Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn

Cells A living thing is called an organism, e.g. a dog is an organism, so is a daffodil. The characteristics of living things are:

Feeding living things need food to get energy.Movement living things move either their whole body (animals) or parts of the body (plants).

Respiration process by which organisms obtain their energy.

Sensitivity organisms are able to respond to changes in their surroundings.

Excretion living things get rid of wastes they have made in their bodies which would be harmful

Reproduction living things are able to make more of their own kind..

Growth living things get bigger.

There are many types of animals. They are important in agriculture as food; in medicine because they cause disease; in the fishing industry and as a source of pleasure and recreation. There are many types of plants. Plants form the first link in all food chains and are in important source of oxygen. A food chain is a feeding relationship between organisms. Plants are important in agriculture, industry, medicine and as a source of pleasure, e.g. gardening. Plants differ from animals in a number of ways, e.g. feeding and movement.

You must be able to classify living things into plants or animals, vertebrates or invertabrates. One of the investigations involves going out into a habitat (say school field) and identifying five plants and five animals. The animals must be further identified as vertabrates or invertabrates. Below are examples of keys used to identify the most common plants found in grassland areas.Vertabrates – animals that have back bones, e.g. rabbit, mouse, snake. Invertabrates – animals that do not have backbones, e.g. earthwork, spider and woodlouse.

Binary key to plants of the school field (using leaves)

The following is a key to the most common plants of the school field, done in YES/NO style. To identify a plant start a 1 answer the question and do what is says.You must look at the whole plant for this key to work not separate leaves.

1. Leaves long, thin and flat, like blades?

YesNo

GrassGo to 2

2. Leaves ribbed from stem to tip?

YesNo

Go to 3Go to 4

3. Leaves long and thin?Leaves rounded?

Ribwort PlantainRat’s tail plantain

4. Leaves in 3 round parts? YesNo

White CloverGo to 5

5. Leaves in 3 round parts and pointed at the top?

Yes Red Clover

6. Small leaves on trailing stems?

YesNo

Go to 7Go to 8

7. Hairy leaves?Not hairy leaves?

Yes Mouse-ear chickweedSpeedwell

14

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn

8. Leaves radiate for the centre of the plant?

Yes Go to 9

9. Round leaves?Toothed leaves?

DaisyDandelion

Binary key to plants of the school field (using flowers)

You can identify the same plants using their flowers instead of leaves, obviously only when they are flowering. Like with the leaves key start at 1, answer Yes or No and then do what it says. You must look carefully.

1. Flowers very small and spiky – no petals?

YesNO

GrassGo to 2

2. Flowers green, no petals, brown stamens all round them?

YESNO

Go to 3Go to 4

3. Flowers short and rounded?Flowers long like a rat’s tail?

Ribwort plantainRat’s tail plantain

4. Lots of petals arranged in a rosette?

YESNO

Go to 5Go to 6

5. Petals all yellow? Centre yellow, petals white?

DandelionDaisy

6. Petals in a pom-pom shape and white?

YESNO

White cloverGo to 7

7. Petals in a pom-pom shape and purple?

YESNO

Red cloverGo to 8

8. Petals blue?Petals white?

SpeedwellMouse-ear chickweed

The two keys here help you to identify the 9 most common plants found on school fields. Of course there are other plants to be found that this key does not identify. There is always the possibility that you could not identify a plant because you did not use the key correctly.

All living things are made of cells which are the building blocks of organisms. To study cells we use the light microscope. Eyepiece – allows you to view the object to be magnified.Objective lens – magnifies the specimen.Course focus – lowers and raises the microscope to focus the object.Fine focus – allows accurate focusing at high power.Stage – holds the glass slide in position.Light source – bulb or mirror allow the object to be illuminated.

Exp: Preparing a slide involves the following steps.1. A drop of water is placed in the centre of a

clean dry slide.2. A small piece of onion skin is peeled off and

placed flat on the slide in the water using a forceps.

3. A drop of Iodine is put on the specimen.4. A coverslip is lowered carefully at angle to

15

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinncover the specimen and avoid air bubbles getting trapped.

5. The onion is examined first at low power and then at higher powers.

Below are diagrams of typical plant and animal cells.

All cells consist of the following parts: Part FunctionCytoplasm contains dissolved substances, jelly-like

Cell Membrane controls the entry and exit of substances in/out of the cell

Nucleus controls the activities of the cell

Vacuoles store food, large in plants small in animals

Cell Wall give strength to the cell, plants only.

Chloroplasts help plants make their food, plants only

Plant cells differ from animal cells in the following ways: large vacuoles, cell walls and chloroplasts. . Groups of similar cells with a special function form a tissue. e.g. muscle. Several tissues grouped together form organs, e.g. heart. When a group of organs work together to perform a function they make up a system, e.g. the circulatory systemGrowth results from cells dividing.

Nutrition and DigestionFood is needed for energy, growth, repair and protection against disease in the body. Food is made up of chemicals called nutrients A food's energy value is how much energy that can be obtained from the food. A balanced diet consists of the correct amounts of each type of food . The main nutrients are:Carbohydrates (sugars) are found in sugar rich foods, e.g. honey, sweets, and jam. They provide energy and fibre (needed for muscles of the bowel to work properly [roughage]), They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are made of single sugar units which can be joined together in long chains. Starch is a long chain sugar and glucose is simple single sugar. e.g. starch in bread. To test a food for starch, add brown iodine solution. If it turns a blue/black colour then starch is present.with water and roughageProteins e.g. fish contain carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and sometimes sulphur. They are found in fish and meat. They contain chains of amino acids joined together. They are used for building new cells. e.g.muscle and bone. Fats e.g. butter contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are made of units of fatty acids and glycerol. They provide heat insulation and energy.Vitamins e.g. vitamin D in milk are chemicals needed in small amounts to protects us against disease. For example vitamin A is needed for healthy eyes and skin and is got from carrots and cod-liver oil.Minerals e.g. calcium for bones inorganic elements needed in small amounts for good health. Iron for example is needed to carry oxygen in the blood. Calcium is needed for boneRoughage is also required to keep the digestive system in tone got from green vegetables (fibre).

Exp. Testing a food for starch1. Add 2cm of starch solution or food to a test

tube.2. Add 2-3 drops of iodine (red/brown)

16

Food is needed for:F energyF growth and repairF protection against disease

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn3. If a blue/black colour is obtained. then starch

is presentExp. Testing for proteins

1. Add milk or dissolve the food to be tested to a test tube (2cm level) 2. Add an equal amount of sodium hydroxide3. Add a few drops of copper sulphate solution. 4. If a violet colour is obtained then the food contains protein

Exp. Testing for glucose.1. Add 2cm3 of glucose or the food to a test tube. 2. Add 2cm3 of benedict's reagent (blue) to the test tube3. Set up as shown in the diagram and heat. 4. If a red/orange colour is obtained then the food

contains glucose.

Exp. Testing for fats F Rub margarine or the food on brown paper.F Allow to dry and compare.F Put a drop of water on another piece of brown paperF A translucent spot indicates that fats are present

The human digestive system has the following parts and functions.

Human NutritionINGESTION taking of food into to the mouth

DIGESTION break down of food into small soluble pieces

ABSORPTION taking in of useful food into the bloodstream

ASSIMILATION use of food for growth, repair and energy

EGESTION removal of unused food from the body.

Stages of digestion Mouth Chewing and salivaStomach: Churning, gastric juices, acid to kill germsSmall intestines: digestive juices from pancreas

Results of digestion Carbohydrates ® glucoseProteins ® amino acidsFats ® fatty acids and glycerol

An enzyme is a biological catalyst, it speeds up chemical reactions without being used up

17

A B

Iodinestarchwater

Iodinestarchamylase

small intestinelarge intestine

liver stomach

pancreasgall bladder

tonguesalivaryglands

oesophagus

rectum

Part FunctionMouth Physical (chewing) and chemical digestionOesphagus Mouth connected to the stomachStomach Churning and chemical digestionPancreas Makes digestive enzymesLiver Makes bile for digestion of fatsSmall intestine Enymes digest food and use nutrients

absorbed into the bloodLarge intestine Excess water absorbed and gets rid of

undigested food.

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an AircinnExp. To show the action of an enzyme

1. In test tube A add starch solution, iodine, and tap water, this blue/black solution is the control2. In test tube B add starch solution, iodine and saliva.3. Leave both for several minutes at 37oC.4. The mixture in tube B goes colourless5. The mixture in tube A does not change.6. The enzyme in saliva breaks down starch.Note: Saliva contains the enzyme amylase

Exp: To show food contains energy (chemical energy)1. Set up as shown in the diagram.2. Record the temperature of the water at the start.3. Light the cracker with a match and hold it under the test tube with a

tongs. 4. After a few minutes record the temperature of the water.5. A rise in temperature in the water confirms chemical energy in the

food was converted into heat energy.

There are four types of tooth.1 . Incisors these teeth are used for cutting and biting food.2. Canines these teeth are used for tearing food.3. Premolars these teeth are used to grind food.4. Molars these teeth are used to grind food.Plaque and sugars cause tooth decay

Respiration and BreathingDuring breathing, oxygen gas is taken into the body and carbon dioxide gas and water vapour are released. The human breathing organs are the lungs. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles used in breathing. Inspiration is breathing in and expiration is breathing out. Expired air contains more carbon dioxide than inspired air. This carbon dioxide is made in the cells during respiration. Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky. Smoking can damage your breathing system by damaging the bronchiole lining, reducing resistance to bronchitis and lung cancer, stunting the growth of a baby during pregnancy and heart strain due to carbon monoxide gas in the smoke. The bell jar with the balloons represents the breathing system, the balloons are the lungs, the rubber sheet acts like the diaphragm. You must know how it works.Insects have a system of air holes called spiracles to take in air. Gaseous exchange takes place through the alveoli ( air sacs covered by a network of blood capillaries where carbon dioxide diffuses out to the lungs and oxygen diffuses into the blood ).Exp. To show expired air contains more carbon dioxide than inspired air.

1. Set up two test tubes as shown in the diagram2. Breath in through x in test tube A3. Breath out through Y in test tube B4. Repeat until the lime water in one tube goes milky5. The lime water in B turns milky much quicker showing that exspired air contains

more carbon dioxide.

Respiration is the release of energy from food: Glucose + Oxygen ® Carbon dioxide + Water + EnergyC6H12O6 + 6O2 ® 6CO2 + 6H2O +energy.

Exp. To show carbon dioxide is produced during respiration.Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. See diagram 1.The lime water in A goes milkyThis is because the woodlice are respiring and carbon dioxide turns lime water milky

18

TOOTH STRUCTURE. Enamel a very hard substance which protects the tooth.. Dentine a bone-like substance, though softer than enamel.. Pulp cavity contains living cells, blood vessels which supply the tooth with food and oxygen, and nerves.. Cement protects the root from damage

Breathing experiment

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an AircinnExp. To show heat is produced during respiration.

Fill two flasks one with germinating peas and a second (a control) with dead boiled pea seeds. Seal both with cotton wool and put a thermometer in each. Record the temperature of both flasks every day for one week.The temperature rises sharply in the flask with the germinating peas which shows heat is produced during respiration.

The Circulatory System and Excretion

Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Veins carry blood to the heart. Capillaries link arteries to veins. Arteries have thick walls, no valves, blood at high pressure, are deep in the body and have a small lumen. Veins have thin walls, valves to prevent backflow of blood, blood at low pressure, are near the surface and have a large lumen.The functions of the blood are: (a) transport of food oxygen to body cells, carbon dioxide to the lungs and excretory products to the kidneys, (b) defence against disease with white blood cells destroying bacteria or producing antibodies to kill bacteria and blood clotting to stop blood loss and stop invading germs.The blood is made up of blood plasma with red blood cells to carry oxygen, white blood cells to fight germs, and platelets to help blood to clot. Substances pass in/out of the blood through the thin walls of the capillaries.How the heart works1. Blood from the body goes in to the right atrium via the vena cave

2. At the same time blood from the lungs fills the left atrium.

3. The atria contract, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves open and the ventricles fill up.

4. The ventricles contract, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves close, the semi-lunar valves open and blood is pumped into the arteries.

5. Blood from the right ventricle goes to the lungs via the pulmonary vein and blood from the left ventricle goes around the body via the aorta.

Heart disease is caused by smoking, too much fat, stress and lack of exercise.Heart rate is increased by exercise, escitement, anxiety and smoking. Heart is decreased by rest, clinical shock and certain drugs.The average human pulse rate (heartbeat) is 72 beats per minuter. This value depends on our fitness and age.

Excretion is the removal of waste products made in the body. The organs of excretion are (a) the lungs getting rid of carbon dioxide and water, (b) the kidneys getting rid of urine and (c) the skin losing water and salts as sweat.

Renal artery : blood with wastes to kidneysRenal vein : clean blood back to heartKidneys: filter blood remove wasteUreter: carries urine to bladderBladder: stores urine

Urethra: carries urine out of the body

The Skeleton and Muscles

The functions of the human skeleton are: a) support, b) movement and c) protection.A joint is formed where two or more bones meet. There are two types of joints: a) fused joints, e.g. bones of the skull and b) synovial joints, e.g. (i) ball and socket joint (hip), (ii) hinge joint (elbow) and (iii) pivot joint (base of

19

Diagram 1

Excretion

femur

tibia

patella

synovial fluid

capsule

synovial membrane

cartilage

synovial joint at the knee

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinnskull). Ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect muscle to bone. Leg and arm muscles work as antagonistic pairs i.e. when one muscle contracts the other relaxes, e.g. the triceps and biceps of the arm. If a bone is left in dilute HCl overnight it becomes flexible and rubbery. This is because the mineral content such as calcium has been removed. In a synovial joint the bone are protected from rubbing off each other by a pad of cartilage (gristle) and a lubricating liquid call synovial fluid.

Sensitivity and Co-ordination

Sensitivity is the ability to respond to a stimulus, e.g. light. The five main sense organs the skin, nose, ears, eyes and tongue. Co-ordination is controlled by the nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves (which are bundles of nerve cells called neurons).

nerve impulses

axon

cell bodydendritesmuscles fibres

motor end plates

NeuronSensory neurons carry impulses to the brain and spinal cord. Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain and spinal cord. The endocrine system is made up of a number of glands which produce hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers and are carried in the bloodstream from the gland to where they are needed e.g. insulin is produced in the pancreas and is needed to control the level of sugars in the blood. A person who cannot produce insulin has the disease diabetes.

Eye parts and their functionaqueous humour watery filling in front of eye

Vitreous humour

jelly like filling of the eye

Yellow spot area of sharpest vision.

Optic nerve carries messages to the brain

Blind spot area where optic nerve leaves the eye.

cornea transparent protection for eye

pupil hole through which light gets to the lens

lens focuses light on the retina

iris coloured part of eye. It controls the size of the pupil

retina the image is focused.. This is the light sensitive area.

20

vitreous humour

optic nerve

sclera

retina

choroidaqueous humour

cilliary muscle

iris

suspensoryligaments

blind spot

lens

muscle to movethe eye

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn

Human Reproduction and Genetics

Sexual reproduction involves the meeting of sex cells (gametes), the male sex cell (sperm) and the female sex cell (egg). Sperm are made in the testes and eggs are made in the ovary. The fusion (joining) of an egg and sperm is known as fertilisation. Fertilisation usually occurs in the Fallopian tube . If an egg is not fertilised the lining of the womb breaks down and is shed during menstruation. If an egg is fertilised a women becomes pregnant and a baby begins to develop. This takes about 40 weeks. The fertile period is the time in a woman's menstrual cycle when fertilisation can occur. The placenta is the link between the mother's bloodstream and that of the developing baby. Implantation is when the embryo attaches itself to the wall of the womb. Ovulation is when an egg is released from an ovary

Genetics is the study of inheritance. Organisms have many characteristics; certain characteristics are inherited, e.g. eye colour, others, due to the environment, are not inherited, e.g. ability to ride a bicycle. Chromosomes are thread-like structures, found in the nucleus of a cell. Humans have 46 chomosomes in every body cell except sperm or egg cells which have 23 chormosomes. When the egg and the sperm join together during fertilisation giving 46 chormosomes in the fertilised egg which develops into a baby. Genes are chemicals, found on chromosomes, which pass on information. They are responsible for making proteins. A dominant characteristic is who which occurs most, e.g. dark hair or freckles and a recessive characteristic is one which occurs least, e.g. blond hair or no freckles.

Plant Biology Flowering plants consist of four main parts: (a) Root for anchorage, absorption of water and minerals and food storage, (b) Stem for transport of food, water and minerals, and support of flowers and leaves, (c) Leaf for photosynthesis, water loss and exchange of gases, (d) Flower for reproduction. Plants can be identified by their flowers and leaves.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their own food. Photosynthesis is carried out in all green parts of a plant; e.g. leaves and stems. The factors necessary for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water, light and chlorophyll. Carbon dioxide enters the plant through the leaf. Water is absorbed from

the soil through the roots. The energy comes from sunlight. Chlorophyll is the green colour found in the chloroplasts of the leaf. The word equation for photosynthesis is carbon dioxide + water + light + chlorophyll ® glucose + oxygen. The chemical equation (honours only) forphotosynthesis is: C02 + H20 + Light + Chlorophyll ® C6H1206 + O2 Note: this equation is the reverse of respiration. Plants need certain minerals for healthy growth. These minerals are absorbed by the plant roots from the soil. They include nitrate for proteins, phosphate for cell membranes and potassium ions for hardiness of the plant. Exp. To test a leaf for starch1. Set up a water bath i.e. a beaker of water over a bunsen burner.2. Place a green leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds to soften and kill it.

3. Put the leaf in alcohol in a test tube and place the tube in a water bath

21

Nutrition

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn4. The alcohol removes all the chlorophyll.

5. Remove the creamy white leaf and cover it with iodine solution.

6. If the leaf turns blue/black then starch is present, therefore photosynthesis has taken place.

The glucose made in photosynthesis is used to get energy in respiration, stored as starch food reserves or converted into proteins with nitrates from the soil.

Plants take in water through their roots. Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the plant. Transpiration is needed to get water for photosynthesis, get mineral salts and cool the plant down. Transpiration occurs through the stomata. The transpiration stream causes water and mineral salts to be

drawn up the plant from the roots to the leaves. Factors which affect the rate of transpiration are (i) light intensity; (ii) humidity, (iii) air movement (iv) available soil water; (v) the presence of a cuticle. Water and minerals are carried in the xylem. Food is carried in the phloem.

Exp. To show water absorption of plant roots1. Place the roots of a seedling in a test tube of water and cover the water surface with oil. A2. Fill a test tube with the same amount of water and cover the surface with oil. (control). B

3. Mark the water level in both .

4. Leave for 5-6 days.

5. The water level goes down in A but remains the same in B.

6. The roots absorb water for the plant

Exp. To show the pathway of water movement in a plant.1. Place the roots of a seedling in red ink solution.2. Leave for several days.

3. The red dye can be seen in the veins of the leaves and stem.

4. Examine a T.S. of the stem under a microscope.

5. The red dye is found in certain cells only.

6. Water travels through the xylem.

Exp. To show a pot plant transpires.1. Cover a well watered pot plant with a plastic bag and seal at the base of the stem.2. Leave the plant in warm light for several hours.

3. A lot of liquid condenses on the inside of the bag.

4. The liquid turns cobalt chloride paper blue thus proving water was given out.

Sensitivity is the ability to respond to a stimulus. A tropism is a response of plant to a stimulus. Phototropism is the growth response of a plant to light. Shoots grow towards

light whilst roots grow away from light. Geotropism is the growth response of a plant to gravity. Roots grow down in response to gravity whilst shoots grow away from gravity.

Exp. To demonstrate phototropism in plants.

1. Fill 3 petri dishes with wet cotton wool and cress seeds.

22

Transport

Responsiveness in plants

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn2. Place one completely in the dark. A

3. Place one in a box exposed to light from above. B

4. Place the third in a box with a window on one side. C

5. Leave for a week. In A the seedlings are yellow and straggly growth.

6. In B the seedling grow straight upwards.

7. In C the seedlings grow towards the window (light).

8. This shows plant shoots grow towards light.

Exp. To show geotropism in plants.

1. Set up as show in the diagram. 2. Soak the filter paper with water

3. Leave in a dark place for one week.

4. No matter what position the seeds were in the roots grew downwards and the shoots grew upwards,

Reproduction in Plants

Reproduction is the ability to produce new individual. Sexual reproduction in plants involves the joining of the male pollen with the female egg to form a zygote, This is called fertilisation .

Parts of the flowerPart Function

Stamen (male part) Anther/filament produce pollen

Carpel (female part) stigma/style/ ovary produce egg.

Sepal protect young flower

Petal attract insects

Nectary produce nectar

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the stamen of one flower to the stigma of another flower. The fertilised egg becomes a seed and the ovary becomes a fruit e.g. the pips in a apple are seed and the apple is the fruit. Seeds are dispersed in four ways: (a) wind e.g. dandelion, (b) animal, e.g. raspberry, (c) self e.g. peas and (d) water e.g. water lily. Germination is the growth of a seed into a new plant.Flower Part Wind pollinated Insect pollinated

23

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an AircinnPetals green or absent brightly coloured

Stamens hang outside the flower inside the flower

Stigma Feathery, long, hang outside Small

Nectaries No nectar or scent produce nectar and scent

Exp. To investigate the conditions necessary for germination1. Set up four test tubes2. In A put moist cotton wool and seeds

3. In B put dry cotton wool, seeds and anhydrous calcium chloride.

4. In C put seeds, cold boiled water and oil on top.

5. In D put moist cotton wool and seeds, place in the fridge.

6. Leave the remaining test tubes for a week in a warm place.

results

A: seed germinate, moisture warmth and oxygen

B: no germination, no moisture

C: no germination, no oxygen

D: no germination, too cold

The conditions necessary for germination are: (a) moisture, (b) oxygen and (c) a suitable temperature.Stages of GerminationWhen a seed begins to germinate the testa splits and the radicle emerges, then the plumule emerges, then the plumule straightens and root hairs begin to develop and finally leaves emerge and the seed withers away.

Ecology

The environment is the surroundings of a plant or animal. A study of the interrelationships between plants and animals in their environment is called Ecology. The habitat of an organism is the place where it lives. A feeding relationship between organisms is called a food chain e.g. oak leaf ® caterpillar ® robin. Green plants are the producers as they make their own food. Consumers cannot make their own food and must eat plants or animals to survive. The types of consumers are herbivores, which eat plants only e.g. rabbit, carnivores, which eat other animals only e.g. fox, and decomposers, which eat dead animal and plant matter e.g. dung beetle. The position an organism occupies in a food chain is known as its trophic level. Two or more interconnecting food chains make a food web. Competition is the way in which plants and animals compete with each other for resources in their habitat e.g. plants compete for food, moisture and space, animals compete for food, shelter, territory and mates.

Conservation is the wise use of the environment. Humans are endangering the environment in many ways, e.g. over fishing, drainage of wetland habitats, litter, overuse of fertilisers, sewage, chemical sprays, and not recycling everything we use. Pollution means contaminating the environment so as to upset the balance of nature. Water pollution examples are, sewage and slurry, excess fertiliser going into lakes and rivers, oil. Air pollution is caused by smoke, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.

1. Make a map of the habitat.2. Record the environmental factors affecting the habitat

24

Studying Habitats

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn3. Make a list of all the types of plant and animal present.

4. Estimate the numbers of plants and animals

5. Analyse the information collected, charts, diagrams etc.

+ Soil factors, pH, mineral, humus and moisture content.+ Weather factors, light intensity, rainfall, temperature, wind and humidity.+ Physical factors, topography, aspect and altitude.+ Biotic factors, competition between organisms.

+ Wildflower guides can be used to identify plants. Plants are easily collected as they do not move.

+ For animals look under stones, on walls, take water from streams and pools. Plankton nets , butterfly nets, and sweep nets for insects.

+ Beating tray for collecting small animals and insects living in trees.+ A pooter for small animals and insects.+ Pitfall traps for small animals that walk over the ground, cryptozoic traps for nocturnal animals e.g. woodlice

and mammal traps for small mammals such as mice. + Tullgren funnel for extracting small organisms from the soil.

Quadrat Method:Transect Method:

Micro-Organisms

Microbiology is the study of very small organisms e.g. viruses bacteria and fungi. Viruses cause many diseases such as measles and the common cold. Bacteria are found practically everywhere and can be grown in the laboratory on a suitable food source e.g. nutrient agar. They are on our skin, inside us and in the air around us. Removal of all life from something is called Sterilisation. Heat is one of the best methods of sterilisation. Some bacteria are useful, e.g. in the food industry, antibiotics, silage, nitrogen fixation. Others are harmful causing illness, e.g. sore throats, food spoilage, tooth decay and crop diseases. Some fungi are useful to humans. e.g. In the brewing and baking industries, antibiotics and as a food source. Other fungi cause disease, e.g. ringworm; athlete's foot, plant diseases e.g. Dutch elm, poisonous to eat and cause food spoilage. Antibiotics are chemicals produced by micro-organisms which can kill bacteria fungi (not viruses). A vaccine is a small dose of a harmful microbe, which when placed in the body helps prevent disease.

Exp. To show the presence of bacteria.1. Get two sterile agar plates A and B.2. Expose A to the air for 10 minutes

3. Leave dish B untouched as a control

4. Incubate upside down at 25oC for 48 hrs.

5. Examine the plates for bacteria and fungi.

6. The bacteria colonies appear like spots of paint the fungi like fuzzy hairy patches.

25

Environmental factors affecting a

Methods of identifying and collecting plants and

Estimating plant

] The quadrat is thrown at random and all the plants in it are identified and listed.

] This is repeated 10 times and each plant which occurs is recorded.

] The number of times a plant occurs is multiplied by 5 to give the frequency of the plant as percentage.

] The results are charted on a bar chart.] If a plant was found 12 time then its frequency is

60%

] A line transect is a rope with knots every 0.5 m say which is laid across a habitat from a shaded area to an exposed area, always across a changing area.

] The plant at each knot (station) is identified and its height and name are recorded This gives us information on how the vegetation changes from one part of a habitat to another.

Eolaíocht J.C.E. D.Mac an Aircinn

26