Epidemiology of Saxophonists’ Occupational Health Problems final.pdfTeal L: The Art of Saxophone...
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1 2 4 5 8 3 6 7 8 10 10 10 Epidemiology of Saxophonists’ Occupational Health Problems Variables Total Male Female Sex N (%) 203 (100%) 158 (77.80%) 45 (22.20%) Age (yrs) mean ± SD 34.03 ± 16.91 35.52 ± 17.50 28.80 ± 13.57 Handedness N (%) Right 165 (81.3%) 127 (76.97%) 38 (23.03%) Left 25 (12.3%) 21 (84.00%) 4 (16.00%) Ambidextrous 13 (6.4%) 10 (76.92%) 3 (23.08%) Height (inches) (mean ± SD) 69.56 ± 3.63 70.84 ± 2.71 65.07 ± 2.78 Weight (lbs) (mean ± SD) 178.36 ± 42.63 187.35 ± 40.99 146.76 ± 32.15 Exercise (hrs. per week) (mean ± SD) Cardiovascular 6.15 ± 20.57 3.61 ± 6.30 15.06 ± 41.20 Resistance 3.46 ± 13.72 2.49 ± 6.93 6.84 ± 26.03 Flexibility 1.29 ± 3.22 0.99 ± 2.17 2.34 ± 5.43 Engagement (mean ± SD) Playing saxophone (yrs.) 21.52 ± 15.57 22.78 ± 16.30 17.09 ± 11.79 Formal study saxophone (yrs.) 11.16 ± 11.37 11.12 ± 11.37 11.28 ± 11.49 Playing instrument (hrs. per week) 18.72 ± 11.99 19.93 ± 12.29 14.47 ± 9.85 Soprano 1.75 ± 3.22 1.93 ± 3.53 1.09 ± 1.59 Alto 10.41 ± 8.95 10.38 ± 9.18 10.53 ± 8.20 Tenor 4.01 ± 6.66 4.48 ± 7.11 2.38 ± 4.43 Baritone 2.12 ± 5.83 2.47 ± 6.52 0.87 ± 1.50 Number of performances (past year) 29.62 ± 36.25 32.56 ± 37.37 19.40 ± 30.27 Health Concern Mild Severe Depression 30.54% 17.73% Headache 47.78% 10.34% Acute Anxiety 37.93% 9.36% Fatigue 52.22% 8.87% Stage Fright 34.98% 7.88% Tinnitus 27.59% 5.91% Respiratory Allergies 26.11% 5.42% TMJ Syndrome 12.32% 4.43% Sleep Disturbances 32.51% 3.94% ADD 9.85% 3.94% Earaches 30.05% 3.45% Mouth Lesions 15.27% 3.45% Eye Strain 42.86% 2.96% Weight Problems 22.66% 1.97% Asthma 19.21% 1.97% High Blood Pressure 16.26% 1.97% ADHD 8.87% 1.97% Acquired Dental Malocclusion 8.37% 1.48% Noise Induced Hearing Loss 26.60% 0.99% Temporary Hearing Loss 10.84% 0.99% Heart Condition 4.93% 0.99% Blackouts/Dizziness 20.69% 0.49% Ulcer 9.85% 0.49% Introduction Saxophone is a widely popular instrument seen in virtually all genres of music around the world. However, saxophonists represent an understudied and under-represented population in the performing arts health research literature. Except for one study in 1999 that compared health concerns across genre 1 , health concerns of saxophonists are often analyzed and reported together with other orchestral musicians who perform woodwind instruments. 2 Furthermore, surveys typically exclude musculoskeletal areas of concern, specifically the orofacial area, acknowledged by saxophone pedagogues and performers. 3 While the literature suggests that biopsychosocial factors are interrelated, another limitation is that performance anxiety is often measured using scales that assess only negative symptoms and experiences. This perspective is challenging to the music disciplines because research and anecdotal evidence supports the idea that stress is critical to success and that performance anxiety can facilitate performance for some musicians. 4,5 Together, these limitations warrant additional research focused on this understudied population of musicians. The purpose of this study is to: 1) Develop and deploy a saxophone-specific epidemiologic survey based on biopsychosocial principals in order to characterize occupational health concerns experienced by saxophonists. 2) Report the musculoskeletal and non-musculoskeletal occupational health problems of saxophonists. 3) Explore the influence of orofacial pain on saxophonists, particularly at the inside of the bottom lip. 4) Explore how music performance anxiety affects the performance of saxophonists. Method A saxophone-specific epidemiologic survey was created and distributed online using Qualtrics software. In addition to assessing demographics, levels of engagement, and occupational identity, this novel survey included body, hand, and facial maps to assess prevalence, intensity, frequency, and influence of pain for 171 musculoskeletal sites. Shown in Figure 1 below, novel facial maps were developed for the orofacial region specifically for this survey. Mental health concerns were assessed using a series of unidimensional and bidirectional VAS scales. The survey also assessed how performance anxiety influences music performance along the somatic/cognitive and musical/non- musical categories developed by Meidell. 6 Table 2. Non-Musculoskeletal Problems #1 Left Neck Back (Prevalence = 39.41%) #2 Right Neck Back (Prevalence = 37.93%) #3 Inside Bottom Lip (Prevalence = 32.49%) #4 Right Upper Back (Prevalence = 20.69%) #5 Left Upper Back (Prevalence = 18.72%) #6 Center Bottom Lip (Vermilion) (Prevalence = 17.42%) #10 Right Neck Front (Prevalence = 13.30%) #8 Left Neck Front (Prevalence = 14.29%) #8 Right Mid Back (Prevalence = 14.29%) #10 Left Forearm Front (Prevalence = 13.30%) #10 Left Mid Back (Prevalence = 13.30%) #7 Center Cutaneous Lower Lip (Prevalence = 16.26%) Regression F(2, 43) = 1.533, p = 0.227, R 2 = 0.067 Frequency B = 0.121, p = 0.633 Intensity B = 0.150, p = 0.551 Regression F(2, 47) = 3.262, p = 0.047, R 2 = 0.122 Frequency B = 0.140, p = 0.541 Intensity B = 0.227, p = 0.321 Regression F(2, 63) = 26.229, p = 0.000, R 2 = 0.454 Frequency B = - 0.052, p = 0.738 Intensity B = 0.714, p = 0.000 Regression F(2, 20) = 2.017, p = 0.159, R 2 = 0.168 Frequency B = 0.496, p = 0.145 Intensity B = - 0.119, p = 0.719 Regression F(2, 21) = 3.182, p = 0.062, R 2 = 0.233 Frequency B = 0.471, p = 0.090 Intensity B = 0.016, p = 0.951 Regression F(2, 18) = 7.277, p = 0.005, R 2 = 0.447 Frequency B = - 0.343, p = 0.242 Intensity B = 0.904, p = 0.005 Regression F(2, 15) = 1.781, p = 0.202, R 2 = 0.192 Frequency B = 0.211, p = 0.544 Intensity B = 0.259, p = 0.458 Regression F(2, 16) = 1.367, p = 0.283, R 2 = 0.146 Frequency B = 0.252, p = 0.618 Intensity B = 0.141, p = 0.779 Regression F(2, 11) = 5.524, p = 0.022, R 2 = 0.501 Frequency B = 0.135, p = 0.658 Intensity B = 0.606, p = 0.067 Regression F(2, 16) = 1.587, p = 0.235, R 2 = 0.166 Frequency B = - 0.260, p = 0.438 Intensity B = 0.550, p = 0.112 Regression F(2, 10) = 4.658, p = 0.037, R 2 = 0.482 Frequency B = - 0.062, p = 0.851 Intensity B = 0.737, p = 0.045 Regression F(2, 15) = 1.691, p = 0.218, R 2 = 0.184 Frequency B = 0.007, p = 0.990 Intensity B = 0.423, p = 0.403 Figure 5. Prevalence, Frequency, Intensity, and Influence of Site-specific Pain Conclusion This is the first known saxophone-specific epidemiologic study to assess potential musculoskeletal problems in the lip and mouth areas. Supporting concerns expressed by saxophone pedagogues and players, the inside of the bottom lip was identified as one of the most critical areas of concern due to the high prevalence, frequency, and intensity of pain in this area. More than any other musculoskeletal site, pain in this area was reported as having the strongest negative influence on the ability to perform the saxophone. Further research in this area should include assessment of the influence of pain on playing as prevalence alone does not correlate with high influence on performance. Additional research is needed to better understand the etiology of this problem and the effectiveness of prevention and treatment strategies. Another important finding suggests the need for researchers to consider and adopt multidimensional theories of performance anxiety. There are aspects of music performance that can be facilitated by music performance anxiety. Research should adopt multidimensional models in order to better understand and develop pedagogical approaches designed to maximize the facilitative potential of this phenomenon. Performing arts health researchers need to interact with the population being studied in order to develop the right questions to ask to yield applied insights. References: 1. Thrasher M, Chesky KS. Medical problems of saxophonists: A comparison of physical and psychosocial dysfunction among classical and non-classical performers. Saxophone Symposium. 1999;24:77-84. 2. Kok LM, Huisstede BM, Voorn VM, Schoones JW, and Nelissen RG. The occurrence of musculoskeletal complaints among professional musicians: a systematic review. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2016;89:373-396. 3. Teal L: The Art of Saxophone Playing, Van Nuys, CA; Summy-Birchard Music, 1963. 4. Miller SR, Chesky K. The multidimensional anxiety theory: An assessment of and relationships between intensity and direction of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence over multiple performance requirements among college music majors. Med Probl Perform Art. 2004;19(1):12–20. 5. Conklin NM. Musical performance anxiety in virtual performances: A comparison of recorded and live performance contexts [dissertation]. [Norman (OK): University of Oklahoma; 2011. 848 p. 6. Meidell KL. Epidemiological evaluation of pain among string instrumentalists [dissertation]. [Denton (TX)]: University of North Texas; 2011. 87 p. 7. Rousseau E: Saxophone Artistry in Performance and Pedagogy, Ham Lake, WI; Jeanné Inc., 2013. Musculoskeletal Problems The overall prevalence of musculoskeletal pain, calculated as the total population reporting one or more site-specific problem over the past year, was 86.7%. Figure 5 shows the top 12 musculoskeletal sites ordered by prevalence. Linear regression analyses were calculated to predict the influence of site-specific pain on musical performance based on the frequency and intensity of pain as independent factors. Intensity of pain was found to be a statistically significant predictor of influence for the inside bottom lip, center bottom lip (vermilion), and left mid back. The most frequently selected number of saxophone related pain sites was 1 (18.23%), followed by 2 (11.33%), and 3 (7.39%). Although the inside of the bottom lip was not the most prevalent location where saxophonists experience pain it had the greatest overall impact on playing. It was the third ranked prevalence site (32.49%) and the site with the highest mean frequency (36.85 ± 33.31), intensity (28.36 ± 26.92), and influence on playing (26.05 ± 30.27). The descriptive quality of pain at this site most often reported were tender (33.33%), sharp (18.18%), aching (16.67%), and stinging (15.15%). Most of the other locations on and around the lower lip are also highly problematic—including the other two lip sites shown in Figure 5. The lower lip is one of the areas of the face involved in the formation of the embouchure, the lips around the mouthpiece and reed which control the energy transfer of the saxophonist’s air from their body to the instrument. The lower lip rests on the bottom teeth and saxophonists “bite” into the lower lip to varying degrees depending on many factors ranging from the type of music they play, to the equipment they use, to how they practice, to how they were taught to form an embouchure. A common solution to this problem in pedagogical literature is to use a “tooth guard” to serve as a cushion that creates smoother contact between the bottom teeth and lower lip. 3,7 Almost half (43.84%) of the subjects reported using a tooth guard more than once in the past year. Table 3 compares the pain prevalence, frequency of pain, intensity of pain, and influence of pain on playing for those who did or did not use a tooth guard. A chi-square test was done to compare the statistical significance of prevalence rates. Statistical significance was found for the center cutaneous lower lip. An independent samples t-test was used to determine the statistical significance of the differences in frequency, intensity, and influence. Statistical significance was found for influence of pain on playing at the inside bottom lip and for intensity of pain and influence of pain on playing at the center bottom lip (vermilion). Non-Musculoskeletal Health Problems Table 2 shows the percentages of subjects reporting various mild and severe non-musculoskeletal problems sorted by severe. Depression was the most severe problem reported, with 17% of subjects reporting severe depression. The total reported percentage of 48.27%, however, is less than headache (58.12%) and fatigue (61.09%). Several problems stand out with a high percentage of mild cases but very few severe cases; most notably eye strain (42.86% mild, 2.96% severe) and noise induced hearing loss (26.60% mild, 0.99% severe). Table 1. Demographics Michael Davis Michael Davis is a saxophonist who began his saxophone career at the University of Iowa. He graduated with a Bachelor of Music in Performance with high distinction under the direction of Dr. Kenneth Tse.After graduation, Michael participated in the Iowa Saxophonists’ Workshop Ensemble east Asia tour in July 2016. The ensemble performed multiple times in Hong Kong for the Hong Kong International Saxophone Symposium and in Chengdu, China, at the Sichuan Conservatory of Music. Michael went on to study saxophone with Dr. Eric Nestler at the University of North Texas (UNT) where he completed his Master’s of Music in saxophone performance with a related field in music theory in 2017. Currently, Michael is a DMA student and saxophone teaching fellow at UNT. He is doing his related field in performing arts health, conducting research on saxophone related occupational health problems. [email protected] As shown in Figure 2, the most played saxophone was the alto, then the tenor, closely followed by the soprano. Less than half of the subjects played the baritone in the past year. Average playing time per week was much higher on the alto (10.41 ± 8.95) than the next closest, tenor (4.01 ± 6.66). Playing two saxophones was reported by the highest number of subjects (36.95%), followed by three (26.60%), one (23.64%), and four (12.81%). Results As shown in Table 1, the average age of this group of saxophonists (N=203) was slightly more than 34 years. On average, subjects report playing saxophone for over 21 years. The most common academic degrees reported were Master’s degree in saxophone performance (21.18%), Bachelor’s degree in saxophone performance (18.23%), and doctorate in saxophone performance (16.75%). The next most reported degree was a Bachelor’s in music education (14.29%). Nearly half (47.29%) reported no music degree. Subjects report an average of 1.57 (±0.88) playing sessions per day, 8.20 (±5.47) sessions per week, and an average duration 77.97 (±42.22) minutes per session. They also report taking 1.39 (±1.68) breaks per session for an average duration of 6.53 (±11.75) minutes. Subjects reported stopping practice due to mental fatigue (43.87% ± 27.44) at a higher rate than physical fatigue (38.33% ± 26.82). Subjects reported playing an average of 29.62 (±30.13) performances per year. Figure 2. Occupational Identity Figure 3. Saxophone Type Inside bottom lip Center bottom lip (vermilion) Center cutaneous lower lip Overall Prevalence 66 (32.49%) 35 (17.24%) 33 (16.26%) Prevalence with a tooth guard n=89 30 (33.71%) 14 (15.73%) 8 (8.89%) Prevalence without a tooth guard n=114 36 (31.58%) 21 (18.42%) 25 (21.93%) Significance* X 2 =0.103, p=0.748 X 2 =0.254, p=0.615 X 2 =6.148, p=0.013 Overall Frequency 36.85 ± 33.31 19.71 ± 24.39 25.42 ± 31.64 Frequency with a tooth guard n=89 38.90 ± 33.84 27.67 ± 27.87 21.13 ± 33.02 Frequency without a tooth guard n=114 35.14 ± 33.24 15.90 ± 21.95 26.80 ± 31.75 Significance* t=0.454, p=0.651 t=1.416, p=0.166 t=-0.436, p=0.666 Overall Intensity 28.36 ± 26.92 11.66 ± 14.76 15.91 ± 19.19 Intensity with a tooth guard n=89 33.80 ± 27.39 18.80 ± 16.73 20.38 ± 23.77 Intensity without a tooth guard n=114 23.83 ± 26.05 7.48 ± 11.57 14.48 ± 17.82 Significance* t=1.512, p=0.135 t=2.396, p=0.022 t=0.751, p=0.458 Overall Influence 26.05 ± 30.27 13.69 ± 24.02 13.76 ± 23.66 Influence with a tooth guard n=89 34.40 ± 35.74 27.33 ± 31.78 24.75 ± 39.73 Influence without a tooth guard n=114 19.08 ± 23.09 3.29 ± 5.46 10.24 ± 15.27 Significance* t=2.100, p=0.040 t=3.416, p=0.002 t=1.542, p=0.133 Table 3. Use of Tooth Guard Figure 1. Interactive Orofacial Maps Shown in Figure 2, subjects strongly identified as saxophonists, less as classical saxophonists, slightly less as saxophone teachers, slightly less as jazz saxophonists, and much less as commercial saxophonists. Subjects also scored high on the total and sub scales of the Musician Identity Measurement Scale (MIMS). Mean Occupational Identity Score (out of 7), 95% Confidence Interval Music Performance Anxiety Over half (58.13%) of subjects reported experiencing music performance anxiety (MPA) in the past year. Of those who experienced MPA, when asked how often they experienced performance anxiety in the past year on a 100 point scale from never to always, the mean response was 38.95 (±29.26). The mean intensity of performance anxiety over the past year was 31.90 (±24.79). The mean influence of MPA on performance was -6.93 (±19.31) on a bidirectional scale of -50 (strong negative influence) to 50 (strong positive influence). Over half (57.63%) reported negative influence, while under a quarter (23.73%) reported positive influence and the remainder reported no influence. Subjects were presented with 18 aspects of music performance commonly affected by music performance anxiety, shown in Figure 4, and were directed to indicate if each aspect was positively, negatively, or not affected by their performance anxiety. Results were varied; some were overwhelmingly influenced negatively, while others were overwhelmingly influenced positively, and others had no clear consensus. Subjects reported “tension” as an aspect of music performance mostly influenced negatively (56.78%) by performance anxiety and almost none (0.85%) reported positive influence. Conversely, few (5.96%) subjects reported negative influence on “motivation” while over a third (35.59%) reported positive influence. Subjects reported “focus” as highly influenced by performance anxiety both negatively (40.68%) and positively (33.90%). Cognitive Musical Cognitive Non-Musical Somatic Musical Somatic Non-Musical Figure 4. How MPA influences music performance Memory Musicality Awareness Fear Focus Mental Sabotage Motivation Intonation Technique Tempo Tone Breathing Control Dry Mouth Nausea Posture Sweaty Hands Tension = Negatively Influenced by MPA = Positively Influenced by MPA = Not Influenced by MPA Michael Davis MM, Nabeel Zuhdi MM, and Kris Chesky PhD. Texas Center for Performing Arts Health Acute Diffuse
Transcript of Epidemiology of Saxophonists’ Occupational Health Problems final.pdfTeal L: The Art of Saxophone...
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Epidemiology of Saxophonists’ Occupational Health Problems
Variables Total Male FemaleSex N (%) 203 (100%) 158 (77.80%) 45 (22.20%)Age (yrs) mean ± SD 34.03 ± 16.91 35.52 ± 17.50 28.80 ± 13.57Handedness N (%)
Right 165 (81.3%) 127 (76.97%) 38 (23.03%)Left 25 (12.3%) 21 (84.00%) 4 (16.00%)Ambidextrous 13 (6.4%) 10 (76.92%) 3 (23.08%)
Height (inches) (mean ± SD) 69.56 ± 3.63 70.84 ± 2.71 65.07 ± 2.78Weight (lbs) (mean ± SD) 178.36 ± 42.63 187.35 ± 40.99 146.76 ± 32.15Exercise (hrs. per week) (mean ± SD)
Cardiovascular 6.15 ± 20.57 3.61 ± 6.30 15.06 ± 41.20Resistance 3.46 ± 13.72 2.49 ± 6.93 6.84 ± 26.03Flexibility 1.29 ± 3.22 0.99 ± 2.17 2.34 ± 5.43
Engagement (mean ± SD)Playing saxophone (yrs.) 21.52 ± 15.57 22.78 ± 16.30 17.09 ± 11.79Formal study saxophone (yrs.) 11.16 ± 11.37 11.12 ± 11.37 11.28 ± 11.49Playing instrument (hrs. per week) 18.72 ± 11.99 19.93 ± 12.29 14.47 ± 9.85
Soprano 1.75 ± 3.22 1.93 ± 3.53 1.09 ± 1.59Alto 10.41 ± 8.95 10.38 ± 9.18 10.53 ± 8.20Tenor 4.01 ± 6.66 4.48 ± 7.11 2.38 ± 4.43Baritone 2.12 ± 5.83 2.47 ± 6.52 0.87 ± 1.50
Number of performances (past year) 29.62 ± 36.25 32.56 ± 37.37 19.40 ± 30.27
Health Concern Mild SevereDepression 30.54% 17.73%Headache 47.78% 10.34%Acute Anxiety 37.93% 9.36%Fatigue 52.22% 8.87%Stage Fright 34.98% 7.88%Tinnitus 27.59% 5.91%Respiratory Allergies 26.11% 5.42%TMJ Syndrome 12.32% 4.43%Sleep Disturbances 32.51% 3.94%ADD 9.85% 3.94%Earaches 30.05% 3.45%Mouth Lesions 15.27% 3.45%Eye Strain 42.86% 2.96%Weight Problems 22.66% 1.97%Asthma 19.21% 1.97%High Blood Pressure 16.26% 1.97%ADHD 8.87% 1.97%Acquired Dental Malocclusion 8.37% 1.48%Noise Induced Hearing Loss 26.60% 0.99%Temporary Hearing Loss 10.84% 0.99%Heart Condition 4.93% 0.99%Blackouts/Dizziness 20.69% 0.49%Ulcer 9.85% 0.49%
IntroductionSaxophone is a widely popular instrument seen in virtually
all genres of music around the world. However, saxophonistsrepresent an understudied and under-represented population inthe performing arts health research literature. Except for onestudy in 1999 that compared health concerns across genre1,health concerns of saxophonists are often analyzed andreported together with other orchestral musicians whoperform woodwind instruments.2 Furthermore, surveys typicallyexclude musculoskeletal areas of concern, specifically theorofacial area, acknowledged by saxophone pedagogues andperformers.3 While the literature suggests that biopsychosocialfactors are interrelated, another limitation is that performanceanxiety is often measured using scales that assess only negativesymptoms and experiences. This perspective is challenging tothe music disciplines because research and anecdotal evidencesupports the idea that stress is critical to success and thatperformance anxiety can facilitate performance for somemusicians.4,5 Together, these limitations warrant additionalresearch focused on this understudied population of musicians.
The purpose of this study is to:1) Develop and deploy a saxophone-specific
epidemiologic survey based on biopsychosocial principals in order to characterize occupational health concerns experienced by saxophonists.
2) Report the musculoskeletal and non-musculoskeletal occupational health problems of saxophonists.
3) Explore the influence of orofacial pain on saxophonists, particularly at the inside of the bottom lip.
4) Explore how music performance anxiety affects the performance of saxophonists.
MethodA saxophone-specific epidemiologic survey was created
and distributed online using Qualtrics software. In addition toassessing demographics, levels of engagement, and occupationalidentity, this novel survey included body, hand, and facial maps toassess prevalence, intensity, frequency, and influence of pain for171 musculoskeletal sites. Shown in Figure 1 below, novel facialmaps were developed for the orofacial region specifically for thissurvey. Mental health concerns were assessed using a series ofunidimensional and bidirectional VAS scales. The survey alsoassessed how performance anxiety influences musicperformance along the somatic/cognitive and musical/non-musical categories developed by Meidell.6
Table 2. Non-Musculoskeletal Problems
#1 Left Neck Back (Prevalence = 39.41%)
#2 Right Neck Back (Prevalence = 37.93%)
#3 Inside Bottom Lip (Prevalence = 32.49%)
#4 Right Upper Back (Prevalence = 20.69%)
#5 Left Upper Back (Prevalence = 18.72%)
#6 Center Bottom Lip (Vermilion) (Prevalence = 17.42%)#10 Right Neck Front (Prevalence = 13.30%)
#8 Left Neck Front (Prevalence = 14.29%)
#8 Right Mid Back (Prevalence = 14.29%)
#10 Left Forearm Front (Prevalence = 13.30%)
#10 Left Mid Back (Prevalence = 13.30%)
#7 Center Cutaneous Lower Lip (Prevalence = 16.26%)
Regression F(2, 43) = 1.533, p = 0.227, R2 = 0.067 Frequency B = 0.121, p = 0.633Intensity B = 0.150, p = 0.551
Regression F(2, 47) = 3.262, p = 0.047, R2 = 0.122 Frequency B = 0.140, p = 0.541Intensity B = 0.227, p = 0.321
Regression F(2, 63) = 26.229, p = 0.000, R2 = 0.454 Frequency B = -0.052, p = 0.738Intensity B = 0.714, p = 0.000
Regression F(2, 20) = 2.017, p = 0.159, R2 = 0.168 Frequency B = 0.496, p = 0.145Intensity B = -0.119, p = 0.719
Regression F(2, 21) = 3.182, p = 0.062, R2 = 0.233 Frequency B = 0.471, p = 0.090Intensity B = 0.016, p = 0.951
Regression F(2, 18) = 7.277, p = 0.005, R2 = 0.447 Frequency B = -0.343, p = 0.242Intensity B = 0.904, p = 0.005
Regression F(2, 15) = 1.781, p = 0.202, R2 = 0.192 Frequency B = 0.211, p = 0.544Intensity B = 0.259, p = 0.458
Regression F(2, 16) = 1.367, p = 0.283, R2 = 0.146 Frequency B = 0.252, p = 0.618Intensity B = 0.141, p = 0.779
Regression F(2, 11) = 5.524, p = 0.022, R2 = 0.501 Frequency B = 0.135, p = 0.658Intensity B = 0.606, p = 0.067
Regression F(2, 16) = 1.587, p = 0.235, R2 = 0.166 Frequency B = -0.260, p = 0.438Intensity B = 0.550, p = 0.112
Regression F(2, 10) = 4.658, p = 0.037, R2 = 0.482 Frequency B = -0.062, p = 0.851Intensity B = 0.737, p = 0.045
Regression F(2, 15) = 1.691, p = 0.218, R2 = 0.184 Frequency B = 0.007, p = 0.990Intensity B = 0.423, p = 0.403
Figure 5.Prevalence, Frequency, Intensity,
and Influence of Site-specific Pain
ConclusionThis is the first known saxophone-specific epidemiologic
study to assess potential musculoskeletal problems in the lipand mouth areas. Supporting concerns expressed bysaxophone pedagogues and players, the inside of the bottomlip was identified as one of the most critical areas of concerndue to the high prevalence, frequency, and intensity of pain inthis area. More than any other musculoskeletal site, pain inthis area was reported as having the strongest negativeinfluence on the ability to perform the saxophone. Furtherresearch in this area should include assessment of theinfluence of pain on playing as prevalence alone doesnot correlate with high influence on performance.Additional research is needed to better understand theetiology of this problem and the effectiveness of preventionand treatment strategies. Another important finding suggeststhe need for researchers to consider and adoptmultidimensional theories of performance anxiety. There areaspects of music performance that can be facilitatedby music performance anxiety. Research should adoptmultidimensional models in order to better understand anddevelop pedagogical approaches designed to maximize thefacilitative potential of this phenomenon. Performing artshealth researchers need to interact with thepopulation being studied in order to develop the rightquestions to ask to yield applied insights.
References: 1. Thrasher M, Chesky KS. Medical problems of saxophonists: A comparison ofphysical and psychosocial dysfunction among classical and non-classicalperformers. Saxophone Symposium. 1999;24:77-84.2. Kok LM, Huisstede BM, Voorn VM, Schoones JW, and Nelissen RG. Theoccurrence of musculoskeletal complaints among professional musicians: asystematic review. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2016;89:373-396.3. Teal L: The Art of Saxophone Playing, Van Nuys, CA; Summy-Birchard Music,1963.4. Miller SR, Chesky K. The multidimensional anxiety theory: An assessment ofand relationships between intensity and direction of cognitive anxiety, somaticanxiety, and self-confidence over multiple performance requirements amongcollege music majors. Med Probl Perform Art. 2004;19(1):12–20.5. Conklin NM. Musical performance anxiety in virtual performances: Acomparison of recorded and live performance contexts [dissertation]. [Norman(OK): University of Oklahoma; 2011. 848 p.6. Meidell KL. Epidemiological evaluation of pain among string instrumentalists[dissertation]. [Denton (TX)]: University of North Texas; 2011. 87 p.7. Rousseau E: Saxophone Artistry in Performance and Pedagogy, Ham Lake, WI;Jeanné Inc., 2013.
Musculoskeletal Problems
The overall prevalence of musculoskeletal pain,calculated as the total population reporting one or moresite-specific problem over the past year, was 86.7%.Figure 5 shows the top 12 musculoskeletal sites orderedby prevalence. Linear regression analyses were calculatedto predict the influence of site-specific pain on musicalperformance based on the frequency and intensity of painas independent factors. Intensity of pain was found to be astatistically significant predictor of influence for the insidebottom lip, center bottom lip (vermilion), and left mid back.The most frequently selected number of saxophone relatedpain sites was 1 (18.23%), followed by 2 (11.33%), and 3(7.39%).
Although the inside of the bottom lip was not themost prevalent location where saxophonists experiencepain it had the greatest overall impact on playing. Itwas the third ranked prevalence site (32.49%) and the sitewith the highest mean frequency (36.85 ± 33.31), intensity(28.36 ± 26.92), and influence on playing (26.05 ± 30.27).The descriptive quality of pain at this site most oftenreported were tender (33.33%), sharp (18.18%), aching(16.67%), and stinging (15.15%).
Most of the other locations on and around the lowerlip are also highly problematic—including the other two lipsites shown in Figure 5. The lower lip is one of the areas ofthe face involved in the formation of the embouchure, thelips around the mouthpiece and reed which control theenergy transfer of the saxophonist’s air from their body tothe instrument. The lower lip rests on the bottom teethand saxophonists “bite” into the lower lip to varyingdegrees depending on many factors ranging from the typeof music they play, to the equipment they use, to how theypractice, to how they were taught to form an embouchure.A common solution to this problem in pedagogicalliterature is to use a “tooth guard” to serve as a cushionthat creates smoother contact between the bottom teethand lower lip.3,7 Almost half (43.84%) of the subjectsreported using a tooth guard more than once in the pastyear. Table 3 compares the pain prevalence, frequency ofpain, intensity of pain, and influence of pain on playing forthose who did or did not use a tooth guard. A chi-squaretest was done to compare the statistical significance ofprevalence rates. Statistical significance was found for thecenter cutaneous lower lip. An independent samples t-testwas used to determine the statistical significance of thedifferences in frequency, intensity, and influence. Statisticalsignificance was found for influence of pain on playing atthe inside bottom lip and for intensity of pain and influenceof pain on playing at the center bottom lip (vermilion).
Non-Musculoskeletal Health Problems
Table 2 shows the percentages of subjects reporting variousmild and severe non-musculoskeletal problems sorted by severe.Depression was the most severe problem reported, with 17% ofsubjects reporting severe depression. The total reported percentageof 48.27%, however, is less than headache (58.12%) and fatigue(61.09%). Several problems stand out with a high percentage of mildcases but very few severe cases; most notably eye strain (42.86%mild, 2.96% severe) and noise induced hearing loss (26.60% mild,0.99% severe).
Table 1. Demographics
Michael Davis
Michael Davis is a saxophonist who began his saxophone career at theUniversity of Iowa. He graduated with a Bachelor of Music in Performancewith high distinction under the direction of Dr. Kenneth Tse. After graduation,Michael participated in the Iowa Saxophonists’ Workshop Ensemble east Asiatour in July 2016. The ensemble performed multiple times in Hong Kong forthe Hong Kong International Saxophone Symposium and in Chengdu, China,at the Sichuan Conservatory of Music. Michael went on to study saxophonewith Dr. Eric Nestler at the University of North Texas (UNT) where hecompleted his Master’s of Music in saxophone performance with a relatedfield in music theory in 2017. Currently, Michael is a DMA student andsaxophone teaching fellow at UNT. He is doing his related field in performingarts health, conducting research on saxophone related occupational healthproblems.
As shown in Figure 2, the most played saxophone was the alto,then the tenor, closely followed by the soprano. Less than half of thesubjects played the baritone in the past year. Average playing time perweek was much higher on the alto (10.41 ± 8.95) than the nextclosest, tenor (4.01 ± 6.66). Playing two saxophones was reported bythe highest number of subjects (36.95%), followed by three (26.60%),one (23.64%), and four (12.81%).Results
As shown in Table 1, the average age of this group ofsaxophonists (N=203) was slightly more than 34 years. Onaverage, subjects report playing saxophone for over 21 years. Themost common academic degrees reported were Master’s degreein saxophone performance (21.18%), Bachelor’s degree insaxophone performance (18.23%), and doctorate in saxophoneperformance (16.75%). The next most reported degree was aBachelor’s in music education (14.29%). Nearly half (47.29%)reported no music degree. Subjects report an average of 1.57(±0.88) playing sessions per day, 8.20 (±5.47) sessions per week,and an average duration 77.97 (±42.22) minutes per session. Theyalso report taking 1.39 (±1.68) breaks per session for an averageduration of 6.53 (±11.75) minutes. Subjects reported stoppingpractice due to mental fatigue (43.87% ± 27.44) at a higher ratethan physical fatigue (38.33% ± 26.82). Subjects reported playingan average of 29.62 (±30.13) performances per year.
Figure 2. Occupational Identity
Figure 3. Saxophone Type
Inside bottom lipCenter bottom lip
(vermilion)Center cutaneous
lower lipOverall Prevalence 66 (32.49%) 35 (17.24%) 33 (16.26%)Prevalence with a tooth guard n=89 30 (33.71%) 14 (15.73%) 8 (8.89%)
Prevalence without a tooth guard n=114 36 (31.58%) 21 (18.42%) 25 (21.93%)
Significance* X2=0.103, p=0.748 X2=0.254, p=0.615 X2=6.148, p=0.013Overall Frequency 36.85 ± 33.31 19.71 ± 24.39 25.42 ± 31.64Frequency with a tooth guard n=89 38.90 ± 33.84 27.67 ± 27.87 21.13 ± 33.02
Frequency without a tooth guard n=114 35.14 ± 33.24 15.90 ± 21.95 26.80 ± 31.75
Significance* t=0.454, p=0.651 t=1.416, p=0.166 t=-0.436, p=0.666Overall Intensity 28.36 ± 26.92 11.66 ± 14.76 15.91 ± 19.19Intensity with a tooth guard n=89 33.80 ± 27.39 18.80 ± 16.73 20.38 ± 23.77Intensity without a tooth guard n=114 23.83 ± 26.05 7.48 ± 11.57 14.48 ± 17.82
Significance* t=1.512, p=0.135 t=2.396, p=0.022 t=0.751, p=0.458Overall Influence 26.05 ± 30.27 13.69 ± 24.02 13.76 ± 23.66Influence with a tooth guard n=89 34.40 ± 35.74 27.33 ± 31.78 24.75 ± 39.73Influence without a tooth guard n=114 19.08 ± 23.09 3.29 ± 5.46 10.24 ± 15.27
Significance* t=2.100, p=0.040 t=3.416, p=0.002 t=1.542, p=0.133
Table 3. Use of Tooth Guard
Figure 1. Interactive Orofacial Maps
Shown in Figure 2, subjects strongly identified assaxophonists, less as classical saxophonists, slightly less assaxophone teachers, slightly less as jazz saxophonists, and muchless as commercial saxophonists. Subjects also scored high on thetotal and sub scales of the Musician Identity Measurement Scale(MIMS).
Mea
n O
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atio
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ity S
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(out
of 7
), 95
% C
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Inte
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Music Performance Anxiety
Over half (58.13%) of subjects reported experiencing music performance anxiety (MPA) in the pastyear. Of those who experienced MPA, when asked how often they experienced performance anxiety in thepast year on a 100 point scale from never to always, the mean response was 38.95 (±29.26). The meanintensity of performance anxiety over the past year was 31.90 (±24.79). The mean influence of MPA onperformance was -6.93 (±19.31) on a bidirectional scale of -50 (strong negative influence) to 50 (strongpositive influence). Over half (57.63%) reported negative influence, while under a quarter (23.73%) reportedpositive influence and the remainder reported no influence. Subjects were presented with 18 aspects ofmusic performance commonly affected by music performance anxiety, shown in Figure 4, and weredirected to indicate if each aspect was positively, negatively, or not affected by their performance anxiety.Results were varied; some were overwhelmingly influenced negatively, while others were overwhelminglyinfluenced positively, and others had no clear consensus. Subjects reported “tension” as an aspect of musicperformance mostly influenced negatively (56.78%) by performance anxiety and almost none (0.85%)reported positive influence. Conversely, few (5.96%) subjects reported negative influence on “motivation”while over a third (35.59%) reported positive influence. Subjects reported “focus” as highly influenced byperformance anxiety both negatively (40.68%) and positively (33.90%).
Cognitive Musical
Cognitive Non-Musical
Somatic Musical
Somatic Non-Musical
Figure 4. How MPA influences music performance
Mem
ory
Musicality
Aw
areness
Fear
Focus
Mental Sabotage
Motivation
Intonation
Technique
Tempo
Tone
Breathing
Control
Dry
Mouth
Nausea
Posture
Sweaty
Hands
Tension
= Negatively Influenced by MPA
= Positively Influenced by MPA
= Not Influenced by MPA
Michael Davis MM, Nabeel Zuhdi MM, and Kris Chesky PhD.Texas Center for Performing Arts Health
Acute
Diffuse
