SWM in Developing Countries – Challenges and possible solutions ...................... 3  

2.1   Challenges in SWM in developing countries .................................................... 3  2.2   Possible solutions for the improvement of SWM in developing countries ...... 5  

3   Case Study Labuan Bajo, Flores .............................................................................. 7  3.1   Background information ................................................................................... 7  3.2   Current SWM system ........................................................................................ 9  3.3   Discussion of challenges and possible solutions ............................................ 11  

4   Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 15  5   References .............................................................................................................. 16  

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Abbreviations  3R Reuse, Reduce, Recycle

Bapedal Badan Pengendalian Dampak Lingkungan =

Environmental Impact Management Agency

Camat Head of Sub-district

CBO Community-based Organizations

ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management

MSEs Micro and small enterprises

Pasukan kuning Public waste collection service

Perda Peraturan Daera = Local regulation

PU Pekerjaan Umum = Department of public works

Sandec Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing

Countries

SWM Solid waste management

TPA Tempat Pembuangan Akhir (Final disposal site)

TPS Tempat Pembuangan Sementara (Temporary disposal

site, temporary storage facility)

UPTD Unit Pelaksanaan Teknik Daerah = Regional technical

implementation unit

Exchange rate 1 CHF = 9809 IDR (Nov. 2011) (http://de.chf.exchangerates24.com/idr/)

List  of  Figures  Figure 1: Current SWM system in Labuan Bajo ........................................................... 9

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1 Introduction  Many developing countries face serious problems in managing their waste.

Worldwide, over two thirds of human wastes are released in the environment with

little or no treatment. This results in deterioration of the environment in the form of

air, water and land pollution (Suez Lyonnais des Eaux 1998). In Indonesia, the current

status of solid waste management (SWM) in many cities is coming to the surface as

uncontrollable problem (The Republic of Indonesia 2008: 1). In the present essay the

case of Labuan Bajo, a small town on the island of Flores in East Indonesia, is

analysed. Solid waste is one of the major environmental problems all over Flores, but

mostly in municipalities and around tourist spots. Labuan Bajo is the gateway to the

Komodo National Park, which is the most visited tourist attraction on the island

(Swisscontact WISATA 2011a). Due to the absence of an adequate SWM system,

illegal dumping and burning of waste can be found all over the town and its

surroundings. According to Ogawa (1996: 1) poor visual appearance of towns has

negative impacts on official and tourist visits and foreign investment. This is already

the case for Labuan Bajo. To give an example, in a tourist exit survey conducted by

Swisscontact WISATA end of 2009, 25% of the visitors answered the question “What

was the most disturbing experience during your stay in West Flores” with ‘dirty

beaches and city: too much rubbish and plastic everywhere’. With the fast growing of

tourism in the area, the problem of SWM has been increasing over the last years.

Thus, it is essential to tackle the problem of SWM in order to establish a sustainable

tourism industry (Stiffler et al. 2011; Swisscontact WISATA 2011a).

The following question represents the foundation of this essay:

“What challenges does Labuan Bajo face regarding SWM and how can the current

system be improved?”

Solid waste is defined as material, which is not in liquid form, and has no value to the

person who is responsible for it (Zurbrügg 2003a: 1).

The present essay is structured as follows. In chapter 2, problems, challenges and

possible solutions concerning SWM in developing countries are presented. Chapter 3

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outlines the case of Labuan Bajo, Flores. Based on an assessment carried out by

Swisscontact Indonesia in July 2011, the current SWM system in Labuan Bajo is

described. Subsequently, challenges as well as possible solutions to improve the

SWM system in Labuan Bajo are discussed based on the information outlined in

Chapter 2. In Chapter 4, the findings are summarized.

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2 SWM  in  Developing  Countries  –  Challenges  and  possible  

solutions  

2.1 Challenges  in  SWM  in  developing  countries  

Zurbrügg (2003a) defines the following four typical problem areas in solid waste

management in urban areas of developing countries: 1) inadequate service coverage

and operational inefficiencies of services, 2) limited utilization of recycling activities,

3) inadequate landfill disposal and 4) inadequate management of healthcare and

hazardous wastes.

Regarding the service coverage for waste collection, solid waste collection schemes

of cities in developing countries generally serve only a limited part of the population.

On average, only 50-80% of the waste is collected. It is in general the low-income

population that remains without or only inadequate waste collection services. In the

areas that lack refuse collection, residents tend either to dump their waste at the

nearest vacant lot, public space, river, or simply burn it in their backyards. One of the

main reasons is the lack of financial resources. SWM usually accounts for 30-50% of

municipal operational costs. The collection fees charged are often inadequate and the

funds from a central municipal budget insufficient to finance adequate levels of

service. Another important reason is the lack of information on how much waste is

generated at the source point, collected at the transfer point and delivered to the final

disposal site. Other reasons include operational inefficiencies of solid waste services

operated by local governments, e.g. due to inefficient institutional structures or

inappropriate technologies1 (Medina 2010: 1f; Meidiana/Gamse 2010: 207; Glawe et

al. 2005: 4f; Zurbrügg 2003a: 2).

What concerns the resource recovery and recycling, recycling non-organic materials

is often well developed by the activities of the informal sector. The cost of the

separated material, its purity, quantity and its location are important factors that affect

the potential for resource recovery. The economic potential for resource recovery is 1 The ‘conventional’ collection approach, as developed and used in developing countries is often applied in developing countries even though mostly inadequate for the conditions in developing countries (Zurbrügg 2003a: 2).

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mainly decided by the costs of storage and the transport of recyclables. Due to the

very low incomes and the labour-intensive way, the resource recovery is done in

many developing countries. Hence, the fraction of the total waste recovered is quite

high. In these countries, the creation of employment is the main economic benefit of

resource recovery. The reuse of organic waste, typically contributing to between 40%

and 80% of the total waste amount in developing countries, has recovery potential,

but is still limited. Therefore, composting can be an option to reduce the amount of

waste that is currently disposed of at landfills. This reduces the costs of the landfill,

prolongs the dumpsite’s life span and reduces the environmental impact of disposal

facilities as the organic material is largely to blame for the polluting leachate and

methane problems (Medina 2010: 8; Medina 2000: 4f; Glawe et al. 2005: 7; Zurbrügg

2003a: 2f; Nair 1993: 3-6).

In reference to the disposal, most solid waste in developing countries is dumped on

land – legal or illegal - in a more or less uncontrolled manner. Open dumping

generates various environmental and health hazards, the decomposition of organic

material produces methane, which can cause fire and explosions and contributes to

global warming. The main reasons for the inadequate disposal of waste are financial

and institutional constraints. This mostly where local governments are weak or

underfinanced. The financing of a safe disposal of solid waste, e.g. on a sanitary

landfill2, is difficult, because most people are willing to pay for the removal of the

waste from their immediate environment, but are generally not concerned with the

ultimate disposal (Medina 2010: 2; Glawe et al. 2005: 6; Zurbrügg 2003a: 3).

Concerning health care wastes from hospitals and hazardous wastes, these waste

materials need special care and treatment, because their properties make them more

hazardous or problematic than general wastes (Zurbrügg 2003a: 3f; Zurbrügg 2003b:

28).

2 A sanitary landfill is a site where solid waste is disposed at a carefully selected location constructed and maintained by means of engineering techniques that minimise pollution of air, water and soil, and other risks to man and animals (Zurbrügg 2003a: 3).

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2.2 Possible  solutions  for  the  improvement  of  SWM  in  developing  

countries  

Possible solutions for the improvement of SWM systems in developing countries need

to respond to the goals of SWM, which are (1) to protect environmental health, (2) to

promote the quality of the urban environment, (3) to support the efficiency and

productivity of the economy and (4) to generate employment and income. This

requires the establishment of an integrated solid waste management (ISWM)

system that is sustainable and meets the needs of the entire population. Sustainability

implies that the system must be well adapted to the particular local circumstances and

problems. All stakeholders, including households and communities, the private sector

(formal and informal) as well as government agencies at the local, regional and

national level have to be considered in the system. Key to ISWM is the development

of a waste management hierarchy. The hierarchy classifies waste management

operations according to their environmental or energy benefit as follows: (1)

prevention, (2) reuse, (3) recycling, composting or recovering, (4) incineration,

anaerobic digestion or similar processes and (5) disposal of residual solid waste, e.g.

in sanitary landfills. Prevention, reuse and recycling are also known as the 3R-

principle of waste minimization. A key role of successful waste management consists

of enhancing the public awareness and attitudes. This can affect the population’s

willingness to cooperate and participate in adequate waste management practices.

Further, a decentralized SWM system is necessary in developing countries to better

respond to the needs of their residents. This system recognizes the fact that low-

income and middle-/upper-income areas have different physical and socioeconomic

conditions. Hence, the waste generated tends to be dissimilar. Consequently, the

different neighbourhoods’ needs diverge. A decentralized system uses one approach

for low-income areas of a city and another for middle-/upper-income neighbourhoods

(Medina 2010: 7-10; Sandec 2008: 5f; Zurbrügg 2003b: 8).

In order to solve the financial shortage, two emerging models attempt to provide a

solution: 1) privatization and (2) informal sector involvement. Under the

privatization model the private sector invests its own money in purchasing

equipment and building facilities for collecting, transporting, treating, recycling and

the final disposal of waste. This can be large (international) companies or as an

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alternative micro and small enterprises (MSEs) or Community-based Organisations

(CBO) for services at the community level. The private sector can provide one

component of the waste management system, e.g. waste collection, or a combination

of two or more components. Privatization can have, however, significant social costs

by displacing the informal sector. On the contrary, the promotion of greater informal

sector involvement result in clear economic and environmental benefits to society.

Therefore, the activities of scavengers and informal waste collectors should be

improved and supported (Medina 2010: 5f; Sandec 2008: 31-33; Zurbrügg 2003a: 2).

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3 Case  Study  Labuan  Bajo,  Flores    

3.1 Background  information  

Labuan Bajo is the regional capital of West Manggarai, covering the western most

area of the island of Flores located in East Indonesia. As of the 2010 census, the

town’s population was 18.500 with a high population growth of around 2.8%. Labuan

Bajo is the gateway to the well-known Komodo National Park, a UNESCO World

Heritage Site since 1991, and the most visited tourist site on the island. Tourism has

been growing fast over the last years. The population and tourism growth brings about

the increasing amount of waste, which becomes a problem faced by the local

government due to the absence of an adequate SWM system (Heighes 2011: 11;

Swisscontact WISATA 2011a/b).

In order to understand the SWM system in Labuan Bajo, the national and local waste

policy will be shortly introduced. In Indonesia, there was no national waste policy

until 2007 describing the concepts, aims and measures in national waste management.

The existing waste laws did not control SWM specifically. The new national

regulation for waste management, Waste Management Law No. 18/2008 has been

recently issued by the Government of Indonesia (GoI) and is a legal tool in forcing all

related parties in supporting national waste management policy. GoI has been

promoting 3R since 2007 in order to increase material recovery and to reduce waste

disposed of at landfills. On the local level, most provinces and cities in Indonesia

have local regulations (Perdas) for SWM. The level of enforcement is still very

limited, though. Before the implementation of decentralization, SWM was the

responsibility of several departments and ministries, such as the Ministry of Public

Works (PU), Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Health, Agency for Technology

Assessment and Application, Environmental Impact Management Agency (Bapedal),

and the Sub-Directorate for SWM. The involvement of many institutions in SWM led

to overlapping responsibilities and weak implementation and enforcement of laws and

regulations of SWM. The decentralization in 1999 brought about the change in

national and local waste institutions in Indonesia where the central government plays

a role as a regulator and the local governments are the prominent players. Thus, the

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local government obtained more responsibilities in planning and implementing SWM

in their locality (Meidiana/Gamse 2010: 200-204).

The district of West Manggarai was only formed in 2003 as a result of

decentralisation. Due to the fact that there was no proper department in the local

government that could be made responsible for SWM at this time, the Camat (head of

sub-district) was temporarily put in charge of SWM. By 2012, a new unit, the

Regional Technical Implementation Unit (UPTD), has been established within the

PU. The UPTD was supposed to take over the responsibility for running and

managing the SWM system in January 20123. What concerns the local legislation for

SWM, the local government of West Manggarai has not prepared a Perda, yet. Before

the decentralization the local government had received a solid waste program

financed by the state budget and some financial assistance from different loans.

Thereafter, financial sources for SWM are from waste collection fee, waste retribution

and local governmental budget. After the decentralization, the solid waste program is

mostly financed by the local government itself. However, the amount of the whole

contribution is still little (about 2% of the total local budget) and cannot fulfil the

needed expenditure on waste management. In addition, no proper collection fee

system is in place. The monthly payment fee depends on the size of the entity and

ranges between IDR. 2.000 for boats anchored in the harbour to IDR. 300.000 for big

hotels (around 2 CHF to 30 CHF). Households pay IDR. 3.000 (around 3 CHF).

However, this payment scheme does not generate enough revenues to cover the

collection costs (Stiffler et al. 2011).

3 The UPTD has not taken over the responsibility for running and managing the SWM system in Labuan Bajo until February 2010.

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3.2 Current  SWM  system  

The following figure illustrates the current SWM system in Labuan Bajo:

Figure 1: Current SWM system in Labuan Bajo (July 2011)

Source: Stiffler et al. 2011: 3 The major waste sources in Labuan Bajo are households, tourists, restaurants/bars,

hotels, markets (fish and fruits and vegetables market) and small industries. Besides,

waste is produced on the surrounding islands and on the (tourist) boats. Finally, the

amounts of waste washed ashore are not neglectable. However, data on waste

amounts are not available, yet. The local government cannot provide any data

concerning the amounts of waste produced, collected and finally disposed of at the

landfill. Regarding the composition of the solid waste legally or illegally disposed of,

80% is non-organic and only 20% is organic waste. The non-organic fraction consists

mostly of plastic bottles as well as a variety of hard plastic used for beverages and

detergents, some metal and cans, few plastic bags, lots of cardboard boxes as well as

thinner packaging paper boxes (Stiffler et al. 2011: 3f).

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In reference to waste collection, transportation and disposal, around 85% of the

waste is illegally dumped and burnt. Thus, only 15% of the waste produced is

disposed of at the final dumpsite (TPA). The public waste collection service

(‘pasukan kuning’) (15 people) provided and managed by the local government is

responsible for waste collection, transport and disposal. Their collection equipment

consists of three trucks each of a capacity of around 3.5 tons. These trucks are

relatively new and in good condition. Further collection equipment consists of some

few baskets and shovels to manually load the trucks. This equipment is insufficient

and in bad condition. Neither a proper bin system nor arm-roll containers to

temporarily store the waste are provided by the government. Few small, concrete

temporary storage facilities (TPS) have been installed at the fish market and the

harbour. These facilities are mainly used to burn the waste, though. Waste is only

rarely collected in Labuan Bajo. This results in the above-mentioned high proportion

of waste illegally dumped and burnt. The TPA in Labuan Bajo is not a sanitary

landfill, but an open dumpsite that is difficult to access. The site is located

approximately four kilometres out of town on a steep riverbank. The waste is burnt

there uncontrolled. Hence, the current practices focusing on ‘the end-pipe-approach’4

bring about the problem of final disposal (Stiffler et al. 2011: 3-5).

The resource recovery and recycling system in Labuan Bajo is very poor. It is

estimated that only around 10% of the waste is recycled (Stiffler et al. 2011: 5). All

existing recycling activities are informal. The waste collectors from Java and

Lombok form the only reliable and efficient recycling system in Labuan Bajo. They

are specifically interested in metal and aluminium cans. Occasionally, they also

collect hard plastic, copper in motors and the lead of big batteries. Both would be

interested in collecting more recyclables and also other types of material, e.g. plastic,

but they have only limited storage facilities. At the main market in Labuan Bajo,

some cardboard collectors irregularly buy cardboards. Due to the limited storage

facilities at the market, the high potential of cardboard recycling cannot be fulfilled. A

resident of Labuan Bajo collects plastic, predominantly plastic bottles PET. The so

called Plasticman has plenty of good ideas on how to recycle and reuse plastic, e.g.

selling the plastic bottles to cargo boats for recycling in Surabaya (see below), making 4 Treatment of wastes and production streams at the end of the production process before the stream is disposed or released to the environment (Hellweg et al. 2005: 3).

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bags out of detergent plastic bags and using bottle etiquettes to fill pillows. In order to

get the best prices for plastic bottles, he wants his customers to cut and clean the

bottles (cutting = minimizing transport volume; cleaning = better price). The cap and

the etiquette have to be removed and the bottom and the top of the bottles cut away.

However, customers start refusing to prepare the bottles in the way he wants and

blame him for not having collected the bottles for a while. At the TPA, some few

scavengers from the nearby villages regularly collect recyclable materials. They

predominantly collect metal, cardboards and hard plastic and sell it to the waste

collectors from Java and Lombok. When the ‘pasukan kuning’ waste collectors find

metal and aluminium cans in the waste, they sell the recyclable material to the waste

collectors from Java and Lombok (Stiffler et al. 2011: 5-7).

There is only little trading of recyclables in Labuan Bajo. Due to an absence of a

recycling industry on the island of Flores, all recyclable material has to be transported

to Surabaya on the island of Java where the biggest recycling companies in the

country are located. From Labuan Bajo there are regular cargo boats to Surabaya,

which accept any kind of recyclables provided that they are packed properly (weight

versus volume has to be optimal). As by now, only little amounts of recyclable

material are sold to these cargo boats. The major sellers are the waste collectors from

Java and Lombok (Stiffler et al. 2011: 7).

3.3 Discussion  of  challenges  and  possible  solutions  

The case study reflects the main typical problem areas of SWM in urban areas of

developing countries defined by Zurbrügg (2003a) (see Chapter 2.1 Challenges in

SWM in developing countries).

The service coverage for waste collection is very low in Labuan Bajo. Most waste

produced is illegally dumped and burnt. As in most other towns in developing

countries, the main reason is financial constraint. On the one hand, this is due to the

little contribution of the total local budget to SWM (only around 2%). On the other

hand, the payment scheme for waste collection does not generate enough money to

cover the collection costs. This is predominantly due to the collection fee system is

not calculated properly. Main reason is the lack of information on the amounts of

waste produced. Besides, many people refuse to pay the fee as they feel that they do

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not get the service. Hence, limited allocation for the waste sector leads to low level of

waste collection service. Another important reason for the low service coverage is that

the solid waste services are operational inefficient mostly due to inefficient

institutional structures and inappropriate equipment and technologies.

In contrast to the often well-developed resource recovery and recycling activities of

the informal sector in developing countries, the recycling system in Labuan Bajo is

surprisingly very poor. The fraction of the total waste recycled amounts to only

around 10%. Contrary to other towns in developing countries, the reuse of organic

waste material is in Labuan Bajo well developed. Thus, the share of organic waste in

total waste is only around 20%. This is much lower than in most other towns in

developing countries where organic waste material often contributes to more than

50% of the total amount of waste. The reason for the little amount of organic material

in total waste is that the organic waste produced is mostly fed to pigs and other

animals in Labuan Bajo.

As in other parts of the developing world, landfill disposal is inadequate in Labuan

Bajo. Solid waste is illegally dumped or legally disposed of in an uncontrolled

manner at open dumpsites. Reasons therefore are financial and institutional

constraints.

Concerning health care and hazardous wastes, there is no adequate management of

these types of solid waste in Labuan Bajo. This is – in contrast to other towns in

developing countries – not a priority in Labuan Bajo due to the absence of a hospital

and large industries, though.

Concerning the framework for SWM, the current laws regulate the SWM on national

level. However, in contrast to most other provinces and cities in Indonesia, the local

government of West Manggarai has not prepared a Perda for SWM, yet. To

summarize, the development of an effective SWM system is constraint by financial

and institutional constraints as well as a lack of information on the amounts of wastes

produced, collected and disposed of.

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Based on the possible solutions for the improvement of SWM in developing countries

outlined in Chapter 2.2, recommendations for Labuan Bajo can be deduced. The

improvement of the SWM system in Labuan Bajo requires the introduction of an

ISWM system based on the 3R-principle. This system must employ and develop the

capacities of all stakeholders (see Figure 1, Chapter 3.2 Current SWM system). An

essential component is the enhancement of public awareness and attitudes. In order

to reduce the waste produced, the implementation of a sensibilization program for (1)

reducing plastic bottles and (2) plastic bags is suggested. These two actions intend to

tackle the growing problem of plastic waste in the area. The first action targets

hotels/restaurants and tourist boats. The hotels/restaurants and tourist boats are

provided with information on how to reduce plastic bottles by using carafes and water

gallons, respectively. The second action aims at reducing the use of plastic bags,

respectively substituting plastic bags with reusable bags. Target groups for this action

are the shops and households in Labuan Bajo. In order to achieve an improved

resource recovery and recycling system in Labuan Bajo, the promotion of sorting

waste at source, e.g households, is essential. This improves the quality of recyclables.

The aim of the above-mentioned activities is long-term and it takes some time to build

them up before the effects are realised. Nonetheless, once the awareness of the public

in SWM is enhanced, the sustainability of the SWM system will be significantly

improved. To accelerate the process, incentives could be offered to households for

sorting their waste (e.g. payment for sorting recyclable material). Due to the little

share of organic waste in total waste, composting is currently not seen as a priority in

the development of a SWM system in Labuan Bajo.

The successful implementation of the above-mentioned approaches would, however,

result in less recyclable material disposed of at the TPA bringing about disadvantages

for the informal sector, foremost the scavengers collecting recyclables there. In order

to prevent these social costs, the improvement and support of activities carried out by

the informal sector, i.e. the scavengers at the dumpsite and the informal waste

collectors from Java and Lombok, are essential. Different options for supporting the

informal sector are conceivable, e.g. improvement of working conditions, facilitation

of storing and selling recyclable material. The decision has to be taken in close

collaboration with the representatives of the informal sector.

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Further, it is suggested to strengthen the role of the private sector, i.e the Plasticman.

The most adapted intervention depends strongly on the role the Plasticman wants to

take over in the SWM system. The combination of privatization and informal sector

involvement in recycling activities attempts to solve the financial shortage while

keeping social costs as little as possible.

In order to solve the institutional constraints, it is highly suggested to make the local

government responsible for at least part of the SWM system. In Labuan Bajo, the

local government is responsible for the waste collection and disposal of waste. This

includes providing a reliable collection service, selecting a new site for the landfill

and constructing it. In order to assume this responsibility, capacity building of the

local government in SWM provides a possible solution. This would also include an

assessment of the amounts of wastes produced, collected and disposed of at the

dumpsite. Alternatively, the government could award a contract to a private company

(e.g. Plasticman or another) to provide a collection service. To solve financial

constraints, it is suggested to find out whether there is the possibility for external

support for the construction of a sanitary landfill.

In terms of the type of SWM system, a decentralized system is not recommended for

Labuan Bajo due to the town is quite small and the neighbourhoods’ needs similar.

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4 Conclusion  As many towns in developing countries, Labuan Bajo on the island of Flores in East

Indonesia faces major problems in managing its waste. In Labuan Bajo, SWM is not

properly addressed. There is no adequate SWM system in place. First of all, the

service coverage for solid waste collection is very low. Moreover, resource recovery

and recycling is very poor. Finally, the solid waste disposal is inappropriate on an

open dumpsite that is poorly managed and maintained. This results in illegal dumping

and burning of waste. Possible solutions to improve the current SWM system consist

of the introduction of an ISWM system. This includes the employment and capacity

building of all stakeholders. If this approach is successfully applied in Labuan Bajo,

solid waste will be reduced, recycled, reused, properly collected and disposed of in a

sanitary landfill. The improvement of the SWM system will largely contribute to a

sustainable tourism industry and will have positive impacts on official and tourist

visits as well as foreign investment.

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5 References   Glawe, Ulrich et al. 2005: Solid Waste Management in Least Developed Asian Countries – A Comparative Analysis. Paper for the International Conference on Integrated Solid Waste Management in Southeast Asian Cities, 5-7 July, Siem Reap, Cambodia. Heighes, Stephanie 2011: Flores: Diving around Komodo. Bali, Indonesia. Hellweg, Stefanie 2005: Assessing the Eco-Efficiency of End-of-Pipe Technologies with the Environmental Cost Efficiency Indicator: A Case Study of Solid Waste Management. Zurich, Switzerland. Medina, Martin 2000: Scavenger Cooperatives in Asia and Latin America. Tijuana, Mexico. Meidana, Christia/ Gamse, Thomas 2010: Development of Waste Management Practices in Indonesia. In: European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 199-210. EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. Nair, Chandran 1993: Solid Waste Management in Emerging Industrialised Countries. Hongkong. http://www.eco-web.com/edi/index.htm. (10.11.2011) Ogawa, Hisashi 1996: Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries. WHO Western Pacific Regional Environmental Health Centre (EHC). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Sandec 2008: Solid Waste Management. Sandec Training Tool 1.0 – Module 6. Zurich, Switzerland. Suez Lyonnais des Eaux 1998: Alternative Solutions for Water Supply and Sanitation in Areas with Limited Financial Resources. Nanterre, France. Stiffler, Manuela et al. 2011: Solid Waste Management Assessment in Labuan Bajo, Flores. Report for Swisscontact Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia. Swisscontact WISATA 2011a: Terms of Reference for the Assessment of Waste Management Situation in Manggarai Barat. Sanur, Bali, Indonesia. Swisscontact WISATA 2011b: West Flores, Komodo and so much more. http://www.floreskomodo.com. (09.11.2011) The Republic of Indonesia 2008: Practical Guidance for Waste Separation. Jakarta, Indonesia. Zurbrügg 2003a: Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries. Zurich, Switzerland.

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Zurbrügg 2003b: Urban Solid Waste Management in Low-Income Countries of Asia. How to cope with the Garbage Crisis. Zurich, Switzerland.