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ENVIRONMENTALSTUDIES

(CONCEPTS, IMPACTS, MITIGATION, AND MANAGEMENT)

Vice-Chairman Formerly General ManagerAll India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) THDC India Limited

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Price : Rs. 350.00

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIESProf. M.P. Poonia, S.C. Sharma

Copyright © Khanna Book Publishing Co. (P) Ltd.This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise,be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consentin any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without asimilar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaserand without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publicationmay be reproduced, stored in or introduced into retrieval system, or transmitted anyform or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise),without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above mentionedpublisher of this book.

ISBN : 978-93-86173-09-6

Edition: 2017

Published by:

Printed in India by:India Book Printers & Binders, Delhi

KHANNA BOOK PUBLISHING CO. (P) LTD.4C/4344, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002Phone: 011-23244447/48 Mobile: 91-9910909320E-Mail: contact@khannabooks.com

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PART 1 : GENERAL

CHAPTER – 1 : AN INTRODUCTION (MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES) 1–131.1 Environment 11.2 Classification of Environmental Factors 21.3 Nature 41.4 Environment and Resources 51.5 Environment and Society 51.6 Environment and Man 51.7 Environmental Studies 7

1.7.1 Importance 71.7.2 Scope 8

1.8 Need for Public Awareness 91.9 Environmental Education 1 0

1.10 Environmental Problems 1 2Questions 1 3

CHAPTER – 2 : THE EARTH AND THE BIOSPHERE (EARTH SCIENCES) 14–452.1 Introduction 1 42.2 Origin of the Earth 1 42.3 Characteristics of our Solar System 1 52.4 Earth’s Shape 1 62.5 Tilt of the Earth’s Axis 1 72.6 Earth’s Movements 1 72.7 Latitudes and Longitudes 1 82.8 Components of Environment 1 92.9 Lithosphere 2 0

2.10 The Interior of the Earth 2 12.11 Continents 2 22.12 Rocks 2 32.13 Minerals of the Earth’s Crust 2 52.14 Mountain Formation 2 62.15 Surface Features (Geographical Zones) of India 2 7

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2.16 The Hydrosphere 3 02.17 Glaciers 3 42.18 Erosion 3 52.19 Desert 3 92.20 The Atmosphere 3 92.21 Biosphere 4 2

Questions 4 4

PART 2 : ECOLOGY, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

CHAPTER – 3 : ECOLOGY 46–683.1 Introduction 4 6

3.1.1 Scope 4 73.1.2 Some other Terms related to Ecology 4 7

3.2 Basic Concepts and Principles of Ecology 4 83.3 Ecological Succession 5 03.4 Population Ecology 5 1

3.4.1 Population Characteristics 5 23.4.2 Population Dynamics 5 33.4.3 Regulation of Population 5 3

3.5 Community Ecology 5 43.6 Inter-relationship (Ecological Relationships) 5 53.7 Human Ecology 5 83.8 Human Settlements 5 93.9 Origin and Evolution of Life (Animal) 6 1

3.10 Evolution of Plants and Speciation 6 4Questions 6 7

CHAPTER – 4 : ECOSYSTEMS 69–914.1 Concept 6 94.2 Properties of Ecosystems 7 04.3 Functions of Ecosystems 7 04.4 Structure of Ecosystem 7 14.5 Food Chains 7 44.6 Food Web 7 54.7 Flow of Energy 7 64.8 Biogeochemical Cycles 7 84.9 Ecological Pyramids 7 8

4.10 Types of Ecosystems 8 14.11 Terrestrial (or land) Ecosystems 8 1

4.11.1 Forest Ecosystems 8 24.11.2 Grassland Ecosystems 8 34.11.3 Desert Ecosystems 8 3

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4.12 Aquatic Ecosystems 8 44.12.1 Fresh Water Ecosystems 8 54.12.2 Marine Ecosystems 8 64.12.3 Estuarine Ecosystems 8 7

4.13 Man-made or Artificial Ecosystems 8 84.14 Degradation of Ecosystems 8 9

Questions 9 0

CHAPTER – 5 : BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 92–1105.1 Introduction 9 25.2 Levels of Biodiversity 9 25.3 Biogeographical Classification of India 9 35.4 Importance and Values of Biodiversity 9 75.5 India as a Mega-diversity Nation 9 95.6 Global Biodiversity 1005.7 Indian Biodiversity 1005.8 Hotspots of Biodiversity 1015.9 Threats to Biodiversity 102

5.10 Factors Causing Loss of Biodiversity 1035.11 Endangered and Endimic Species 1055.12 Conservation of Biodiversity 106

5.12.1 In-situ Conservation 1065.12.2 Ex-situ Conservation 1085.12.3 Laws to Protect Biodiversity 109Questions 109

PART 3 : NATURAL RESOURCES

CHAPTER – 6 : NATURAL RESOURCES 111–1216.1 Introduction 1116.2 Classification of Resources 1126.3 Conservation of Resources 1156.4 Environmental Degradation 1166.5 Equitable use of Resources for Sustainable Lifestyles 1196.6 Role of Individual in the Conservation of Natural Resources 120

Questions 121

CHAPTER – 7 : FOREST RESOURCES 122–1357.1 Introduction 1227.2 Uses of Forest 1237.3 Over-Exploitation 1247.4 Deforestation and Afforestation 1257.5 National Forest Policy, 1988 127

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7.6 Effects of Mining on Forests 1277.7 Effects of DAM on Forests 1297.8 Conservation of Forests 1297.9 Production/Commercial Forestry 131

7.10 Forestry and Silviculture 1317.11 Forest Management 133

Questions 135

CHAPTER – 8 : WATER RESOURCES 136–1528.1 Introduction 1368.2 Water Resources 137

8.2.1 Surface Water 1378.2.2 Under-ground Water 138

8.3 Status of India’s Water Resources 1388.4 Status of World’s Water Resources 1398.5 Use of Water Resources 1408.6 Over-Utilization of Water 1418.7 Conservation of Water 1438.8 Floods and Flood Control Measure 1448.9 Droughts 147

8.10 Conflicts Over Water 1498.11 Dams—Benefits and Problems 150

Questions 151

CHAPTER – 9 : MINERAL RESOURCES 153–1619.1 Introduction 1539.2 Types of Minerals 1549.3 Availability of Minerals 1559.4 Use and Exploitation of Mineral Resources 1589.5 Environmental Effects of Extracting and Using 1599.6 Major Environmental Impacts of Mining 1599.7 Conservation of Mineral Resources 160

Questions 161

CHAPTER – 10 : LAND (SOIL) RESOURCES 162–17210.1 Introduction 16210.2 Soil Resources 16310.3 Soil Classification 16410.4 Land Degradation 16510.5 Land Slides 16510.6 Soil Erosion 16610.7 Desertification 16910.8 Land Pollution 17010.9 Other Soil Degradation Factors 170

10.10 Soil Conservation 171Questions 172

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CHAPTER – 11 : ENERGY RESOURCES 173–19311.1 Introduction 17311.2 Classification of Sources of Energy 173

11.2.1 Primary and Secondary Sources 17311.2.2 Commercial and Non-commercial Sources 17511.2.3 Major and Minor Sources of Energy 17511.2.4 Renewable and Non-renewable Sources of Energy 17511.2.5 Classification According to use of Fuel 17611.2.6 Chemical Fuels and Nuclear Fuels 176

11.3 Fuels 17611.4 Coal 17611.5 Liquid Fuels 17811.6 Gaseous Fuels 17911.7 Nuclear Energy 180

11.7.1 Advantages of Nuclear Energy 18111.7.2 Limitations 182

11.8 Hydro Power 18311.8.1 Advantages of Hydro-power 18411.8.2 Disadvantages of Hydropower 185

11.9 Biomass Energy 18611.10 Non-Conventional Energy Sources 18711.11 Solar Energy 18711.12 Wind Energy 18911.13 Ocean Energy 19011.14 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) 19011.15 Tidal Energy 19111.16 Geothermal Energy 192

Questions 193

CHAPTER – 12 : FOOD RESOURCES 194–20012.1 Introduction 19412.2 Evolution of Food Production 19512.3 Types of Food Products 19512.4 World Food Problems 19612.5 Green Revolution Crops 19612.6 Agriculture Resources 19712.7 Animal Resources 19712.8 Impacts of Agriculture 198

Questions 200

PART 4 : ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

CHAPTER – 13 : ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (HAZARDS) AND CONTROL 201–22013.1 Introduction 20113.2 Environmental Pollution (Degradation) 202

13.2.1 Environmental Pollution and Health 204

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13.3 Air Pollution 20413.3.1 Sources of Air Pollution 20513.3.2 Effects of Air Pollution 20713.3.3 Preventing Air Pollution 20813.3.4 Control of Air Pollution 20913.3.5 Ambient Air Quality Standards 210

13.4 Water Pollution 21013.4.1 Sources of Water Pollution 21113.4.2 Effects of Water Pollution 21213.4.3 Control of Water Pollution 21313.4.4 BIS (ISI) Water Quality Standards 213

13.5 Noise Pollution 21413.6 Soil Pollution 21613.7 Marine Pollution 21713.8 Thermal Pollution 21813.9 Role of Individual in Pollution Prevention 219

Questions 220

CHAPTER – 14 : WASTE MANAGEMENT 221–22814.1 Introduction 22114.2 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) or Refuse 22214.3 Waste Management Techniques 22314.4 Industrial Solid Waste 22514.5 Legislation on solid Waste Management 226

Questions 228

CHAPTER – 15 : DISASTER MANAGEMENT 229–25915.1 Introduction 22915.2 Objectives 23015.3 Organisational Set-up for Managing/Handling Disasters 231

15.3.1 Disaster Management at National Level 23115.3.2 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) 232

15.4 Elements of Disaster Management 23215.5 Disaster Preparedness 233

15.5.1 Pre-disaster Preparedness 23415.5.2 Disaster Preparedness 23415.5.3 Pre-disaster Actions 23515.5.4 Mapping 23515.5.5 Disaster Zoning 236

15.6 Mitigation and Prevention 23715.7 Response 23815.8 Earthquakes 240

15.8.1 Mitigation Strategies 24115.8.2 Structural Damage 24215.8.3 Action Plan 24215.8.4 Role of Incidence Response Team 243

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15.9 Flood 24415.9.1 Risk Assessment 24515.9.2 Preparedness and Prevention 24515.9.3 Flood Mitigation 24615.9.4 Pre-Flood Measures 24915.9.5 Measures During Flood 25015.9.6 Post Flood Measures 25115.9.7 Training and Mock Drills 25115.9.8 Combating the Flood Disasters 252

15.10 Cyclones 25315.10.1 Impacts of Cyclones 25415.10.2 Mitigation Measures 25415.10.3 Mitigation Strategies 255

15.11 Tsunami 25515.11.1 Tsunami due to Landslides, Volcanic Eruptions and Explosions 25615.11.2 Mitigation Measures for Tsunami 25615.11.3 Tsunami Warning System (TWS) 257

15.12 Landslides 257Questions

PART 5 : ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER – 16 : SOCIAL ISSUES 260–27116.1 Introduction 26016.2 Unsustainable to Sustainable Development 26016.3 Water Conservation 26116.4 Rainwater Harvesting 26216.5 Watershed Management 26316.6 Urban Problems Related to Energy 26416.7 Consumerism and Waste Products 26516.8 Environmental Ethics 265

16.8.1 Need for Equitable Utilisation 26616.8.2 Need for Gender Equity 26616.8.3 Preserving Resources for Future Generations 26616.8.4 The Rights of Animals 26716.8.5 Environal Education and Awareness about Ethics 26716.8.6 Traditional Value System and Conservation Ethics 26716.8.7 Environmental Ethics 268

16.9 Sustainable Development 268Questions 271

CHAPTER – 17 : ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES 272–28017.1 Introduction 27217.2 Climate Change 273

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17.3 Global Warming 27317.4 Green House Effect 27417.5 Ozone Layer Depletion 27517.6 Acid Rain 27717.7 EL Nino 27817.8 Waste Land and Its Reclamation 279

Questions 280

CHAPTER – 18 : HUMAN POLLUTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 281–293

18.1 Population Growth and Population Explosion 28118.2 Population Growth and Environment 28218.3 Family Welfare Programme 28318.4 Woman and Child Welfare 28418.5 HIV/AIDS 285

18.5.1 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about HIV/AIDS 28618.5.2 Common Misperceptions about HIV Transmission 287

18.6 Environment and Health 28818.7 Human Rights 29018.8 Value Education 291

Questions 292

CHAPTER – 19 : RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION (R&R) 294–32219.1 Introduction 294

19.1.1 Avoiding or Minimising Resettlement 29519.1.2 Development-Oriented Approach to Resettlement 295

19.2 Social Impact Assessment (SIA) 29619.3 Approach and Methodology for SIA Study 29819.4 Land Acquisition and its Impacts 29919.5 Impact on Vulnerable Groups 30119.6 Stakeholders’ Participation and Consultation 30119.7 Socio-Economic Issues 30319.8 Preparation and Appraisal of Resettlement Plan 30519.9 Mitigation Measures 307

19.9.1 R&R Policy of the Project 30819.9.2 R&R Programme 309

19.10 Rehabilitation Action Plan (RAP) 31019.11 Legal Framework 311

19.11.1 Environment Related Acts 31119.11.2 Legal Process of Land Acquisition 31219.11.3 World Bank’s Resettlement Policy 31319.11.4 National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy (NRRP)-2007 314

19.12 Institutional Arrangements 31919.13 Training and Capacity Building 32019.14. Grievance Redressal Mechanism 321

Questions 321

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PART 6 : ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

CHAPTER – 20 : ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 323–336

20.1 Introduction 32320.2 International Efforts (Conventions/Summits) on Environment Protection 32420.3 Government Efforts on Environmental Protection 32520.4 Environmental Organisations/Institutions 327

20.4.1 International Organisations. 32720.4.2 National Organisations 327

20.5 Public Awareness 32820.6 Environmental Education and Training 32920.7 Green Buildings (Sustainable Buildings) 33120.8 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 33420.9 Carbon Credits 335

Questions 335

CHAPTER – 21 : ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION 337–34621.1 Environmental Legal Framework 33721.2 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 33821.3 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 34021.4 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 34121.5 The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 34321.6 Forest Conservation Act, 1980 344

Questions 345

PART 7 : ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER – 22 : ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) 347–36422.1 Introduction 34722.2 Considerations for EIA 34822.3 Environmental Clearance 35022.4 MoEF Notification Dated September 14, 2006 35222.5 Baseline Data 35622.6 EIA Methodology 356

22.6.1 Steps Involved in EIA Study 35622.6.2 Principal Review Areas in EIA Study 35622.6.3 Impact Identification and Assessment Method 358

22.7 Forest Clearance 35822.8 Stake-Holders in EIA Process 35922.9 Terms of References (TORs) for EIA 361

22.10 EIA Studies for other Projects 362

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22.10.1 Highways/Road Development Projects 36222.10.2 Airport Development 36422.10.3 Port Development 364Questions 364

CHAPTER – 23 : ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP) 365–386

23.1 Introduction to Environmental Management 36523.2 Introduction To Environmental Management Plan (EMP) 36623.3 Issues Covered in EMP 368

23.3.1 Impact and Mitigation Measures on Flora and Fauna(Biodiversity Management) 368

23.3.2 Water Quality Issues 36923.3.3 Construction Related Issues 37023.3.4 Catchment Area Treatment (CAT) and Other Environmental

Enhancements 37123.3.5 Land Acquisition and Social Environment 37123.3.6 Muck Disposal Management Plan 37223.3.7 Green Belt Development Plan 37223.3.8 Quarry and Borrow Area Management 37223.3.9 Mitigation Measures for Approach Road Construction 37323.3.10 Public Health Delivery System 37423.3.11 Landscaping and Revegetation 374

23.4 Environmental Management System (EMS)—ISO:14000 37523.5 Institutional and Implementation Arrangement 376

23.5.1 Activities within the Project Area 37623.5.2 Activities in the Project Influence Area 379

23.6 Mitigating Measures 37923.6.1 Preventing Air Pollution 37923.6.2 Preventing Noise Pollution 38023.6.3 Preventing Water Pollution 38023.6.4 Preventing Impact on Aquatic Ecology 38123.6.5 Mitigation Measures from Impacts of Construction Camp 38123.6.6 Preventing Impacts on Health 38123.6.7 Mitigation Measures for Impact on Biodiversity 38223.6.8 Use of Fly Ash 383

23.7 Environmental Monitoring 38423.8 Environmental Auditing 385

Questions 386Index 387

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