21-0113 - Agglika Proxwrimenwn t.e. (Math. Epil. , b Gymnasioy) Bm
Epil Holy See
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From: Oxford Public International Law (http://opil.ouplaw.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2013. All Rights Reserved. Subscriber: OUP - Marketing; date: 27 November 2014 Content type: Encyclopedia Entries Article last updated: June 2006 Product: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law [MPEPIL] Holy See Gerd Westdickenberg Subject(s): Sovereignty Published under the auspices of the Max Planck Foundation for International Peace and the Rule of Law under the direction of Rüdiger Wolfrum.
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Transcript of Epil Holy See
From: Oxford Public International Law (http://opil.ouplaw.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2013. All Rights Reserved. Subscriber:OUP - Marketing; date: 27 November 2014
Contenttype:EncyclopediaEntriesArticlelastupdated: June2006
Product: MaxPlanckEncyclopediaofPublicInternationalLaw[MPEPIL]
HolySeeGerdWestdickenberg
Subject(s):SovereigntyPublishedundertheauspicesoftheMaxPlanckFoundationforInternationalPeaceandtheRuleofLawunderthedirectionofRüdigerWolfrum.
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A.NotionandTerminology
1.Terminology1ThetermHolySeederivesfromtheLatinexpressionsanctasedesandreferstothechairofStPeter.AccordingtothecodexiuriscanonicioftheCatholicChurchthetermdescribesboththePopeaswellastheofficesoftheRomanCuriathroughwhichthePopegovernstheCatholicChurch.ThecodexusesthetermApostolicSeeasasynonymfortheHolySee.Colloquially,thetermVatican isalsosometimesusedsynonymously,butshouldratherrefertotheStateoftheVatican CityorinshorttheVatican State(State).
2.LegalStatus
(a)HolySee2TheHolySeeisbytraditionasubjectofinternationallawdatingbacktotheMiddleAges(SubjectsofInternationalLaw),independentlyoftheformerPapalStateandoftoday’sStateoftheVatican City.TheinternationallegalpersonalityoftheHolySeeisandalwayshasbeengenerallyrecognized,byStatesaswellasbylegalwriting(Recognition).Forexample,intheperiodafter1870whenthePapalStatehadceasedtoexistandbefore1929whentheStateoftheVaticanCityhadnotyetbeenestablishedthenumberofStatesthatentertaineddiplomaticrelationswiththeHolySeeevenincreasedandtheHolySeecontinuedtosigntreatiesonthebasisofequalitywithStates(Diplomacy;DiplomaticRelations,EstablishmentandSeverance;seealsoStates,SovereignEquality).
3However,duetothepeculiaritiesoftheHolySeetheexactlegalnatureofitspersonalityhasbeenthesubjectofmanydiscussions.TheHolySeeisneitheraStatenoronlyanabstractentitylikeaninternationalorganization(InternationalOrganizationsorInstitutions,GeneralAspects),butboththegovernmentoftheCatholicChurchandthepersonofthePope.TheinternationalpersonalitytheHolySeeenjoysasauniqueentityandthesovereigntyitexercisesaredifferentfromthoseofothersubjectsofinternationallaw,beitStates,internationalorganizationsliketheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross(ICRC),oranothersubjectofinternationallawbytradition,theSovereignMilitaryHospitallerOrderofSaintJohnofJerusalem,ofRhodesandofMalta(‘SovereignMilitaryOrderofMalta’;Malta,Orderof).Thusitsinternationallegalpersonalitycanbestbedefinedasbeing‘suigeneris’.
4TheofficesoftheHolySeethroughwhichthePopegovernstheCatholicChurchincludetheSecretariatofState,whichundertheCardinalSecretaryofStatemostcloselyassiststhePopeintheexecutionofhispowers,butalsothedicasteries,egtheCongregationsandPontificalCouncilswithintheRomanCuriawhichdealwithspecificmattersofcompetence—suchasconservationofthefaith,religiousorders,liturgy,ChristianUnity—aswellascourtsoftheChurchsuchasthewellknownRotaRomana,butalsoofficesadministeringthefinancialassetsorotherpropertyoftheHolySee.
(b)TheStateofthe Vatican City5TheStateoftheVatican Cityisaseparateentity,liketheHolySeeasubjectofinternationallaw,andwasestablishedonlyin1929bytheLateranTreaties.TheVatican Statecomprisesitsownlegislation,itsowncivil,penal,andadministrativecourtsandunderitsowngovernordealsmainlywithtechnical,commercial,andculturalmatterssuchaspolice,fireservices,theVaticanMuseums,theVatican Mint,theVatican Bank,etc.TheVatican Stateismadeupof108acres,plusextraterritorialrealestatepropertyinCastelGandolfoandinthecityofRome.Fewerthan500persons—mainlyduetotheirfunctionwiththeRomanCuria—havethecitizenshipoftheVatican State(seealsoNationality).
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(c)TheRelationshipbetweentheHolySeeandthe Vatican State6TherelationshipbetweenthetwodistinctlegalentitiescanbedefinedinsuchawaythatthesovereignofboththeVatican StateandtheHolySeeisthePopeandthattheVatican StateconstitutestheterritorialbasisfortheHolySee,whichhasunimpededsovereignpowersandjurisdictionovertheVatican State(JurisdictionofStates).ThelatterisrepresentedbytheSecretariatofStateoftheHolySeeinitsrelationswithStatesandothersubjectsofpublicinternationallawaswellasregardstheconclusionoftreaties(RepresentativesofStatesinInternationalRelations;Treaties,ConclusionandEntryintoForce).
3.History7AtthelatestwiththedonationsoflandbyKingPippintheYoungerin754thePapalStatewasestablishedandthusthePopealsoasasovereigntemporalruler.Thepapacyreachedthezenithofitspowerswhenin1077PopeGregoryVIIgainedtheupperhandoverEmperorHenryIVconcerningtheinvestitureofbishopsandestablishedthePopeasreigningabovetheworldlysovereigns(HolyRomanEmpire).TheensuingConcordatofWormsin1122thenbecameadeterminingmomentinthedevelopmentoftheseparationofreligiousandtemporalpowers.Lateron,thetemporalpowergraduallywaned,thelowpointbeingthelossofthePapalStatein1870,withoutputtingindoubttheinternationallawpersonalityoftheHolySee.
B.TheHolySeeasanActorintheInternationalCommunity
1.BilateralDiplomaticRelationswithStates8TheHolySeeentertainsdiplomaticrelationswith172States,amongthemmanywhereCatholicsareonlyatinyminority,suchasIran,Israel,Japan,orPakistan.About70oftheseStateshaveproperambassadorsresidentinRome(seealsoHeadsofDiplomaticMissions;PremisesofDiplomaticMissions).SincetheHolySee,however,doesnotacceptdoubleaccreditationtotheHolySeeandtotheItalianRepublic,theambassadorsofStatesthathavechosenmultipleaccreditationresideinotherEuropeancountries.NotableamongthefewexceptionsofStateswithoutdiplomaticrelationswiththeHolySeearethePeople’sRepublicofChina—however,diplomaticrelationsexistwithTaiwanunderthenameof‘RepublicofChina’—Malaysia,Vietnam,andSaudiArabia.Inaddition,theHolySeehasdiplomaticrelationswiththeSovereignMilitaryOrderofMaltaandwiththeEuropeanUnion(EuropeanCommunityandUnion,ActorinInternationalRelations;European[Economic]Community)aswellas‘relationsofspecialnature’withtheRussianFederation(Russia)andwiththePalestineLiberationOrganization(PLO)(Palestine).
2.RelationswithInternationalIntergovernmentalOrganizations9TheHolySeeisamemberofor—inmostcases—anobserveratcertaininternationalorganizations(InternationalOrganizationsorInstitutions,Membership;InternationalOrganizationsorInstitutions,ObserverStatus).IthasenjoyedobserverstatusattheUnitedNations(‘UN’)since1964.In2004theUNGeneralAssemblyagreedtosignificantlyenlargetherightsoftheHolySeeasanobservertoenableittositandspeakintheplenary,tocirculatedocuments,tobringforwardmotionsoforder,andtotabletogetherwithothermembersdraftresolutions(InternationalOrganizationsorInstitutions,SecondaryLaw;UnitedNations,GeneralAssembly).However,theHolySeehasnorighttoparticipateinelectionsforelectedofficeswithintheUNortonominatecandidatesinsuchcases.ItalsohasobserverstatusininternationalorganizationssuchastheInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM),WorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO),UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),UnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme(UN–HABITAT),WorldHealthOrganization(WHO),UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),WorldTourismOrganization(UNWTO),FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),WorldTradeOrganization(WTO),InternationalLabourOrganization
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(ILO),aswellasregionalorganizationssuchastheCouncilofEurope(COE),theOrganizationofAmericanStates(OAS),theLeagueofArabStates(LAS),andtheAfricanUnion(AU).
10TheHolySeeisafullyfledgedmember,forexample,oftheOrganizationforSecurityandCo-operationinEurope(OSCE),theUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(Refugees,UnitedNationsHighCommissionerfor[UNHCR]),UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD),WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(WIPO),InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA),andtheComprehensiveNuclear-Test-BanTreatyOrganization(Non-ProliferationTreaty[1968]).TheVatican StateisamemberoftheInternationalTelecommunicationUnion(ITU),UniversalPostalUnion(UPU),InternationalTelecommunicationsSatelliteOrganization,formerlyINTELSAT,EUTELSAT,UNIDROIT,WIPO,andtheInternationalGrainCouncil(Commodities,InternationalRegulationofProductionandTrade).
11ThereseemstobenoclearsystematicreasonastowhentheHolySeeortheVatican Statewillsignaninternationalagreementandbecomeapartythereto.TheopinionthattheHolySeesignsandbecomesapartyinthosecaseswherethespiritualmandateoftheCatholicChurchcomesintoplaydoesnotreadilyfitcasessuchasthosewhere,forexample,theHolySeeisamemberofthePreparatoryCommissionfortheComprehensiveTestBanTreatyoroftheOrganisationfortheProhibitionofChemicalWeapons(ChemicalWeaponsandWarfare).ThespiritualmandateoftheCatholicChurchinthesetreatiescanatbest,ifatall,beseenundertheverybroadassumptionthattheaimofpreservingandfosteringinternationalpeaceispartofthespiritualmandateoftheHolySee(Peace,ProposalsforthePreservationof;seealsoPeace,Breachof;Peace,Threatto).LookingatthenatureofagreementstowhichtheVatican Stateisparty,doesnotclearlysolvethemattereither.Thoughmostoftheseconcernmattersofatechnicalnaturethatterritorialgovernmentsusuallydealwith—egITU—UPUandmembershipoftheWIPOwouldnotqualifyinthatrespect.TheHolySeeitselfdoesnotexpresslyaddressthequestion,butlistsonitshomepageonlytheHolySeeasactingsubjecttointernationallaw,thoughaddingexamplesthatinthecaseofsomeinternationalorganizationstheHolySeeisamemberalsointhenameandonbehalfoftheVatican State.
3.TheHolySeeasaPartytoInternationalConventions12TheHolySeehas,amongothers,signedandratifiedtheViennaConventiononConsularRelations(1963)andtheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelations(1961)(‘VCDR’),theGenevaConventionsI–IV(1949)andtheConventionrelatingtotheStatusofRefugees(Refugees).OfthesixmostimportanthumanrightsconventionstheHolySeehassignedandratifiedthree:theInternationalConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofRacialDiscrimination(RacialandReligiousDiscrimination),theConventionagainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment,(Torture,Prohibitionof)andtheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Children,InternationalProtection).TheConventiononPoliticalRightsofWomen(Women,Rightsof,InternationalProtection),theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(1966),andtheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(1966)haveneitherbeenratifiednorsignedbyit.Itisunderstoodthatitendorsestheaimsoftheseinternationalconventionsinprinciple,butthattheyeitherdonotsuitthespecificstatusoftheHolySeeininternationallaworthattheseconventionsdonotallowforreservations(Treaties,Multilateral,Reservationsto)whichwouldhavetobemade,forexample,inviewofthefactthattheCatholicChurchdoesnotallowwomenintothepriesthoodnor—ongroundsoffaith—divorceorabortion.
4.TheExerciseoftheRightofLegation13Historically,thesystemofpapalenvoys,theApostolicNuncios,contributedprominentlytothedevelopmentofinternationaldiplomacy.AftertheendoftheMiddleAgesinthe16thcenturythePontiffwasthefirstsovereigntosendpermanentenvoystoothercourts,incontrasttoenvoyswithaspecifictask,asolutionmainlypreferredinearliertimes.ThefirstonesweresenttotheEmperor
From: Oxford Public International Law (http://opil.ouplaw.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2013. All Rights Reserved. Subscriber:OUP - Marketing; date: 27 November 2014
oftheHolyRomanEmpireandtheKingsofSpainandFrance.Inturn,thesesovereignprincessentpermanentenvoystotheHolySee.AminorityofStatesrecognizetheenvoyofthePopeasdeanofthediplomaticcorps,aprincipleofoldtradition,affirmedbytheViennaCongress(1815)andreaffirmedbytheVCDR.
14TheHolySeemaintainsasmalldiplomaticserviceofabout250diplomatsinitsmorethan120bilateraland15multilateralmissions,trainedinitsowndiplomaticacademy.InthebilateralrelationswithStates,themorethan120nunciatures’focusofattentionisdirectednotsomuchtowardsthefieldofdiplomaticrelationswiththehostcountryand,whereapplicable,evenlesstothatofdeanoftheDiplomaticCorps,butrathertointernalmattersoftheCatholicChurch,inparticulartothesituationwithinthechurchofthehostcountry—itslegalstatus,especiallyitsfreedom—oritsrelationswiththeHolySee.Inmultilateralrelationsthediplomatsofthe,intotal,15representationstointernationalorganizationsconcentrateonissuessuchashumanrights,economicandsocialjustice,andeffortstomaintainandfurtherinternationalpeace.
5.ThePopeasMediatororArbitrator15TheHolySeewasoneofthefirst,ifnotthefirstpermanentmediatorinhistory(Mediation).TheactivitiesofthePontiffasregardsthepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputesstretchfromthefirstsuccessfulinterventionofPopeLeotheGreattosaveRomefromthetroopsofAttilatheHunin452throughouttheMiddleAgeswellintomoderntimes.OneofthefirstmediationsbytheHolySee,withitseffectsstillrelevanttoday,wastheTreatyofTordesillasof1494,brokeredbythePopeanddividingthespheresofinfluencebetweenSpainandPortugalontheSouthAmericansubcontinent.Altogether,suchcaseswerenumerous,closeto100untiltheendofthe19 century,possiblyevenmore.Especiallyinthelast50yearsbeforeWorldWarIcountriesworld-widemadeuseofthePope’sservices,amongthemalsosomewithaCatholicminority,suchasforexampletheGermanEmpire,theUnitedKingdom(‘UK’),andtheUnitedStatesofAmerica(‘US’).
16ItstartedwiththearbitrationrequestedbytheGermanEmpireinitsdisputewithSpainconcerningtheCarolineIslandsinthePacificin1885andmanyfollowed,egthearbitrationsbetweentheUKandPortugal(1890);HaitiandSantoDomingo(1895);ArgentinaandChile(1900;seealsoArgentina–ChileFrontierCases);ColumbiaandPeru(1905);ColumbiaandEcuador(1906);BrazilandBolivia(1909)respectivelyPeru(1910);Argentina,Brazil,andChile(1914);orthemediationbetweenPeruandEcuador(1893);theUKandGuyana(1894);theAbyssinianEmperorMenelikandItaly(1896);CubaandtheUS(1898).InconnectionwiththeFranco-PrussianWar1870andWorldWarIonewitnessestheeffortsofPopePiusIXin1870andPopePiusXin1914respectivelytopreventtheiroutbreakandofPopeBenedictXVin1917toendthelatter.
17AfterthatperiodmediationbytheHolySeewasnotsoughtformanyyears.In1979bothChileandArgentinaapproachedthePontifftomediatetheirconflictovertheBeagleChannel(BeagleChannelDispute).PopeJohnPaulIIpersonallyreceivedthedelegationsofthetwocountriesandin1980theHolySeecameforwardwithaproposal.Afterfourmoreyearsofnegotiationsbetweenthepartiesthedisputewassettledinapeacetreaty(peacetreaties).In2003PopeJohnPaulII,withoutbeingaskedtointervene,sentpersonalenvoystobothPresidentBushandthethenIraqiPresidentSaddamHusseintotrytopreventtheoutbreakofanarmedconflict(Iraq,Invasionof[2003]).
C.TheLateranTreaties18Threeseparate,thoughcloselyintertwinedtreatiesbetweentheItalianStateandtheHolySee,arecalledtheLateranTreatiesafterthesitewheretheyweresignedin1929,theLateranPalace,traditionalseatoftheBishopofRome,iethePope.
19Thefirstofthesetreaties,theprincipalonebecauseofitseminentpoliticalnatureandfarreachingconsequences,endedthesocalledRomanQuestion,iethenon-relationshipbetweenthe
th
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HolySeeandtheItalianStateafterthelatter’sseizureofthePapalState.ThistreatyformallystatesthemutualrecognitionofeachotherandestablishedtheVatican StatetosecurethevisibleindependenceoftheHolySeeandtoguaranteethelatter’sindisputablesovereigntyintheinternationalrealm(TerritorialIntegrityandPoliticalIndependence).ItstipulatesforexampleinitsArt.24thattheVatican StateisapermanentlyneutralState(Neutrality,ConceptandGeneralRules)andthattheHolySeedoesnotengageindisputesbetweenthirdStatesnorininternationalconferences(ConferencesandCongresses,International)todealwithsuchdisputesunlessthepartiesinvolvedcallunanimouslyupontheHolySeeinitsmissionofpeace.
20TheFinancialAgreementsettleddemandsoftheHolySeeinviewofthelossofthePapalStatetotheKingdomofItalybystipulatingthatItalyisobligedtopaythesumof750millionliraandthattheHolySeeacceptsthisamountasafinalsettlementofallitsdemandsinconnectionwiththe‘eventsof1870’,ietheseizureofthePapalState.
21Thethirdtreatyisaconcordat(Concordats)betweentheHolySeeandItalydealingwiththeusualsubject-mattersofaconcordat.
D.VacancyoftheHolySeeandElectionofaNewPope22MattersofVacancyoftheHolySeeandtheelectionofthenewPopeareexclusivelydealtwithbytheApostolicConstitution‘UniversiDominiciGregis’promulgatedin1996.
1.Vacancy23WiththedeathofthePopetherulesemanatingfromthatApostolicConstitutionareapplied:allheadsofdicasteriesandofotherinstitutionsoftheRomanCuriastepdown,exceptforafewexceptions.Thenormalbusinessisthenconductedbytheirdeputies,allbeingresponsibletotheCollegeofCardinals(‘College’).
24TheleadershipoftheCatholicChurchanditsexecutivepowersaretransferredtotheCollege,limitedhowevertothosematterswhichneedtobedealtwithinthenormalorderofbusinessandcannotbepostponed,andtoallmattersconcerningthepreparationoftheelectionofanewPope.
25Twobodiesareconstituted:theSpecialCongregationandtheGeneralCongregation.TheSpecialCongregationismadeupoftheChamberlainandthreecardinalswhoonlydealwithordinarymattersconcerningusualbusiness.MattersofgreaterimportancehavetobesubmittedtotheGeneralCongregation,allmembersofwhicharecardinals.TheGeneralCongregationwillalsodecideupontheorganizationofthefuneralmass,theburial—betweenthefourthandthesixthdayafterthedeath—andthebeginningoftheelectionofthenewPope.
26ThegoverningauthorityfortheVatican StateduringthetimeofvacancylieswiththeCollege.However,theCollegecanonlypublishdecreesinurgentmatters,whicharevalidsolelyduringthevacancyandneedconfirmationbythenewPopeinordertostayinforce.
2.ElectionofaNewPope27TheelectionofanewPopetakesplaceintheConclavewhichisconvenedbytheGeneralCongregationnosoonerthan15daysandnolaterthan20daysafterthedeathofthePope.Cardinalsthathavenotyetcompleted80yearsofageonthedayofthedeathofthePopeareobligedtoparticipateintheelectionsunlesstheyarespecificallyexcusedbytheCollege.
28TheConclavetakesplacewithintheterritoryoftheVatican ,traditionallyintheSistineChapel.Inordertobeelected,acandidatemustobtaina2/3majorityofthosepresent(para.62,ChapterVoftheApostolicConstitution‘UniversiDominiciGregis’byPopeJohnPaulII,22February1996).Inpara.75ofthatConstitution,however,therulewasmodifiedasfollows:after33ballots
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withoutarrivingatthatmajority,theCollegecoulddecidewithanabsolutemajorityofthosepresentthatinfutureballotsanabsolutemajoritywouldsufficeorthattheremustbeadecisivevotebetweenthetwocandidateswiththelargestnumbersofvotes.AnabsolutemajorityisnecessaryfortheelectionofthenewPope.Aftermanyrequeststoreturntothepreviousabsoluteprincipleofa2/3majority,PopeBenedictXVIagreed,andon21June2007para.75wasabrogatedandsubstitutedasfollows:after33ballotswithoutarrivingatthe2/3majoritythecardinalsshouldtakearecessofonedayforprayersanddialogue.Inthefollowingballotsonlythosetwocardinalsareeligiblewhohavereceivedthehighestnumberofvotesinthepreviousballot.Alsointhoseballotsa2/3majorityofthosepresentisnecessarytobeelected.Thetwocardinalswiththehighestnumberofvotesareprohibitedfromcastingavotethemselves.
3.TakingOfficebytheNewlyElectedPope29Fromtheverymomentofacceptingtheelection,thesuccessfulcandidateisBishopofRomeandthusPopewithfullandsupremepowerswithintheuniversalCatholicChurch,onconditionthatheisalreadyconsecratedasabishop.Shouldthisnotbethecase,hewillbeconsecratedimmediatelyasabishopbythehighestrankingcardinalpresent.
E.Assessment30IntheforeseeablefuturetheHolySeewillkeepitsstatusasasubjectofpublicinternationallaw.ItischallengedbynooneandtheimportanceoftheHolySeeasaplayerontheinternationalscenemightevenincrease.Overthelast17yearssincethefalloftheIronCurtain(seealsoColdWar[1947–91])andtheemergenceofnewdemocraciesintheformercommunistcountriesofCentralandEasternEurope(seealsoNewStatesandInternationalLaw)wehaveseenthatalmostallofthesecountrieshaveestablisheddiplomaticrelationswiththeHolySee.Prospectsarethatevenmorecountrieswillfollowsuit.However,thequestionwhichcountryandwhenandunderwhatconditionsisdifficulttoassess.BothChinaandVietnamareindiscreetandregularcontactwiththeHolySee;nevertheless,itwouldbemerespeculationtosaywhentheywillformalizetheirrelationsandwhetherthesewouldberegulardiplomaticonesinthetechnicalsense.
31AlsotheHolySeeitselfhasclearlynointentionofgivingupthestatusitenjoysinternationally.ThatstatusisaplatformtoascertainthepositionsoftheCatholicChurch—oftenandinmanyrespectsalsothepositionsofChristianchurchesingeneral,sometimesperhapseventhoseofotherreligiousbeliefs—onissuesofhumanrightsingeneralandofreligiousfreedominparticular.
32ItsinternationalstandingmightinadditionoffertheHolySeeinthefutureaspecialtasktoperform:thedialoguewiththeMuslimWorld,apartfromthatentertainedbyStates.InthisrespecttheHolySeewouldnotengageinaninter-religiousdialogueinthestrictsensebetweenreligiousbeliefs,butratherinaninter-culturaldialogueasapartnerespeciallysuitedforthetaskbyitssimultaneouscapacityasachurchandasubjectofpublicinternationallaw,asaninstitutionthatisrecognizedasapartnerfordialoguebothbygovernmentsofMuslimStatesaswellasbyreligiousMusliminstitutions.
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