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Environmental & Natural Resource

Economics9th Edition

Tom TietenbergEmeritus, Colby College

Lynne LewisBates College

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Copyright © 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication isprotected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to anyprohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or byany means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtainpermission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to PearsonEducation, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River,New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataTietenberg, Thomas H.

Environmental & natural resource economics / Tom Tietenberg, Lynne Lewis. — 9th ed.p. cm.

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-139257-1 (alk. paper)ISBN-10: 0-13-139257-3 (alk. paper)1. Environmental economics. 2. Environmental policy. 3. Natural resources—Government policy. 4. Raw materials—Government policy. I. Lewis, Lynne.II. Title. III. Title: Environmental and natural resource economics.HC79.E5T525 2011333.7—dc23

2011017669

ISBN-10: 0-13-139257-3ISBN-13: 987-0-13-139257-1

v

Contents in BriefPreface xxi

1 Visions of the Future 12 The Economic Approach: Property Rights, Externalities,

and Environmental Problems 163 Evaluating Trade-Offs: Benefit–Cost Analysis and Other

Decision-Making Metrics 464 Valuing the Environment: Methods 745 Dynamic Efficiency and Sustainable Development 1026 Depletable Resource Allocation: The Role of Longer Time

Horizons, Substitutes, and Extraction Cost 1187 Energy: The Transition from Depletable to Renewable Resources 1408 Recyclable Resources: Minerals, Paper, Bottles, and E-Waste 1809 Replenishable but Depletable Resources: Water 204

10 A Locationally Fixed, Multipurpose Resource: Land 23711 Reproducible Private Property Resources: Agriculture

and Food Security 26212 Storable, Renewable Resources: Forests 29313 Common-Pool Resources: Fisheries and Other Commercially

Valuable Species 32014 Economics of Pollution Control: An Overview 35915 Stationary-Source Local and Regional Air Pollution 39716 Climate Change 42417 Mobile-Source Air Pollution 44218 Water Pollution 47119 Toxic Substances and Environmental Justice 50820 The Quest for Sustainable Development 53821 Population and Development 56422 Visions of the Future Revisited 589

Answers to Self-Test Exercises 600Glossary 623Name Index 635Subject Index 642

vi

Contents

Preface xxi

1 Visions of the Future 1Introduction 1

The Self-Extinction Premise 1EXAMPLE 1.1 Historical Examples of Societal Self-Extinction 2

Future Environmental Challenges 3Climate Change 3Water Accessibility 4

Meeting the Challenges 5How Will Societies Respond? 6The Role of Economics 6

DEBATE 1.1 Ecological Economics versus Environmental Economics 7The Use of Models 8

EXAMPLE 1.2 Experimental Economics: Studying Human Behavior in a Laboratory 9

The Road Ahead 9The Issues 10DEBATE 1.2 What Does the Future Hold? 11An Overview of the Book 11

Summary 13 ● Discussion Questions 14 ● Self-Test Exercise 14● Further Reading 14

2 The Economic Approach: Property Rights, Externalities, and Environmental Problems 16Introduction 16The Human–Environment Relationship 17

The Environment as an Asset 17The Economic Approach 19EXAMPLE 2.1 Economic Impacts of Reducing Hazardous Pollutant

Emissions from Iron and Steel Foundries 20

Environmental Problems and Economic Efficiency 20Static Efficiency 20

Property Rights 22Property Rights and Efficient Market Allocations 22Efficient Property Rights Structures 23Producer’s Surplus, Scarcity Rent, and Long-Run Competitive

Equilibrium 24Externalities as a Source of Market Failure 25

The Concept Introduced 25Types of Externalities 26EXAMPLE 2.2 Shrimp Farming Externalities in Thailand 27

Improperly Designed Property Rights Systems 28Other Property Rights Regimes 28

Public Goods 31Imperfect Market Structures 33

EXAMPLE 2.3 Public Goods Privately Provided: The Nature Conservancy 34Government Failure 35

DEBATE 2.1 How Should OPEC Price Its Oil? 36The Pursuit of Efficiency 38

Private Resolution through Negotiation 38The Courts: Property Rules and Liability Rules 39Legislative and Executive Regulation 41

An Efficient Role for Government 42Summary 43 ● Discussion Questions 43 ● Self-Test Exercises 44

● Further Reading 45

3 Evaluating Trade-Offs: Benefit–Cost Analysisand Other Decision-Making Metrics 46

Introduction 46Normative Criteria for Decision Making 46

Evaluating Predefined Options: Benefit–Cost Analysis 46EXAMPLE 3.1 Valuing Ecological Services from Preserved Tropical Forests 48Finding the Optimal Outcome 48Relating Optimality to Efficiency 50Comparing Benefits and Costs Across Time 52Dynamic Efficiency 53

Applying the Concepts 54Pollution Control 54EXAMPLE 3.2 Does Reducing Pollution Make Economic Sense?

Evidence from the Clean Air Act 54Preservation versus Development 56EXAMPLE 3.3 Choosing between Preservation and Development in Australia 57Issues in Benefit Estimation 57

viiContents

Approaches to Cost Estimation 58The Treatment of Risk 59Distribution of Benefits and Costs 61Choosing the Discount Rate 62EXAMPLE 3.4 The Importance of the Discount Rate 63

Divergence of Social and Private Discount Rates 64A Critical Appraisal 65

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 66EXAMPLE 3.5 NO2 Control in Chicago: An Example of

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 68Impact Analysis 68Summary 69 ● Discussion Questions 70 ● Self-Test Exercises 71

● Further Reading 71Appendix: The Simple Mathematics of Dynamic Efficiency 73

4 Valuing the Environment: Methods 74Introduction 74Why Value the Environment? 75

DEBATE 4.1 Should Humans Place an Economic Value on the Environment? 76

Valuing Environmental Services: Pollination as an Example 76EXAMPLE 4.1 Valuing Ecosystem Services: Pollination,

Food Security, and the Collapse of Honeybee Colonies 77Valuation 78

Types of Values 79EXAMPLE 4.2 Historical Example: Valuing the Northern Spotted Owl 81Classifying Valuation Methods 82Stated Preference Methods 83DEBATE 4.1 Willingness to Pay versus Willingness to Accept: Why So

Different? 86EXAMPLE 4.3 Leave No Behavioral Trace: Using the Contingent Valuation

Method to Measure Passive-Use Values 89Revealed Preference Methods 90Travel Cost Method 90Hedonic Property Value and Hedonic Wage Methods 91Averting Expenditures 92Using Geographic Information Systems for

Economic Valuation 92EXAMPLE 4.4 Valuing Damage from Groundwater Contamination Using

Averting Expenditures 92EXAMPLE 4.5 Using GIS to Inform Hedonic Property Values:

Visualizing the Data 94DEBATE 4.2 Is Valuing Human Life Immoral? 95

Summary: Nonmarket Valuation Today 98 ● Discussion Questions 99● Self-Test Exercises 99 ● Further Reading 100

viii Contents

5 Dynamic Efficiency and Sustainable Development 102Introduction 102A Two-Period Model 103Defining Intertemporal Fairness 107Are Efficient Allocations Fair? 108

EXAMPLE 5.1 The Alaska Permanent Fund 110Applying the Sustainability Criterion 110

EXAMPLE 5.2 Nauru: Weak Sustainability in the Extreme 112Implications for Environmental Policy 113Summary 114 ● Discussion Question 115 ● Self-Test Exercises 115

● Further Reading 116Appendix: The Mathematics of the Two-Period Model 117

6 Depletable Resource Allocation: The Role of Longer Time Horizons, Substitutes, and Extraction Cost 118Introduction 118A Resource Taxonomy 119Efficient Intertemporal Allocations 123

The Two-Period Model Revisited 123The N-Period Constant-Cost Case 124Transition to a Renewable Substitute 125Increasing Marginal Extraction Cost 127Exploration and Technological Progress 129EXAMPLE 6.1 Historical Example of Technological Progress in the Iron

Ore Industry 130Market Allocations of Depletable Resources 131

Appropriate Property Rights Structures 131Environmental Costs 132

Summary 134 ● Discussion Question 135 ● Self-Test Exercises 135● Further Reading 136

Appendix: Extensions of the Constant Extraction cost Depletable Resource Model: Longer Time Horizons and the Role of an Abundant Substitute 137

7 Energy: The Transition from Depletable to RenewableResources 140Introduction 140

EXAMPLE 7.1 Hubbert’s Peak 141Natural Gas: Price Controls 142Oil: The Cartel Problem 146

Price Elasticity of Oil Demand 147

ixContents

Income Elasticity of Oil Demand 148Non-OPEC Suppliers 148Compatibility of Member Interests 149

Fossil Fuels: Climate Considerations and National Security 151The Climate Dimension 151The National Security Dimension 152DEBATE 7.1 How Should the United States Deal with the Vulnerability

of Its Imported Oil? 154EXAMPLE 7.2 Strategic Petroleum Reserve 156

The Other Depletable Sources: Unconventional Oil and Gas, Coal, and Nuclear Energy 157

Unconventional Oil and Gas Sources 157EXAMPLE 7.3 Fuel from Shale: The Bakken Formation 158Coal 159

Uranium 159Electricity 163EXAMPLE 7.4 Electricity Deregulation in California: What Happened? 166EXAMPLE 7.5 Tradable Energy Credits: The Texas Experience 167

EXAMPLE 7.6 Feed-in Tariffs 168Energy Efficiency 169

Transitioning to Renewables 170Hydroelectric Power 170Wind 171Photovoltaics 171DEBATE 7.2 Dueling Externalities: Should the United States

Promote Wind Power? 172Active and Passive Solar Energy 172Ocean Tidal Power 173Liquid Biofuels 173Geothermal Energy 174

x Contents

Hydrogen 174Summary 176 ● Discussion Questions 177 ● Self-Test Exercises 177


8 Recyclable Resources: Minerals, Paper, Bottles, and E-Waste 180Introduction 180An Efficient Allocation of Recyclable Resources 180

Extraction and Disposal Cost 180Recycling: A Closer Look 182Recycling and Ore Depletion 183

Factors Mitigating Resource Scarcity 184Exploration and Discovery 184

EXAMPLE 8.1 Lead Recycling 185Technological Progress 186Substitution 186EXAMPLE 8.2 The Bet 188

Market Imperfections 188Disposal Cost and Efficiency 189The Disposal Decision 189Disposal Costs and the Scrap Market 191Subsidies on Raw Materials 191Corrective Public Policies 192EXAMPLE 8.3 Pricing Trash in Marietta, Georgia 192DEBATE 8.1 “Bottle Bills”: Economic Incentives at Work? 194EXAMPLE 8.4 Implementing the “Take-Back” Principle 196

Markets for Recycled Materials 197E-Waste 197Pollution Damage 200Summary 201 ● Discussion Questions 202 ● Self-Test Exercises 202


9 Replenishable but Depletable Resources: Water 204Introduction 204The Potential for Water Scarcity 205The Efficient Allocation of Scarce Water 208

Surface Water 209Groundwater 211

The Current Allocation System 212Riparian and Prior Appropriation Doctrines 212Sources of Inefficiency 214DEBATE 9.1 What Is the Value of Water? 218

Potential Remedies 219Water Transfers and Water Markets 219EXAMPLE 9.1 Using Economic Principles to Conserve Water in California 220EXAMPLE 9.2 Water Transfers in Colorado: What Makes a Market

for Water Work? 221EXAMPLE 9.3 Water Market Assessment: Austrailia, Chile,

South Africa, and the United States 222Instream Flow Protection 223Water Prices 223EXAMPLE 9.4 Reserving Instream Rights for Endangered Species 224EXAMPLE 9.5 Water Pricing in Canada 229Desalination 230Summary 231DEBATE 9.2 Should Water Systems Be Privatized? 232

xiContents

GIS and Water Resources 233Summary 233 ● Discussion Questions 234 ● Problems 234


10 A Locationally Fixed, Multipurpose Resource: Land 237Introduction 237The Economics of Land Allocation 238

Land Use 238Land-Use Conversion 239

Sources of Inefficient Use and Conversion 240Sprawl and Leapfrogging 240Incompatible Land Uses 242Undervaluing Environmental Amenities 242The Influence of Taxes on Land-Use Conversion 243DEBATE 10.1 Should Landowners Be Compensated for

“Regulatory Takings”? 244Market Power 245Special Problems in Developing Countries 246DEBATE 10.2 What Is a “Public Purpose”? 247

Innovative Market-Based Policy Remedies 249Establishing Property Rights 249Transferable Development Rights 249Wetlands Banking 250EXAMPLE 10.1 Controlling Land Development with TDRs 250Conservation Banking 251EXAMPLE 10.2 Conservation Banking: The Gopher Tortoise

Conservation Bank 252Safe Harbor Agreements 252Grazing Rights 253Conservation Easements 253Land Trusts 254EXAMPLE 10.3 Using a Community Land Trust to Protect Farmland 255Development Impact Fees 256Property Tax Adjustments 256DEBATE 10.3 Does Ecotourism Provide a Pathway to Sustainability? 257EXAMPLE 10.4 Trading Water for Beehives and Barbed Wire in Bolivia 258EXAMPLE 10.5 Tax Strategies to Reduce Inefficient Land Conversion:

Maine’s Open Space Program 259

xii Contents

Summary 258 ● Discussion Questions 260 ● Self-Test Exercises 260● Further Reading 261

11 Reproducible Private Property Resources: Agriculture and Food Security 262Introduction 262Global Scarcity 263

xiiiContents

Formulating the Global Scarcity Hypothesis 264Testing the Hypotheses 266

Outlook for the Future 267EXAMPLE 11.1 Can Eco-Certification Make a difference? Organic

Costa Rican Coffee 277DEBATE 11.1 When Organic Goes Mainstream:

Do You Get What You Pay For? 278The Role of Agricultural Policies 278Summing Up: Agriculture in the Industrialized Nations 280

DEBATE 11.2 Should Genetically Modified Organisms Be Banned? 281

EXAMPLE 11.2 Are Consumers Willing to Pay a Premium for GMO-Free Foods? 282

Distribution of Food Resources 282Defining the Problem 283Domestic Production in Developing Countries 283Climate Change 286

Feast and Famine Cycles 286Summary 290 ● Discussion Questions 291 ● Self-Test Exercises 291


12 Storable, Renewable Resources: Forests 293Introduction 293Characterizing Forest Harvesting Decisions 294

Special Attributes of the Timber Resource 294The Biological Dimension 295The Economics of Forest Harvesting 296Extending the Basic Model 299

Sources of Inefficiency 301Perverse Incentives for the Landowner 301Perverse Incentives for Nations 304

Poverty and Debt 305Sustainable Forestry 306Public Policy 307

EXAMPLE 12.1 Producing Sustainable Forestry through Certification 308EXAMPLE 12.2 Conservation Easements in Action: The Blackfoot

Community Project 310Royalty Payments 311Carbon Sequestration Credits 311EXAMPLE 12.3 Does Pharmaceutical Demand Offer Sufficient

Protection to Biodiversity? 312EXAMPLE 12.4 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest

Degradation (REDD): A Twofer? 313EXAMPLE 12.5 Trust Funds for Habitat Preservation 314


Appendix: The Harvesting Decision: Forests 318

13 Common-Pool Resources: Fisheries and Other Commercially Valuable Species 320Introduction 320Efficient Allocations 321

The Biological Dimension 321Static Efficient Sustainable Yield 323Dynamic Efficient Sustainable Yield 325

Appropriability and Market Solutions 327EXAMPLE 13.1 Open-Access Harvesting of the Minke Whale 330EXAMPLE 13.2 Harbor Gangs of Maine and Other Informal Arrangements 331

Public Policy toward Fisheries 332Aquaculture 332DEBATE 13.1 Aquaculture: Does Privatization Cause More

Problems than It Solves? 335Raising the Real Cost of Fishing 336Taxes 338Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) and Catch Shares 339EXAMPLE 13.3 The Relative Effectiveness of Transferable Quotas and

Traditional Size and Effort Restrictions in the Atlantic Sea Scallop Fishery 344

Subsidies and Buybacks 345Marine-Protected Areas and Marine Reserves 345The 200-Mile Limit 347The Economics of Enforcement 347Preventing Poaching 349DEBATE 13.2 Bluefin Tuna: Is Its High Price Part of the Problem

or Part of the Solution? 350EXAMPLE 13.4 Local Approaches to Wildlife Protection: Zimbabwe 352


Appendix: The Harvesting Decision: Fisheries 356

xiv Contents

14 Economics of Pollution Control: An Overview 359Introduction 359A Pollutant Taxonomy 359Defining the Efficient Allocation of Pollution 361

Stock Pollutants 361Fund Pollutants 362

Market Allocation of Pollution 365Efficient Policy Responses 366

EXAMPLE 14.1 Environmental Taxation in China 367Cost-Effective Policies for Uniformly Mixed Fund Pollutants 368

Defining a Cost-Effective Allocation 368Cost-Effective Pollution-Control Policies 370DEBATE 14.1 Should Developing Countries Rely on Market-Based

Instruments to Control Pollution? 375Cost-Effective Policies for Nonuniformly

Mixed Surface Pollutants 376The Single-Receptor Case 376EXAMPLE 14.2 Emissions Trading in Action: The NOx Budget Program 377The Many-Receptors Case 381

Other Policy Dimensions 383The Revenue Effect 383EXAMPLE 14.3 The Swedish Nitrogen Charge 384EXAMPLE 14.4 RGGI Revenue: The Maine Example 385Responses to Changes in the Regulatory Environment 386Price Volatility 387Instrument Choice under Uncertainty 387Product Charges: An Indirect Form of Environmental Taxation 388EXAMPLE 14.5 The Irish Bag Levy 389

Summary 390 ● Discussion Question 391 ● Self-Test Exercises 392● Further Reading 393

Appendix: The Simple Mathematics of Cast-Effective Pollution Control 395

15 Stationary-Source Local and Regional Air Pollution 397Introduction 397Conventional Pollutants 397

The Command-and-Control Policy Framework 398The Efficiency of the Command-and-Control Approach 400DEBATE 15.1 Does Sound Policy Require Targeting New Sources via the

New Source Review? 401DEBATE 15.2 The Particulate and Smog Ambient Standards Controversy 402Cost-Effectiveness of the Command-and-Control Approach 404

xvContents

EXAMPLE 15.1 Controlling SO2 Emissions by Command-and-Control in Germany 406

Air Quality 407Innovative Approaches 409

Smog Trading (RECLAIM) 409Emissions Charges 410

Regional Pollutants 411Acid Rain 412EXAMPLE 15.2 Adirondack Acidification 413EXAMPLE 15.3 The Sulfur Allowance Trading Program 415EXAMPLE 15.4 Why and How Do Environmentalists Buy Pollution? 417EXAMPLE 15.5 Technology Diffusion in the Chlorine-Manufacturing Sector 420


16 Climate Change 424Introduction 424The Science of Climate Change 425Negotiations over Climate Change Policy 427

Characterizing the Broad Strategies 427DEBATE 16.1 Should Carbon Sequestration in the Terrestrial Biosphere

Be Credited? 428The Precedent: Reducing Ozone-Depleting Gases 428

EXAMPLE 16.1 Tradable Permits for Ozone-Depleting Chemicals 430The Policy Focus of the Climate Change Negotiations 431The Evolution of International Agreements on Climate Change 432EXAMPLE 16.2 The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) 433

Complementary Strategies 434Controversies 435

DEBATE 16.2 Is Global Greenhouse Gas Trading Immoral? 435Policy Timing 436Creating Incentives for Participation in Climate Change

Agreements 437Summary 438 ● Discussion Question 440 ● Self-Test Exercises 440


17 Mobile-Source Air Pollution 442Introduction 442The Economics of Mobile-Source Pollution 444

Implicit Subsidies 444Externalities 445Consequences 446

xvi Contents

Policy toward Mobile Sources 446History 446Structure of the U.S. Approach 447CAFE Standards 449DEBATE 17.1 CAFE Standards or Fuel Taxes? 451Alternative Fuels and Vehicles 452EXAMPLE 17.1 Project XL—The Quest for Effective,

Flexible Regulation 452European Approaches 453EXAMPLE 17.2 Car-Sharing: Better Use of Automotive Capital? 454

An Economic and Political Assessment 455Technology Forcing and Sanctions 456Differentiated Regulation 457Uniformity of Control 457The Deterioration of New-Car Emissions Rates 457Lead Phaseout Program 459EXAMPLE 17.3 Getting the Lead Out: The Lead Phaseout Program 460

Possible Reforms 460Fuel Taxes 460Congestion Pricing 461EXAMPLE 17.4 Zonal Mobile-Source Pollution-Control

Strategies: Singapore 463Private Toll Roads 463Parking Cash-Outs 464Feebates 464Pay-As-You-Drive (PAYD) Insurance 464Accelerated Retirement Strategies 464EXAMPLE 17.5 Modifying Car Insurance as an Environmental Strategy 465EXAMPLE 17.6 The Car Allowance Rebate System: Did it Work? 466EXAMPLE 17.7 Counterproductive Policy Design 467


18 Water Pollution 471Introduction 471Nature of Water Pollution Problems 472

Types of Waste-Receiving Water 472Sources of Contamination 472Types of Pollutants 476DEBATE 18.1 Toxics in Fish Tissue: Do Fish-Consumption

Advisories Change Behavior? 478Traditional Water Pollution Control Policy 479

Early Legislation 480Subsequent Legislation 481

xviiContents

The TMDL Program 483The Safe Drinking Water Act 483Ocean Pollution 484Citizen Suits 485

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness 485Ambient Standards and the Zero-Discharge Goal 485National Effluent Standards 486Watershed-Based Trading 490EXAMPLE 18.1 Effluent Trading for Nitrogen in Long Island Sound 492Municipal Wastewater Treatment Subsidies 493Pretreatment Standards 494Nonpoint Source Pollution 494Atmospheric Deposition of Pollution 497The European Experience 498Developing Country Experience 499EXAMPLE 18.2 Economic Incentives for Water Pollution Control:

The Case of Colombia 500Oil Spills from Tankers 500Citizen Suits 502An Overall Assessment 503


19 Toxic Substances and Environmental Justice 508Introduction 508

Nature of Toxic Substance Pollution 509Health Effects 510Policy Issues 510EXAMPLE 19.1 The Arduous Path to Managing Risk: Bisphenol A 512Market Allocations and Toxic Substances 512Occupational Hazards 513EXAMPLE 19.2 Susceptible Populations in the

Hazardous Workplace 515Product Safety 516Third Parties 517

The Incidence of Hazardous Waste Siting Decisions 518History 518Recent Research and the Emerging Role of Analysis Using GIS 519The Economics of Site Location 520EXAMPLE 19.3 Do New Polluting Facilities Affect

Housing Values and Incomes? Evidence in New England 520EXAMPLE 19.4 Which Came First—The Toxic Facility or the Minority

Neighborhood? 522The Policy Response 522

xviii Contents

Creating Incentives through Common Law 525DEBATE 19.1 Does Offering Compensation for Accepting an Environmental

Risk Always Increase the Willingness to Accept the Risk? 526Statutory Law 527The Toxic Release Inventory Program 529Proposition 65 530International Agreements 530EXAMPLE 19.5 Regulating through Mandatory Disclosure: The Case of Lead 531The Efficiency of the Statutory Law 532Performance Bonds: An Innovative Proposal 534


20 The Quest for Sustainable Development 538Introduction 538Sustainability of Development 539

Market Allocations 541Efficiency and Sustainability 542Trade and the Environment 545EXAMPLE 20.1 Has NAFTA Improved the Environment in Mexico? 548Trade Rules under GATT and the WTO 550DEBATE 20.1 Should an Importing Country Be Able to Use Trade Restrictions

to Influence Harmful Fishing Practices in an Exporting Nation? 551The Natural Resource Curse 551EXAMPLE 20.2 The “Natural Resource Curse” Hypothesis 552

The Growth–Development Relationship 552Conventional Measures 553Alternative Measures 555EXAMPLE 20.3 Happiness Economics: Does Money Buy Happiness? 560

Summary 561 ● Discussion Questions 562 ● Self-Test Exercise 563● Further Reading 563

21 Population and Development 564Introduction 564Historical Perspective 565

World Population Growth 565Population Growth in the United States 565

Effects of Population Growth on Economic Development 568The Population/Environment Connection 574

DEBATE 21.1 Does Population Growth Inevitably Degrade the Environment? 575Effects of Economic Development on Population Growth 576

xixContents

The Economic Approach to Population Control 578EXAMPLE 21.1 Achieving Fertility Declines in Low-Income Countries:

The Case of Kerala 583Urbanization 584

EXAMPLE 21.2 Income-Generating Activities as Fertility Control: Bangladesh 585Using GIS to Map Population Data 586Summary 586 ● Discussion Questions 587 ● Self-Test Exercises 587


22 Visions of the Future Revisited 589Addressing the Issues 589

Conceptualizing the Problem 589Institutional Responses 591EXAMPLE 22.1 Private Incentives for Sustainable Development:

Can Adopting Sustainable Practices Be Profitable? 592Sustainable Development 594EXAMPLE 22.2 Public–Private Partnerships: The Kalundborg Experience 596

A Concluding Comment 598

Discussion Questions 599

Answers to Self Test Exercises 600

Glossary 623

Name Index 635

Subject Index 642

xx Contents

xxi

Preface

A glance at any newspaper will confirm that environmental economics is now amajor player in environmental policy. Concepts such as cap-and-trade, renewableportfolio standards, block pricing, renewable energy credits, development impactfees, conservation easements, carbon trading, the commons, congestion pricing,corporate average fuel economy standards, pay-as-you-throw, debt-for-natureswaps, extended producer responsibility, sprawl, leapfrogging, pollution havens,strategic petroleum reserves, and sustainable development have moved from thetextbook to the legislative hearing room. As the large number of current examplesin Environmental & Natural Resource Economics demonstrates, ideas that were oncerestricted to academic discussions are now not only part of the policy mix, but theyare making a significant difference as well.

New to This EditionNew Features

● lots of new self-test exercises (numerical problems, graphical manipulations,and word problems) for students,

● updated data tables,● inclusion of recent economic studies,● climate change now has its own chapter,● the toxic substances and environmental justice chapters have now been

combined into a single chapter

New or Expanded TopicsThe ninth edition covers new topics and expands on others. These additions include the following:

● experimental economics,● oil and gas derived from shale,● nuclear program in France,● renewable energy credits,

xxii Preface

● the forward capacity market for electricity,● feed-in tariffs,● energy efficiency policies,● The UN’s REDD program,● endocrine disruptors,● the BP/Deepwater horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico,● Prestige oil tanker spill,● the Superfund National Priorities List,● disclosure strategies for controlling pollution,● geoengineering in climate control● climate change adaptation strategies,● HFC control as a climate strategy,● Bhutan’s Gross National Happiness measure,● the Stern-Nordhaus debate about discount rates in climate policy,● distributional issues is benefit–cost analysis,● benefit transfer,● the value of a statistical life,● how the age structure of the labor force affects productivity;● increasing block rates for

water usage,● water desalination,● uses of revenue from the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative,● aquaculture,● high grading in fisheries,● ITQs and enforcement,● CAFE standards,● international gas taxes,● congestion pricing,● cash for clunkers,● Zipcars,● taxes vs allowances in the presence of uncertainty,● the TDML program,● watershed-based trading,● the Nitrogen Credit Exchange

New Examples and DebatesThe text includes the following new examples and debates:

● Experimental Economics: Studying Human Behavior in a Laboratory,● Fuel from Shale: the Bakken Formation,● Feed-In Tariffs,

● Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): A Twofer?,

● Should Carbon Sequestration in the Terrestrial Biosphere Be Credited?,● The Arduous Path to Managing Risk: Bisphenol A,● Regulating through Mandatory Disclosure: The Case of Lead,● Can Eco-Certification Make a Difference? Organic Costa Rican Coffee● The Car Allowance Rebate System: Did It Work?,● Happiness Economics: Does Money Buy Happiness?,● Valuing Environmental Services: Pollination as an Example● Water Market Assessment: Australia, Chile, South Africa, and the

United States,● Reserving Instream Rights for Endangered Species,● Bluefin Tuna: Is Its High Price Part of the Problem or Part of the Solution?

An Overview of the BookEnvironmental & Natural Resource Economics attempts to bring those who are begin-ning the study of environmental and natural resource economics close to thefrontiers of knowledge. Although it is designed to be accessible to students who havecompleted a two-semester introductory course in economics or a one-semesterintroductory microeconomics course, it has been used successfully in several institu-tions in lower-level and upper-level undergraduate courses as well as lower-levelgraduate courses.

The structure and topical coverage of this book facilitate its use in a variety ofcontexts. For a survey course in environmental and natural resource economics,all chapters are appropriate, although many of us find that the book containssomewhat more material than can be adequately covered in a quarter or even asemester. This surplus material provides flexibility for the instructor to choosethose topics that best fit his or her course design. A one-term course in naturalresource economics could be based on Chapters 1–13 and 20–22. A brief intro-duction to environmental economics could be added by including Chapter 14.A single-term course in environmental economics could be structured aroundChapters 1–4 and 14–22.

In this ninth edition, we examine many of these newly “popular” market mecha-nisms within the context of both theory and practice. Environmental and naturalresource economics is a rapidly growing and changing field as many environmentalissues become global in nature. In this text, we tackle some of the complex issuesthat face our globe and explore problems and potential solutions.

This edition retains a strong policy orientation. Although a great deal of theoryand empirical evidence is discussed, their inclusion is motivated by the desire toincrease understanding of intriguing policy problems, and these aspects arediscussed in the context of those problems. This explicit integration of research andpolicy within each chapter avoids the problem frequently encountered in appliedeconomics textbooks—that is, in such texts the theory developed in earlier chaptersis often only loosely connected to the rest of the book.

xxiiiPreface

This is an economics book, but it goes beyond economics. Insights from thenatural and physical sciences, literature, political science, and other disciplines arescattered liberally throughout the text. In some cases these references raiseoutstanding issues that economic analysis can help resolve, while in other casesthey affect the structure of the economic analysis or provide a contrasting point ofview. They play an important role in overcoming the tendency to accept thematerial uncritically at a superficial level by highlighting those characteristics thatmake the economics approach unique.

Intertemporal optimization is introduced using graphical two-period models,and all mathematics, other than simple algebra, are relegated to chapter appen-dixes. Graphs and numerical examples provide an intuitive understanding of theprinciples suggested by the math and the reasons for their validity. In the ninth edi-tion, we have retained the strengths that are particularly valued by readers, whileexpanding the number of applications of economic principles, clarifying some ofthe more difficult arguments, and updating the material to include the very latestglobal developments.

Reflecting this new role of environmental economics in policy, a number ofjournals are now devoted either exclusively or mostly to the topics covered in thisbook. One journal, Ecological Economics, is dedicated to bringing economists andecologists closer together in a common search for appropriate solutions for envi-ronmental challenges. Interested readers can also find advanced work in the field inLand Economics, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Environmentaland Resource Economics, International Review of Environmental and National ResourceEconomics, Environment and Development Economics Resource and Energy Economics,and Natural Resources Journal, among others.

New resources for student research projects have been made available in re-sponse to the growing popularity of the field. Original research on topics related tointernational environmental and natural resource issues was formerly very difficultfor students because of the paucity of data. A number of good sources now exist, including World Resources (Washington, DC: Oxford University Press, publishedperiodically), and their free, online database Earth Trends: http://earthtrends.wri.org/, and OECD Environmental Data (Paris: Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development, published periodically).

A few Internet sources are included because they are closely related to thefocus of environmental and natural resource economics. Two discussion lists thatinvolve material covered by this book are ResEcon and EcolEcon. The former isan academically inclined list focusing on problems related to natural resourcemanagement; the latter is a wider-ranging discussion list dealing with sustainabledevelopment.

Services on the Internet change so rapidly that some of this information maybecome obsolete. To keep updated on the various Web options, visit theCompanion Website of this text at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/tietenberg/.The site includes an online reference section with all the references cited in thebook. The site also has links to other sites, including the site sponsored by theAssociation of Environmental and Resource Economists, which has information ongraduate programs in the field. An environmental economics blog that covers manyfrontier policy issues is available at http://www.env-econ.net/

xxiv Preface

http://www.pearsonhighered.com/tietenberg/http://www.env-econ.net/http://earthtrends.wri.org/http://earthtrends.wri.org/

xxvPreface

James Mjelde, Texas A&M UniversityDaniel R. Petrolia, Mississippi State UniversityJames A. Roumasset, University of Hawaii

Jeffrey O. Sundberg, Lake Forest UniversityNora Underwood, University of Central

Florida

Trudy Cameron, University of OregonJackie Geoghegan, Clark University

Dana Bauer, Boston UniversityBen Gramig, Purdue University

In addition we received very helpful suggestions as we were writing this editionfrom:

SupplementsFor each chapter in the text, the Online Instructor’s Manual, originally written byLynne Lewis of Bates College and revised by Nora Underwood of the Universityof Central Florida, provides an overview, teaching objectives, a chapter outline withkey terms, common student difficulties, and suggested classroom exercises.PowerPoint® presentations, prepared by Hui Li of Eastern Illinois University, areavailable for instructors and include all art and figures from the text as well aslecture notes for each chapter. Professors can download the Online Instructor’sManual and the PowerPoint presentations at the Instructor Resource Center(www.pearsonhighered.com/irc).

The book’s Companion Website, http://www.pearsonhighered.com/tietenberg/,features chapter-by-chapter Web links to additional reading and economic data.The site also contains Excel-based models that can be used to solve common forest-harvest problems numerically. These models, developed by Arthur Caplan and JohnGilbert of Utah State University, may be presented in lecture to accentuate the intuitionprovided in the text, or they may underlie specific questions on a homework assignment.

The Companion Website also provides self-study quizzes for each chapter.Written by Elizabeth Wheaton of Southern Methodist University, these chapterquizzes contain 10 multiple choice questions for students to test what they havelearned.

AcknowledgmentsThe most rewarding part of writing this book is that we have met many thoughtfulpeople. We very much appreciate the faculty and students who pointed out areas ofparticular strength or areas where coverage could be expanded. Their support hasbeen gratifying and energizing. One can begin to understand the magnitude of ourdebt to our colleagues by glancing at the several hundred names in the lists ofreferences contained in the Name Index. Because their research contributionsmake this an exciting field, full of insights worthy of being shared, our task waseasier and a lot more fun than it might otherwise have been.

We also owe a large debt of gratitude to the following group who provideddetailed, helpful reviews of the text and supplied many useful ideas for this revision:

Linda Bui, Brandeis University

www.pearsonhighered.com/irchttp://www.pearsonhighered.com/tietenberg/

xxvi Preface

Xiaoxia Wang from the Renmin University of China and the team of translatorsfor the Chinese edition of this text.

And, finally, we want to acknowledge the valuable assistance we received duringvarious stages of the writing of this text from the following:

Dan S. Alexio, U.S. Military Academy at West Point

Elena Alvarez, State University of New York,Albany

Gregory S. Amacher, Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and State University

Michael Balch, University of IowaMaurice Ballabon, Baruch CollegeEdward Barbier, University of WyomingA. Paul Baroutsis, Slippery Rock University

of PennsylvaniaKathleen P. Bell, University of MainePeter Berck, University of California, BerkeleyFikret Berkes, University of ManitobaSidney M. Blumner, California State Polytechnic

University, PomonaVic Brajer, California State University,

FullertonStacey Brook, University of Sioux FallsNancy Brooks, University of VermontRichard Bryant, University of Missouri, RollaDavid Burgess, University of Western OntarioMary A. Burke, Florida State UniversityRichard V. Butler, Trinity UniversityTrudy Cameron, University of OregonJill Caviglia-Harris, Salisbury UniversityDuane Chapman, Cornell UniversityGregory B. Christiansen, California State

University, East BayCharles J. Cicchetti, University of Southern

CaliforniaHal Cochrane, Colorado State UniversityJon Conrad, Cornell UniversityJohn Coon, University of New HampshireWilliam Corcoran, University of Nebraska,

OmahaMaureen L. Cropper, University of MarylandJohn H. Cumberland, University of MarylandHerman E. Daly, University of MarylandStephan Devadoss, University of Idaho

Diane P. Dupont, Brock UniversityFrank Egan, Trinity CollegeRandall K. Filer, Hunter College/CUNYAnn Fisher, Pennsylvania State UniversityAnthony C. Fisher, University of California,

BerkeleyMarvin Frankel, University of Illinois,

Urbana-ChampaignA. Myrick Freeman III, Bowdoin CollegeJames Gale, Michigan Technological UniversityDavid E. Gallo, California State

University, ChicoHaynes Goddard, University of CincinnatiNikolaus Gotsch, Institute of Agricultural

Economics (Zurich)Doug Greer, San José State UniversityRonald Griffin, Texas A&M UniversityW. Eric Gustafson, University of California,

DavisA. R. Gutowsky, California State University,

SacramentoJon D. Harford, Cleveland State UniversityGloria E. Helfand, University of MichiganAnn Helwege, Emmanuel CollegeJoseph Herriges, Iowa State UniversityJohn J. Hovis, University of MarylandCharles W. Howe, University of ColoradoPaul Huszar, Colorado State UniversityCraig Infanger, University of KentuckyAllan Jenkins, University of Nebraska at KearneyDonn Johnson, Quinnipiac CollegeJames R. Kahn, Washington and Lee UniversityTim D. Kane, University of Texas, TylerJonathan D. Kaplan, California State University,

SacramentoChris Kavalec, Sacramento State UniversityRichard F. Kazmierczak, Jr., Louisiana State

UniversityDerek Kellenberg, Georgia Institute of

Technology

xxviiPreface

John O. S. Kennedy, LaTrobe UniversityJoe Kerkvliet, Oregon State UniversityNeha Khanna, Binghamton UniversityThomas C. Kinnaman, Bucknell UniversityAndrew Kleit, Pennsylvania State UniversityJanet Kohlhase, University of HoustonRichard F. Kosobud, University of Illinois, ChicagoDouglas M. Larson, University of California,

DavisDwight Lee, University of GeorgiaDavid Letson, University of Miami/RSMASHui Li, Eastern Illinois UniversityScott Elliot Lowe, Boise State UniversityJoseph N. Lekakis, University of CreteIngemar Leksell, Göteborg UniversityRandolph M. Lyon, Executive Office of the

President (U.S.)Robert S. Main, Butler UniversityGiandomenico Majone, Harvard UniversityDavid Martin, Davidson CollegeCharles Mason, University of WyomingRoss McKitrick, University of GuelphFrederic C. Menz, Clarkson UniversityNicholas Mercuro, Michigan State UniversityDavid E. Merrifield, Western Washington

UniversityMichael J. Mueller, Clarkson UniversityKankana Mukherjee, Worcester Polytechnic

InstitutePatricia Norris, Michigan State UniversityThomas C. Noser, Western Kentucky UniversityLloyd Orr, Indiana UniversityPeter J. Parks, Rutgers UniversitySteven Peterson, University of Idaho

Alexander Pfaff, Duke UniversityRaymond Prince, University of Colorado, BoulderH. David Robison, La Salle UniversityJ. Barkley Rosser, Jr., James Madison UniversityJames Roumasset, University of HawaiiJonathan Rubin, University of MaineMilton Russell, University of TennesseeFrederic O. Sargent, University of VermontSalah El Serafy, World BankChad Settle, University of TulsaAharon Shapiro, St. John’s UniversityW. Douglass Shaw, Texas A&M UniversityJames S. Shortle, Pennsylvania State UniversityLeah J. Smith, Swarthmore CollegeV. Kerry Smith, North Carolina State UniversityRob Stavins, Harvard UniversityTesa Stegner, Idaho State UniversityJoe B. Stevens, Oregon State UniversityGert T. Svendsen, The Aarhus School of BusinessDavid Terkla, University of Massachusetts, BostonKenneth N. Townsend, Hampden-Sydney

CollegeRobert W. Turner, Colgate UniversityWallace E. Tyner, Purdue UniversityNora Underwood, Florida State UniversityRoger von Haefen, North Carolina State

UniversityMyles Wallace, Clemson UniversityPatrick Welle, Bemidji State UniversityJohn Whitehead, Appalachian State UniversityRandy Wigle, Wilfred Laurier UniversityMark Witte, Northwestern UniversityRichard T. Woodward, Texas A&M UniversityAnthony Yezer, The George Washington University

Working with Addison-Wesley has been a delightful experience. Our SponsoringEditor Adrienne D’Ambrosio and Assistant Editor Jill Kolongowski have beencontinually helpful since the initiation of this edition. We would also like to acknowl-edge Meredith Gertz, Renata Butera, and Joanne Riker on the production side, JillDougan and Jenn Kennett, who managed permissions, and Angela Lee, who managedthe Companion Website content. Thanks to you all!

Lynne’s most helpful research assistants for this edition were Zach Ross andAndrew Yoon Loong Wong. Working with all of the fine young scholars who haveassisted with this text over the years has made it all the more obvious why teachingis the world’s most satisfying profession.

xxviii Preface

Finally, Tom would like to express publicly his deep appreciation to his wifeGretchen, his daughter Heidi, and his son Eric for their love and support. Lynnewould like to express her gratitude to Jack for his unwavering support, patience,and generosity. Thank you.

Tom TietenbergLynne Lewis

11

1

Visions of the Future

From the arch of the bridge to which his guide has carried him, Dantenow sees the Diviners . . . coming slowly along the bottom of the fourthChasm. By help of their incantations and evil agents, they hadendeavored to pry into the future which belongs to the almighty alone,and now their faces are painfully twisted the contrary way; and beingunable to look before them, they are forced to walk backwards.

—Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy: The Inferno, translated by Carlyle (1867)

Introduction

The Self-Extinction PremiseAbout the time the American colonies won independence, Edward Gibbon com-pleted his monumental The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. In aparticularly poignant passage that opens the last chapter of his opus, he re-creates ascene in which the learned Poggius, a friend, and two servants ascend theCapitoline Hill after the fall of Rome. They are awed by the contrast between whatRome once was and what Rome has become:

In the time of the poet it was crowned with the golden roofs of a temple; the temple isoverthrown, the gold has been pillaged, the wheel of fortune has accomplished herrevolution, and the sacred ground is again disfigured with thorns and brambles. . . .The forum of the Roman people, where they assembled to enact their laws and electtheir magistrates is now enclosed for the cultivation of potherbs, or thrown open for thereception of swine and buffaloes. The public and private edifices that were founded foreternity lie prostrate, naked, and broken, like the limbs of a mighty giant; and the ruinis the more visible, from the stupendous relics that have survived the injuries of timeand fortune. [Vol. 6, pp. 650–651]

What could cause the demise of such a grand and powerful society? Gibbonweaves a complex thesis to answer this question, suggesting ultimately that theseeds for Rome’s destruction were sown by the Empire itself. Although Rome

2 Chapter 1 Visions of the Future

finally succumbed to such external forces as fires and invasions, its vulnerability wasbased upon internal weakness.

The premise that societies can germinate the seeds of their own destruction haslong fascinated scholars. In 1798, Thomas Malthus published his classic An Essay onthe Principle of Population in which he foresaw a time when the urge to reproducewould cause population growth to exceed the land’s potential to supply sufficientfood, resulting in starvation and death. In his view, the adjustment mechanismwould involve rising death rates caused by environmental constraints, rather than arecognition of impending scarcity followed either by innovation or self-restraint.

Generally, our society seems remarkably robust, having survived wars and short-ages, while dramatically increasing living standards and life expectancy. Yet, actualhistorical examples suggest that Malthus’s self-extinction vision may have merit.Example 1.1 examines two specific cases: the Mayan civilization and Easter Island.

Historical Examples of Societal Self-ExtinctionThe Mayan civilization, a vibrant and highly cultured society that occupied parts ofCentral America, did not survive. One of the major settlements, Copán, has beenstudied in sufficient detail to learn reasons for its collapse (Webster et al., 2000).

The Webster et al. study reports that after A.D. 400 the population growthbegan to bump into environmental constraints, specifically the agricultural carry-ing capacity of the land. The growing population depended heavily on a single,locally grown crop—maize—for food. By early in the sixth century, however, thecarrying capacity of the most productive local lands was exceeded, and farmersbegan to depend upon more fragile parts of the ecosystem. The economic resultwas diminishing returns to agricultural labor and the production of food failed tokeep pace with the increasing population.

By the mid-eighth century, when the population was reaching its historic apex,widespread deforestation and soil erosion had set in, thereby intensifying thedeclining productivity problems associated with moving onto marginal lands. Bythe eighth and ninth centuries, the evidence reveals not only high levels of infantand adolescent mortality but also widespread malnutrition. The royal dynasty, animportant source of leadership in this society, collapsed rather abruptly sometimeabout A.D. 820–822.

The second case study, Easter Island, shares some remarkable similaritieswith the Mayan case and the Malthusian vision. Easter Island lies some 2,000miles off the coast of Chile. Current visitors note that it is distinguished by twofeatures: (1) its enormous statues carved from volcanic rock and (2) a surprisinglysparse vegetation, given the island’s favorable climate and conditions, whichtypically support fertile soil. Both the existence of the imposing statues and thefact that they were erected at a considerable distance from the quarry suggeststhe presence of an advanced civilization, but to current observers it is nowhere inevidence. What happened to that society?

According to scholars, the short answer is that a rising population, coupled witha heavy reliance on wood for housing, canoe building, and statue transportation,decimated the forest (Brander and Taylor, 1998). The loss of the forest contributedto soil erosion, declining soil productivity, and, ultimately, diminished food

EXAMPLE1.1

3Future Environmental Challenges

Future Environmental ChallengesFuture societies, like those just discussed, will be confronted by both resourcescarcity and accumulating pollutants. Many specific examples of these broadcategories of problems are discussed in detail in the following chapters. Thissection provides a flavor of what is to come by illustrating the challenges posed byone pollution problem (climate change) and one resource scarcity problem (wateraccessibility).

Climate ChangeEnergy from the sun drives the earth’s weather and climate. Incoming rays heat theearth’s surface, radiating energy back into space. Atmospheric “greenhouse” gases(water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the outgoing energy.

Without this natural “greenhouse effect,” temperatures on the earth would bemuch lower than they are now, and life as we know it would be impossible. It ispossible, however, to have too much of a good thing. Problems arise when the con-centration of greenhouse gases increases beyond normal levels, thus retainingexcessive heat somewhat like a car with its windows closed in the summer.

Since the Industrial Revolution, greenhouse gas emissions have increased con-siderably. These increases have enhanced the heat-trapping capability of the earth’satmosphere. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(2007), “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal . . . ”. That study concludesthat most of the warming over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.

As the earth warms, extreme heat conditions are expected to affect both humanhealth and ecosystems. Some damage to humans is caused directly by increasedheat, as shown by the heat waves that resulted in thousands of deaths in Europe in

production. How did the community react to the impending scarcity? Apparently,the social response was war, and ultimately, cannibalism.

We would like to believe not only that in the face of impending scarcitysocieties would react by changing behavior to adapt to the diminishing resourcesupplies, but also that this benign response would follow automatically from arecognition of the problem. We even have a cliché to capture this sentiment:“necessity is the mother of invention.” These stories do point out, however, thatnothing is automatic about a problem-solving response. Sometimes societalreactions not only fail to solve the problem, but they can actually make it worse.

Sources: David Webster, Anncorinne Freter, and Nancy Golin. COPAN: THE RISE AND FALL OF ANANCIENT MAYA KINGDOM. (Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Publishers, 2000); and Brander, J. A. and M. S.Taylor (1998). “The Simple Economics of Easter Island: A Ricardo-Malthus Model of Renewable ResourceUse,” THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW, 88(1), pp. 119–138.


the summer of 2003. Human health can also be affected by pollutants, such assmog, that are exacerbated by warmer temperatures. Rising sea levels (as warmerwater expands and previously frozen sources such as glaciers melt), coupled with anincrease in storm intensity, are expected to flood coastal communities. Ecosystemswill be subjected to unaccustomed temperatures; some will adapt by migrating tonew areas, but others may not be able to adapt in time. While these processes havealready begun, they will intensify slowly throughout the century.

Climate change also has an important moral dimension. Due to their morelimited adaptation capabilities many Developing countries that have producedrelatively small amounts of greenhouse gases are expected to be the hardest hit asthe climate changes.

Dealing with climate change will require a coordinated international response.That is a significant challenge to a world system where the nation-state reignssupreme and international organizations are relatively weak.

Water AccessibilityAnother class of threats is posed by the interaction of a rising demand for resourcesin the face of a finite supply. Water provides a particularly interesting examplebecause it is vital to life.

According to the United Nations, about 40 percent of the world’s populationlives in areas with moderate-to-high water stress. (“Moderate stress” is defined inthe U.N. Assessment of Freshwater Resources as “human consumption of morethan 20 percent of all accessible renewable freshwater resources,” whereas “severestress” denotes consumption greater than 40 percent.) By 2025, it is estimated thatabout two-thirds of the world’s population—about 5.5 billion people—will live inareas facing either moderate or severe water stress.

This stress is not uniformly distributed around the globe. For example, in theUnited States, Mexico, China, and India, groundwater is being consumed fasterthan it is being replenished and aquifer levels are steadily falling. Some rivers, suchas the Colorado in the western United States and the Yellow in China, often rundry before they reach the sea. Formerly enormous lakes, such as the Aral Sea andLake Chad, are now a fraction of their once-historic sizes. Glaciers that feed manyAsian rivers are shrinking.

According to U.N. data, Africa and Asia suffer the most from the lack of access tosufficient clean water. Up to 50 percent of Africa’s urban residents and 75 percent ofAsians lack adequate access to a safe water supply.

The availability of potable water is further limited by human activities thatcontaminate the finite supplies. According to the United Nations, 90 percent ofsewage and 70 percent of industrial wastes in developing countries are dischargedwithout treatment.

Some arid areas have compensated for their lack of water by importing it viaaqueducts from more richly endowed regions or by building large reservoirs.Regional and international political conflicts can result when the water transfer orthe relocation of people living in the area to be flooded by the reservoir is resisted.Additionally, aqueducts and dams may be geologically vulnerable. For example, in

5Meeting the Challenges

California, many of the aqueducts cross or lie on known earthquake-prone faultlines (Reisner, 2003). The reservoir behind the Three Gorges Dam in China is sovast that the pressure and weight are causing tremors and landslides.

Meeting the ChallengesAs the scale of economic activity has proceeded steadily upward, the scope ofenvironmental problems triggered by that activity has transcended geographic andgenerational boundaries. The nation-state used to be a sufficient form of politicalorganization for resolving environmental problems, but is that still the case?Whereas each generation used to have the luxury of being able to satisfy its ownneeds without worrying about the needs of generations to come, intergenerationaleffects are now more prominent. Solving problems such as poverty, climate change,ozone depletion, and the loss of biodiversity requires international cooperation.Because future generations cannot speak for themselves, the current generationmust speak for them. Current policies must incorporate our obligation to futuregenerations, however difficult or imperfect that incorporation might prove to be.

International cooperation is by no means a foregone conclusion. Globalenvironmental problems can result in very different effects on countries that will sitaround the negotiating table. While low-lying countries could be completelysubmerged by the sea level rise predicted by some climate change models, aridnations could see their marginal agricultural lands succumb to desertification.Other nations may see agricultural productivity rise as warmer climates intraditionally intemperate regions support longer growing seasons.

Countries that unilaterally set out to improve the global environmental situationrun the risk of making their businesses vulnerable to competition from less con-scientious nations. Industrialized countries that undertake stringent environmentalpolicies may not suffer much at the national level due to offsetting increases in incomeand employment in industries that supply renewable, cleaner energy and pollutioncontrol equipment. Some specific industries facing stringent environmental regula-tions, however, may well face higher costs than their competitors, and can be expectedto lose market share accordingly. Declining market share and employment resultingfrom especially stringent regulations and the threat to outsource production are pow-erful influences. The search for solutions must accommodate these concerns.

The market system is remarkably resilient in how it responds to challenges. As weshall see, prices provide incentives not only for the wise use of current resources butalso for promoting innovations that can broaden the menu of future options.

Yet, as we shall also see, market incentives are not always consistent withpromoting sustainable outcomes. Currently, many individuals and institutions havea large stake in maintaining the status quo, even when it involves environmentaldestruction. Fishermen harvesting their catch from an overexploited fishery areloath to reduce harvests, even when the reduction may be necessary to conserve thestock and to return the population to a healthy level. Farmers who depend on fer-tilizer and pesticide subsidies will give them up reluctantly.


How Will Societies Respond?The fundamental question is how societies will respond to these challenges. Oneway to think systematically about this question involves feedback loops.

Positive feedback loops are those in which secondary effects tend to reinforce thebasic trend. The process of capital accumulation illustrates one positive feedbackloop. New investment generates greater output, which when sold, generates prof-its. These profits can be used to fund additional new investments. Notice that withpositive feedback loops the process is self-reinforcing.

Positive feedback loops are also involved in climate change. Scientists believe,for example, that the relationship between emissions of methane and climatechange may be described as a positive feedback loop. Because methane is a green-house gas, increases in methane emissions contribute to climate change. The rise ofthe planetary temperature, however, could trigger the release of extremely largequantities of additional methane currently trapped in the permafrost layer of theearth; the resulting larger methane emissions would further increase temperature,resulting in the release of more methane, and so on.

Human responses can also intensify environmental problems through positivefeedback loops. When shortages of a commodity are imminent, for example, con-sumers typically begin to hoard the commodity. Hoarding intensifies the shortage.Similarly, people faced with shortages of food may be forced to eat the seed that isthe key to more plentiful food in the future. Situations giving rise to this kind ofdownward spiral are particularly troublesome.

In contrast, a negative feedback loop is self-limiting rather than self-reinforcing.Perhaps the best-known planetary-scale example of a negative feedback loop is pro-vided in a theory advanced by the English scientist James Lovelock. Called theGaia hypothesis after the Greek concept for Mother Earth, this view of the worldsuggests that the earth is a living organism with a complex feedback system thatseeks an optimal physical and chemical environment. Deviations from this optimalenvironment trigger natural, nonhuman response mechanisms that restore thebalance. In essence, according to the Gaia hypothesis, the planetary environment ischaracterized by negative feedback loops and, therefore, is, within limits, a self-limiting process. As we proceed with our investigation, the degree to which oureconomic and political institutions serve to intensify or to limit emerging environ-mental problems will be a key concern.

The Role of EconomicsHow societies respond to challenges will depend largely on the behavior of humanbeings acting individually or collectively. Economic analysis provides an incrediblyuseful set of tools for anyone interested in understanding and/or modifying humanbehavior, particularly in the face of scarcity. In many cases, this analysis points outthe sources of the market system’s resilience as embodied in negative feedback loops.

7How Will Societies Respond?

Ecological Economics versus EnvironmentalEconomicsOver the last decade or so, the community of scholars dealing with the role of theeconomy and the environment has settled into two camps: ecological economics(http://www.ecoeco.org/) and environmental economics (http://www.aere.org/).Although they share many similarities, ecological economics is consciously moremethodologically pluralist, while environmental economics is based solidly on thestandard paradigm of neoclassical economics. While neoclassical economicsemphasizes maximizing human welfare and using economic incentives to modifydestructive human behavior, ecological economics uses a variety of methodo-logies, including neoclassical economics, depending upon the purpose of theinvestigation.

While some observers see the two approaches as competitive (presenting an“either-or” choice), others, including the authors of this text, see them as com-plementary. Complementarity, of course, does not mean full acceptance.Significant differences exist not only between these two fields, but also withinthem over such topics as the valuation of environmental resources, the impact oftrade on the environment, and the appropriate means for evaluating policystrategies for long-duration problems such as climate change. These differencesarise not only over methodologies but also over the values that are brought tobear on the analysis.

The senior author of this book has published in both fields and has served onthe editorial boards of the leading journals in both fields, so it probably will not besurprising that this book draws from both fields. Although the basic foundationfor the analysis is environmental economics, the chapters draw heavily fromecological economics to critique that view when it is controversial and to comple-ment it with useful insights drawn from outside the neoclassical paradigm, whenappropriate. Pragmatism is the reigning criterion. If a particular approach or studyhelps us to understand environmental problems and their resolution, it has beenincluded in the text.

DEBATE1.1

In others, it provides a basis not only for identifying the circumstances where mar-kets fail, but also for clarifying how and why that specific set of circumstances sup-ports degradation. This understanding can then be used as the basis for designingnew incentives that restore a sense of harmony in the relationship between theeconomy and the environment for those cases where the market fails.

Over the years, two different, but related, disciplinary approaches have arisento address the challenges the future holds. As shown in Debate 1.1, bothecological economics and environmental economics can contribute to ourunderstanding.

http://www.ecoeco.org/http://www.aere.org/


The Use of ModelsAll of the topics covered in this book will be examined as part of the generalfocus on satisfying human wants and needs in light of limited environmental andnatural resources. Because this subject is complex, it is better understood whenbroken into manageable portions. Once we master the components, dealt within individual chapters, we will be able to reassemble them to form a more com-plete picture.

In economics, as in most other disciplines, we use models to investigate complexsubjects such as relationships between the economy and the environment. Modelsare simplified characterizations of reality. For example, although a road map bydesign leaves out much detail, it is nonetheless a useful guide to reality. By showinghow various locations relate to each other, a map gives an overall perspective. Itcannot, however, capture all of the unique details that characterize any particularlocation. The map highlights only those characteristics that are crucial for thepurpose at hand. The models in this text are similar. Through simplification, lessdetail is considered so that the main concepts and the relationships among thembecome clear.

Fortunately, models allow us to study rigorously issues that are interrelated andglobal in scale. Unfortunately, due to their selectivity, models may yield con-clusions that are dead wrong. Details that are omitted may turn out, in retrospect,to be crucial in understanding a particular dimension. Therefore, models are usefulabstractions, but the conclusions they yield depend on the structure of the model.Change the model and you are likely to change the conclusions. As a result, modelsshould always be viewed with some skepticism.

Most people’s views of the world are based on models, although frequently theassumptions and relationships involved may be implicit, perhaps even sub-conscious. In economics, the models are explicit; objectives, relationships, andassumptions are clearly specified so that the reader understands exactly how theconclusions are derived.

The validity and reliability of economic models are tested by examining thedegree to which they can explain actual behavior in markets or other settings. Anempirical field known as econometrics uses statistical techniques, primarilyregression analysis, to derive key economic functions. These data-derived func-tions, such as cost curves or demand functions, can then be used for such diversepurposes as testing hypotheses about the effects of policies or forecasting futureoil prices.

Examining human behavior in a non-laboratory setting, however, poses specialchallenges because it is nearly impossible to control completely for all the variousfactors that influence an outcome beyond those of primary interest. The search formore control over the circumstances that provide the data we use to understandhuman behavior has given rise to the use of another analytical approach—experimental economics, as discussed in Example 1.2. Together, econometrics andexperimental economics can provide different lenses to help us understand humanbehavior and its impact on the world around us.

9The Road Ahead

Experimental Economics: Studying HumanBehavior in a LaboratoryThe appeal of experimental economics is based upon its ability to study humanbehavior in a more controlled setting. During the mid-twentieth century economistsbegan to design controlled laboratory experiments with human subjects. The exper-imental designs mimic decision situations in a variety of settings. Paid participantsare informed of the rules of the experiment and asked to make choices. Perhaps, forexample, in an experiment to mimic the current carbon trading market, the partici-pants are told how much it costs to control each unit of their carbon emissions andthey are asked to place bids to buy carbon allowances. The team running the exper-iment would then calculate how many allowances each successful participantwould acquire, based on all the bids, as well as the market-clearing price.

To the extent that the results of these experiments have proved to be replicable,they have created a deeper understanding about the effectiveness of markets,policies, and institutions. The large and growing literature on experimental economicshas already shed light on such widely divergent topics as the effectiveness ofalternative policies for controlling pollution and allocating water, how uncertaintyaffects choices, and how the nature of cooperative agreements affects thesustainability of shared natural resources.

While experiments have the advantage of being able to control the decision-making environment, the artificiality of the laboratory setting raises questionsabout the degree to which the results from laboratories can shed light on actualhuman behavior outside the lab. While the degree of artificiality can be controlledby careful research design, it cannot be completely eliminated. Over the years,however, this approach has provided valuable information that can complementwhat we have learned from observed behavior using econometrics.

Sources: Ronald G. Cummings and Laura O. Taylor. “Experimental Economics in Natural Resource andEnvironmental Management,” THE INTERNATIONAL YEARBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND NATURALRESOURCE ECONOMICS 2001/2002, Henk Former and Tom Tietenberg, eds. (Cheltenham, UK: EdwardElgar, 2001), pp. 123–149; and Vernon L. Smith, “Experimental Methods in Economics.” THE NEWPALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF ECONOMICS, Volume 2, John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman,eds. (London, UK: The Macmillan Press Limited), pp. 241–249.

EXAMPLE1.2

The Road AheadDebate 1.2 examines the controversial question of whether or not societies are on aself-destructive path. In part, the differences between these two opposing viewsdepend on whether human behavior is perceived as a positive or a negative feed-back loop. If increasing scarcity results in a behavioral response that involves apositive feedback loop (intensifies the pressure on the environment), pessimism isjustified. If, on the other hand, human responses serve to reduce those pressures orcould be reformed so as to reduce those pressures, optimism may be justified.


The field of environmental and natural resource economics has become animportant source of ideas for coping with this dilemma. Not only does the fieldprovide a firm basis for understanding the behavioral sources of environmentalproblems, but also this understanding provides a firm foundation for crafting spe-cific solutions to them. In subsequent chapters, for example, you will be exposed tohow economic analysis can be (and has been) used to forge solutions to climatechange (Chapter 16), biodiversity loss (Chapters 10 and 13), population growth(Chapter 21), and water scarcity (Chapter 9). Many of the solutions are quite novel.

Market forces are extremely powerful. Attempts to solve environmental problemsthat ignore these forces run a high risk of failure. Where these forces are compatiblewith efficient and sustainable outcomes, those outcomes can be supported andreinforced. Where the forces diverge, they can be channeled into directions that restorecompatibility. Environmental and natural resource economics provides a specific set ofdirections for how this compatibility between goals and outcomes can be achieved.

The IssuesThe two opposing visions of the future identified in Debate 1.2 present us not onlywith rather different conceptions of what the future holds but also with dissimilarviews of what policy options should be chosen. They also suggest that to act as ifone vision is correct, when it is not, could prove to be a costly error. Thus, it isimportant to determine if one of these two views (or some third view) is correct.

In order to assess the validity of these visions, we must address some basic issues:

● Is the problem correctly conceptualized as exponential growth with fixed,immutable resource limits? Does the earth have a finite carrying capacity? Ifso, how can the carrying-capacity concept be operationalized? Do current orforecasted levels of economic activity exceed the earth’s carrying capacity?

● How does the economic system respond to scarcities? Is the process mainlycharacterized by positive or negative feedback loops? Do the responses inten-sify or ameliorate any initial scarcities?

● What is the role of the political system in controlling these problems? Inwhat circumstances is government intervention necessary? What forms ofintervention work best? Is government intervention uniformly benign, or canit make the situation worse? What roles are appropriate for the executive,legislative, and judicial branches?

● Many environmental problems involve a considerable degree of uncertaintyabout the severity of the problem and the effectiveness of possible solutions.Can our economic and political institutions respond to this uncertainty inreasonable ways or does uncertainty become a paralyzing force?

● Can the economic and political systems work together to eradicate povertyand social injustice while respecting our obligations to future generations?Or do our obligations to future generations inevitably conflict with thedesire to raise the living standards of those currently in absolute poverty orthe desire to treat all people, especially the most vulnerable, with fairness?

11The Road Ahead

DEBATE1.2

What Does the Future Hold?Is the economy on a collision course with the environment? Or has the processof reconciliation begun? One group, led most notably by Bjørn Lomborg, Directorof Denmark’s Environmental Assessment Institute, concludes that societies haveresourcefully confronted environmental problems in the past and that environ-mentalist concerns to the contrary are excessively alarmist. As he states in hisbook, The Skeptical Environmentalist:

The fact is, as we have seen, that this civilization over the last 400 years hasbrought us fantastic and continued progress. . . . And we ought to face thefacts—that on the whole we have no reason to expect that this progress willnot continue.

On the other end of the spectrum are the researchers at the WorldwatchInstitute, who believe that current development paths and the attendant strain theyplace on the environment are unsustainable. As reported in State of the World 2004:

This rising consumption in the U.S., other rich nations, and many developingones is more than the planet can bear. Forests, wetlands, and other naturalplaces are shrinking to make way for people and their homes, farms, malls,and factories. Despite the existence of alternative sources, more than 90 percent of paper still comes from trees—eating up about one-fifth of thetotal wood harvest worldwide. An estimated 75 percent of global fish stocksare now fished at or beyond their sustainable limit. And even thoughtechnology allows for greater fuel efficiency than ever before, cars and otherforms of transportation account for nearly 30 percent of world energy useand 95 percent of global oil consumption.

These views not only interpret the available historical evidence differently, butalso they imply very different strategies for the future.

Sources: Bjørn Lomborg, THE SKEPTICAL ENVIRONMENTALIST: MEASURING THE REAL STAT OF THEWORLD (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001); and The Worldwatch Institute, THE STATEOF THE WORLD 2004 (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2004).

Can short- and long-term goals be harmonized? Is sustainable developmentfeasible? If so, how can it be achieved? What does the need to preserve theenvironment imply about the future of economic activity in the industrial-ized nations? In the less industrialized nations?

The rest of the book uses economic analysis to suggest answers to these complexquestions.

An Overview of the BookIn the following chapters you will study the rich and rewarding field of environmen-tal and natural resource economics. The menu of topics is broad and varied.Economics provides a powerful analytical framework for examining the relationships


between the environment, on one hand, and the economic and political systems, onthe other. The study of economics can assist in identifying circumstances that giverise to environmental problems, in discovering causes of these problems, and insearching for solutions. Each chapter introduces a unique topic in environmental andnatural resource economics, while the overarching focus on development in a finiteenvironment weaves these topics into a single theme.

We begin by comparing perspectives being brought to bear on these problemsby economists and noneconomists. The manner in which scholars in variousdisciplines view problems and potential solutions depends on how they organizethe available facts, how they interpret those facts, and what kinds of values theyapply in translating these interpretations into policy. Before going into a detailedlook at environmental problems, we shall compare the ideology of conventionaleconomics to other prevailing ideologies in the natural and social sciences. Thiscomparison not only explains why reasonable people may, upon examining thesame set of facts, reach different conclusions, but also it conveys some sense ofthe strengths and weaknesses of economic analysis as it is applied to environ-mental problems.

Chapters 2 through 5 delve more deeply into the conventional economicsapproach. Specific evaluation criteria are defined, and examples are developed toshow how these criteria can be applied to current environmental problems.

After examining the major perspectives shaping environmental policy, inChapters 6 through 13 we turn to some of the topics traditionally falling withinthe subfield known as natural resource economics. Chapter 6 provides anoverview of the models used to characterize the “optimal” allocation of resourcesover time. These models allow us to show not only how the optimal allocationdepends on such factors as the cost of extraction, environmental costs, and theavailability of substitutes, but also how the allocations produced by our politicaland economic institutions measure up against this standard of optimality.Chapter 7 discusses energy as an example of a depletable, nonrecyclable resourceand examines topics, such as the role of OPEC; dealing with import dependency;the “peak oil” problem, which envisions an upcoming decline in the worldproduction of oil; the role of nuclear power; and the problems and prospectsassociated with the transition to renewable resources. The focus on recyclableresources in Chapter 8 illustrates not only how depletable, recyclable resourcesare allocated over time but also defines the economically appropriate role forrecycling. We assess the degree to which the current situation approximates thisideal, paying particular attention to aspects such as tax policy, disposal costs, andpollution damage.

Chapters 9 through 13 focus on renewable or replenishable resources. Thesechapters show that the effectiveness with which current institutions managerenewable resources depends on whether the resources are animate or inanimateas well as whether they are treated as private or shared property. In Chapter 9,the focus is on allocating water in arid regions. Water is an example of an inani-mate, but replenishable, resource. Specific examples from the AmericanSouthwest illustrate how the political and economic institutions have coped withthis form of impending scarcity. Chapter 10 focuses on the allocation of land

13Summary

among competing potential and actual uses. Land use, of course, is not onlyinherently an important policy issue in its own right, but also it has enormous effectson other important environmental problems such as providing food for humans andhabitats for plants and animals. In Chapter 11, the focus is on agriculture and itsinfluence on food security and world hunger. Chapter 12 deals with forestry as anexample of a renewable and storable private property resource. Managing this cropposes a somewhat unique problem in the unusually long waiting period required toproduce an efficient harvest; forests are also a major source of many environmentalservices besides timber. In Chapter 13, fisheries are used to illustrate the problemsassociated with an animate, free-access resource and to explore possible means ofsolving these problems.

We then move on to an area of public policy—pollution control—that has cometo rely much more heavily on the use of economic incentives to produce the desiredresponse. Chapter 14, an overview chapter, emphasizes not only the multifacetednature of the problems but also the differences among policy approaches taken toresolve them. The unique aspects of local and regional air pollution, climatechange, vehicle air pollution, water pollution, and the control of toxic substancesare dealt with in the five subsequent chapters.

Following this examination of the individual environmental and naturalresource problems and the successes and failures of policies that have been used toameliorate these problems, we return to the big picture by assembling the bits andpieces of evidence accumulated in the preceding chapters and fusing them into anoverall response to the questions posed in the chapter. We also cover some of themajor unresolved issues in environmental policy that are likely to be among thosecommanding center stage over the next several years and decades.

Summary

Are our institutions so myopic that they have chosen a path that can only lead tothe destruction of society as we now know it? We have briefly examined two stud-ies that provide different answers to that question. The Worldwatch Instituteresponds in the affirmative, while Lomborg st

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