ES 1a: Calculate Density Use the triangle at the right (which shows the mathematical relationship between density, mass, and volume) to answer the following: · mass = density X volume 1. density = ________________________ 2. volume = ________________________

3. What is the vol-

ume of a mineral

measuring 508g and

a density of 2.76g/

cm3? 4. What is the

density of the sphere pictured at left?

**The volume of an irregular solid can

be measured using the displacement

of water method. The beaker (above)

contains 100 mL of water, but the

surface reaches 150 mL. What must be the volume of the sphere?

ES 2: Nature of Science

Hypotheses are tentative explanations that account for a set of facts.

Experiments are designed to test hypotheses.

Theories offer explanations based on repeated experiments but may

change as new data becomes available.

Scientific Laws identify repeated patterns or relationships in nature that are

generally accepted as true.

ES.3a Position of the Earth in the Solar System

Recall the positions of the objects within the solar system are as follows: SUN, MERCURY (1), VENUS (2), EARTH (3), MARS (4) ASTEROID BELT (5), JUPITER (6), SATURN (8), URANUS (9), NEPTUNE (11), PLUTO (10)

Comets (7) are icy/rocky objects revolving around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits. Comets’ tails always point AWAY from the sun.

The asteroid belt (5) is a collection of rock bodies that orbit in-between Mars and Jupiter.

Distances within the Solar system is measured with the Astronomical Unit (AU). 1 AU is equal to the distance between Earth & Sun.

ES 1b: Technology

Recall that GPS stands for GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

GPS locates points on earth using satellite technology. A GPS unit on

Earth’s surface must have access to at least 3 satellites orbiting Earth to

find a location.

GPS signals can be blocked by buildings, trees, underground locations,

and other objects that could block the signal to space.

ES 1cd: Diagrams, Maps, Graphs, Exp. Design

Recall that a topographic map

is a map that shows elevation data

using contour lines.

Contour lines are lines that

connect points of equal elevation.

The contour interval is the

difference in elevation value be-

tween 2 side-by-side contours.

V-shaped distortions in the

contour lines usually indicate a river

(see dotted line in sample map

above). The V “points” upstream.

1. What is the contour interval of the topographic map shown?

2. Assuming up is north, in which

direction is the river flowing?

3. How many chirps per minute

will occur at 20ºC?

4. At what temperature will there

be 75 chirps?

5. From the chart, what is the

independent variable?

6. What is the dependent vari-

able?

Independent variable (what is

being tested) is under the experimenter’s control.

Dependent variable is the measurable resulting change.

Constant variables are those variables that are not changed to preserve

the independent -dependent variable relationship.

EARTH SCIENCE REVIEW CARDS 2015-2016

Revised by Mrs. Sylvia Wells, M.Ed. & MRS. Marlo Jackson, Ed.D/ET

Adapted from Monica Agudelo– Grassfield High School

ES 3b Sun-Moon-Earth Relationships

The Earth revolves (orbits) counterclockwise around the sun in an elliptical

orbit.

The Earth’s axis is tilted 23.5º. As a result, the north pole is always pointing

towards the star Polaris (The North Star).

As a result of Earth’s tilted axis, the northern and southern hemispheres

receive varying amounts of sunlight throughout the year.

The 4 Seasons are caused by the angle of the rays hitting Earth and the

total amount (hours) of sun received at each hemisphere. Note: seasons

has nothing to do with the distance between Earth & Sun!

Equinoxes occur when direct sunlight hits the Equator and mark the first

day of Spring (vernal equinox) and Fall (autumnal equinox).

ES 3b: Sun-Moon-Earth Relationships

The moon orbits counterclockwise around the earth in an elliptical

orbit.

The moon is visible because of the reflection of the sun’s light. As the

moon orbits the Earth, we see differing amounts of the reflected light

here on Earth. This causes an apparent change in the Moon’s shape

called the Lunar phases.

When the moon appears to increase in size, it is in the waxing phases

When the moon appears to decrease in size, it is in the waning phases

An eclipse occurs when an object passes into another object’s shadow.

A lunar eclipse happens when the moon is covered by Earth’s shadow

and a solar eclipse is when the Earth passes into the moon’s shadow.

1. What type of eclipse is shown above?

The tides are the daily, periodic rise and fall of water level

cause by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun.

2. Identify the two types of tides pictured below:

A spring tide occurs when

the Earth, Sun, & Moon are

aligned in a straight line.

Spring tides occur during

New and Full moon phases

and mark the highest High

and lowest Low tides.

A neap tide occurs when the

Earth, Sun, & Moon are at

right angles. Neap tides

occur during the Quarter

Moon phases and mark the

lowest High & highest low tides.

The Solar System is located

within a spiral galaxy called the

Milky Way Galaxy

ES 3c: Characteristics of the Solar System

Goldilocks Principle: The Earth is neither too close nor too far from the sun. As a result, water naturally occurs on its surface as a solid, liquid, and a gas.

Venus has a CO2 rich atmosphere that causes an overactive Greenhouse effect and the hottest temperatures in the solar system.

The sun is a star that produces heat and light energy in its core through the process of FUSION.

The standard fusion process converts Hydrogen into Helium. H + H → He + Energy

The four planets closest to the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are referred to as the Inner or Terrestrial Planets.

The four planets furthest from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,

Neptune) are referred to as the Gas Giants or the Jovian Planets.

Pluto is a dwarf planet with a tilted orbit (to the plane of other planetary orbits)

Meteoroids are rocky/metallic objects that orbit the sun and could enter the Earth’s atmosphere

ES 3d: History of the Space Program

Apollo 11 is the first manned mission to successfully land on the Moon.

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) constantly orbits the Earth in space. As a result, images are not compromised by the Earth’s atmosphere.

The HST has greatly improved our understanding of the universe due to the clear images it provides.

The six major US manned space programs are (in chronological or-der): Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, Skylab, Shuttle, & ISS (International Space Station)

ES 4a: Properties of Minerals

A mineral is a NATURAL, INORGANIC, SOLID, with a CHEMICAL COMPO-

SITION, and a CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE.

All minerals are rocks but not all rocks are minerals based on the definition

stated above. Which of the following are not minerals?

Coal Pearl Seashell Salt Diamond Glass Soil

Quartz Carbonic Acid Feldspar Limestone Chalk

ES 4a: Properties of Minerals Minerals can be identified through the

observation of various physical properties.

COLOR: The actual color of the mineral is the least reliable property in identifying an unknown mineral because color can vary due to impurities in the chemical composition.

STREAK: the mineral in its powdered form. Is found when a mineral is scraped against an unglazed ceramic tile.

HARDNESS: the mineral’s resistance to being scratched. Minerals are ranked on a scale developed by Friedrich Mohs from softest (1 =talc) to hardest (10 = diamond).

THE WAY THE MINERAL BREAKS: Minerals can break in 2 ways.

Fracture: mineral breaks unevenly due to a strong crystal structure &

Cleavage: mineral breaks along straight planes due to weaknesses in crystal structure.

LUSTER: describes the way light shines off the surface. Can be metallic or non-metallic

Minerals can be divided into groups based on composition.

Silicates are the most common. Silicate minerals have Silicon (Si) and Oxygen (O) in their chemical composition.

Carbonates have Carbon (C) and Oxygen (O) (carbonate ion =CO3)

Sulfides have Sulfur (S)

Minerals have crystal structure (the way the atoms are arranged) which

ES 4b: Uses of Minerals

Minerals with complex crystal structures tend to have high values on the hardness scale. Very hard minerals are often used in jewelry as gemstones (ex. Diamond, Topaz, Rubies & Sapphires [corundum])

Quartz rich sand is used to make glass

Feldspar minerals easily weather to produce clays that can be used in ceramics and pottery.

Minerals collected from seawater (salt, magnesium) are used in

medicines

ES 5a: Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form when melted

rock cools and crystallizes.

The speed (rate) of cooling

determines the crystal size. Fast = small

(or no) crystals. Slow = big crystals

Magma can cool (slowly) below

Earth’s surface to form Intrusive rocks.

Lava can cool (quickly) at Earth’s

surface to form extrusive

rocks.

Observe igneous tex-

tures at left.

ES 5b: Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks form from rock fragments (clastic sediments) and/or organic matter bound together by a natural cement.

Sedimentary rocks can also form by the proc-ess of chemical precipitation ex.: Halite-NaCl, crystallizes when seawater evaporates)

Weathering: breaking rocks

Erosion: moving rock material

Sedimentary rocks are usually highly perme-able due to pore spaces– the gaps between individual sediments.

Sedimentary usually form in large, flat, horizontal beds. (stratification)

Sandstone is a common sedimentary rock and is composed of sand sized clastic sediment grains.

Shale is a common sedimentary rock and is composed of mud/clay sized grains. Shale has very small pore spaces & is usually impermeable (does not let water pass through)

Limestone is a common sedimentary rock and is composed of organic calcite (CaCO3). It forms in shallow, ocean environ-ments.

~99% of all fossils are found in sedimentary rock.

ES 5c: Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rocks form when ANY ROCK is exposed to extreme heat and pressure.

The picture at left shows an intrusive Igneous rock.

When a rock undergoes metamorphism, the

texture changes. Foliation occurs when minerals align in parallel bands due to extreme

pressure

Regional metamorphism typically occurs when two plates crash into each other and apply extreme pressure to the rocks along the convergent boundary. (see above, right)

Contact Metamorphism occurs when an igneous intrusion causes surround-ing rocks to re-crystallize due to extreme heat from the magma.

ES 5abc: Rock

Cycle

The primary difference between the 3 major rock types is the way the rock forms.

Complete the

rock cycle diagram at right with the appropriate rock type.

ES 6abcd: Non-renewable & Renewable Resources

Renewable Energy resources can be replaced by nature to the rate at which they

are used. Examples = wind, sunlight, running water, & vegetation.

Renewable energies reduce pollution, however, the technologies that use them are

expensive and the energy source can be inconsistent in supply (clouds cover

sunlight, wind may not blow, etc.)

Non-Renewable Energy resources are renewed very slowly or not at all.

Examples = fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas), & minerals

Burning fossil fuels causes air/water pollution but the resources are relatively cheap

and easy to use.

ES 6c & 7ab: Virginia Geology

Virginia has many

natural resources

including: coal,

gravel, and lime-

stone.

Identify the 5

regions of Virginia

ES 6d: Environmental Awareness

Acid rain forms when certain gases (usually from burning fossil fuels) absorb into water in the atmosphere.

The methods by which people remove mineral/rock resources from the earth (surface & underground mining) can accelerate rates of erosion and can negatively impact the surrounding environment.

ES 7ab: Major Earth Processes

Plate Tectonic Theory explains why and how the earth’s crust moves. The earth’s

lithosphere (~crust) is broken into pieces called plates that move on top of the convecting

upper mantle. EVIDENCE FOR PLATE TECTONICS

1. Shape of Continents

2. Identical fossils & rock

formations along opposing

shorelines

3. Glacier Tracks

ES 7ab: Major Earth Processes

Tectonic Activity is events that occur as a result of the moving crust.

The following processes are examples of tectonic activity:

Folding occurs when rocks are compressed into wavy patterns

Faulting occurs when the crust sustains a major crack/break

Which picture

shows a fault and

which shows a

fold?

Volcanism occurs when magma

erupts through Earth’s surface

Earthquakes occur when

seismic waves pass through

earth’s crust as a result of major

breaks (faults) in the Earth’s crust.

There are 2 basic types of

seismic waves: P (primary) waves

& S (secondary) waves. P waves travel faster than S waves.

Seismographs are devices that detect seismic waves in the Earth’s crust. One

seismogram will identify the distance to the epicenter of the earthquake.

At least 3 seismograms are necessary to find the epicenter of an earthquake.

Subduction occurs during convergence when a plate sinks below another plate.

Plates subduct because: composition (oceanic crust), age (old), or temperature

(cold) cause it to be more dense.

ES 8a: Soil

Soil is a mixture of rock fragments,

clay, and organic material.

Soil forms as a result of weathering

and biological processes.

Very well developed soil occurs in

layers called horizons:

A horizon is closest to the surface of

the earth and is composed of organic

material (humus)

B horizon is beneath the A horizon

and is composed of clay particles.

C horizon is beneath the B and is

composed of rock particles.

Soil is a non-renewable resource.

ES 8b: Karst Topography

Karst topography is developed in areas underlain by carbonate (most

commonly LIMESTONE) rocks.

Areas with Karst includes features like caverns, caves, & sinkholes.

Caverns & caves form when slightly acidic

groundwater slowly dissolves the carbonate rock.

As the water flows through the rock, special

cave rock features form when mineral rich water

drips from the

ceiling to the floor.

Karst topography exists in the Valley &

Ridge region of VA where limestone is

abundant

ES 8cd: Groundwater

Water enters the Earth’s crust through the process of infiltration.

As water infiltrates, the water travels through pore spaces.

As groundwater flows, 2 zones are created. The zone of aeration exists where pore spaces are filled with air and the zone of saturation is the area where the pore spaces are filled with water. The boundary between these two zones is the water table.

The water table lowers during drought conditions and rises during periods of heavy rain.

Water can be removed from the ground through wells. As water is removed, the water table surrounding the well becomes distorted in a V shape.

ES 9abcd: Earth History

Fossils are commonly found in ____________________ rocks.

Earth is approximately 4.6 billion yrs old

Relative Age dating is a technique used to assign

an age to rocks/fossils without using a number value

(older/younger).

Law of Superposition states that layered rocks get

older with increasing depth.

Absolute Age

dating is a

technique using

the half-life of

radioactive isotopes to determine the actual age of

rocks/fossils. Half-life is the time it takes for half of

the radioactive isotope to decay. It NEVER speeds

up or slows down.

1. What is the half-life of the radioactive element shown in the graph?

2. How many half-lives will

have elapsed when only

6.25% radioactive material

remains?

Fossil evidence indicates that life forms have changed and

become more complex

ES 10abcde: Oceanography

Waves are generated by atmospheric winds at the ocean’s sur-face.

Surface currents carry warm water toward the poles & cold water towards the equator.

Melting polar ice caps causes sea level to rise.

The Chesapeake Bay is an estuary that consists of low salinity water and high biological activity.

ES 11abcd:Atmosphere Composition

The pictures above show the general development of the Earth’s atmosphere.

Note that the early atmosphere contained mostly Carbon dioxide

but today has mostly Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%) and >.1% CO2

In the 2nd image above, Oxygen is introduced into the atmosphere by

blue-green algae which completes the photosynthesis reaction.

Once Oxygen was present in Earth’s atmosphere, animal life became possible.

Water Vapor, Methane, & Carbon Dioxide (CO2) are greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases effectively absorb infrared heat energy from the Earth’s surface, thus making Earth’s temps hotter.

Humans have increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels. Also humans release chemicals into the air (ChloroFluoroCarbons) that can destroy ozone.

ES 12abcd: Meteorology (Weather)

Sea/Land breezes are created by uneven

heat absorption at the Earth’s surface *notice convection! Clouds form when (1) water evapo-rates, (2) moist air rises higher in the atmosphere, (3) air

cools to its dew point temperature (as it rises), (4) moisture condenses to form liquid cloud droplets.

Winds form by differences in air pressure.

Wind always flows from High to Low pressure.

The Coriolis Effect is caused by the Earth’s rotation and deflects the path of winds, planes, etc. It also causes air to circulate counter-clockwise around Low pressure

(cyclonic flow)

As wind rises up a mountain, 2 climactic zones can be created. Clouds (side A) create a rainy climate and sinking air creates a desert climate.

ES 13ab: Cosmology

Nebulae = large clouds of gas (Hydrogen) & dust where stars form.

Solar Nebula Theory = a nebula within the Milky Way Galaxy condensed

about 5 billion years ago to produce our Solar system.

The Hertzprung-Russell (HR) Diagram (at right) organizes stars according

to magnitude (brightness) and surface temperature (color).

The Main Sequence show ~young stars that range from hot & bright to

~cool & dim. White Dwarfs are very hot & dim stars; Giant stars are very bright &~cool stars both are dying.

Distance in space is commonly measured with the light year.

The Big Bang Theory is the current explana-tion for the origin of the universe & is sup-ported by red-shift data that shows the universe is steadily expanding.

EARTH SCIENCE REVIEW

SOURCES OF IMAGES/WORKS CITED ES 4b: Seasonal Configuration of Earth & sun http://www.britannica.com/bps/media-view/112844/1/0/0 ES 4b: Diagram of the Moon’s Orbit & phases http://www.paganinstitute.org/PIR/lunar_info.html ES 4b: Diagram of eclipse http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_eclipse.png ES 4b: Diagram of tides http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=143 ES 4d: Apollo 11 mission patch http://www.nasa.gov ES 5a: Mineral Streak Plate http://geology.csupomona.edu/alert/mineral/streak.htm ES 5a: Mineral crystal systems http://www4.nau.edu/meteorite/Meteorite/Images/CrystalSystems.png ES 6a: Igneous rock textures http://www.collecting-rocks-and-minerals.com/igneous-rock-textures.html ES 6b: Pore Space http://aquifersandhealth.org/faqs/aquifers/ ES 6b: Trilobite fossil http://www.thedarwinpapers.com/oldsite/number5/darwin5.htm ES 6c: Foliation texture images http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/159/4/443.full ES 6c: Metamorphism images http://web.arc.losrios.edu/~borougt/MetamorphismDiagrams.htm ES 6c: Metamorphism images http://www.usgs.gov ES 8b: Earth Structure http://richardjlafferty.wordpress.com/category/geothermal/ ES 8bc: Tectonic Activity http://www.britannica.com/bps/media-view/1423/1/0/0 ES 9cd: Groundwater Diagram http://geology.er.usgs.gov/eespteam/brass/aquifers/aquifersintro.htm ES 10abcd: Superposition/crosscutting diagram http://www.wesleyan.edu/ctgeology/LISproject/Relative%20ages.htm ES 10abcd: Earth Timeline http://www.mbmg.mtech.edu/gmr/gmr-montanageology.asp ES 11abcde: Seafloor Features http://www.mos.org/oceans/planet/features.html