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Entrepreneurial Career Intentions among Malay Ethnic
University Students in Malaysia
Dr.Nor Khasimah Aliman (Corresponding author)1
& Dr.Hayati Abdul Jalal2
1. Associate Professor, Faculty of Business & Management
2. Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Business & Management
Universiti Teknologi Mara (Perak), 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
Accepted 17 October 2013
Abstract
This research explores the associations between demographic characteristics (i.e. gender and family background),
personality traits of innovativeness, entrepreneurship knowledge, environment, and entrepreneurial career
intentions among undergraduate university students in Malaysia. Written questionnaire were completed by 230
students and exploratory factor analysis of the constructs created one new interpretable component for
entrepreneurial factor (i.e. attitude towards entrepreneurship). The results indicate that more than 70 per cent of
the respondents have favourable attitude towards entrepreneurship. The results also provide evidence that genderand family background, personality traits of innovativeness, entrepreneurial knowledge, environment and
attitude towards entrepreneurship are important predictors for entrepreneurial career intentions. Attitude towards
entrepreneurship was found to be the most important predictor to entrepreneurial career intentions, followed by
innovativeness, entrepreneurial environment and knowledge. These findings will be a value addition in Malaysia
scenario and are likely to help Malaysian government in evaluating the success implementation of
entrepreneurship program among undergraduates.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Innovativeness, Entrepreneurial Intentions, Demographics
1. Introduction
Graduate unemployment due to difficulties in securing jobs that correspond to academic background and
expectation has consequently become a major object of intense both academic and manager evaluations. The
imbalances ratio between labor market demand and the number of undergraduates applying for jobs further
contribute to a substantial amount of unemployment rate (Ismail, 2011). Entrepreneurship is considered to be
an engine for creating job opportunities, economic growth, and social adjustment through the creation of
nonmonetary rewards of self-independence (Bianchi, 2012). A considerable agreement exists on the importance
of promoting entrepreneurship to stimulate economic development and employability (Ahmed, Nawaz, Ahmad,
Shaukat, Usman, Wasim-ul-Rehman & Ahmad, 2010; Turker & Selcuk, 2009; Luiz & Mariotti, 2008).
Evidence from the literature also suggests that entrepreneurship and self-employment are the best solution in
transforming the joblessness or unemployed graduates (Ahmed et al., 2010; Turker & Selcuk, 2009; Luiz &
International Journal of Business & Management (IJBM) October 2013 VOL.1, No.8
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Mariotti, 2008). Thus, one possible approach in this direction is to embrace entrepreneurship and encourage
self-employment that may create job independence for satisfaction (Bianchi, 2012). The better understanding of
the nature of business supported by the policy maker is among forces that may drive the joblessness among
graduates successfully make the transition into business. Governmental efforts through the critical agenda
program of entrepreneurship may initiate path for the undergraduates to choose entrepreneurship as a convincing
career choice. Nevertheless, entrepreneurship requires consistent efforts in relation to individual personality traits,
demographic characteristics, and entrepreneurship education (Ahmed et al., 2010; Car & Sequeira, 2007;
Davidsson, 1995; Frank & Luthje, 2004; Linan et al., 2011; Pihie & Afsaneh, 2009; Shapero & Sokol, 1982). The
literature also acknowledged the importance of innovativeness as the core personality traits of entrepreneurs
(Davidsson, 1995; Drucker, 1985). The primary focus of this study is to enhance understanding on the underlying
factors of entrepreneurial career intentions among undergraduates. In particular, this research explores
determinants (i.e. demographic characteristics, personality traits of innovativeness, entrepreneurship knowledge
and environment) contributing to the entrepreneurial career intentions among undergraduates in Malaysia. The
main objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between demographic characteristics,
innovativeness, entrepreneurial knowledge and environment on the entrepreneurial career intentions among
university students.
2. Literature review
Entrepreneurship is said to be function of various factors e.g. personality traits, education, experience, social and
economic conditions, law and order and many other issues. According to the Institutional Economic Theory, the
contextual factors were determinants of entrepreneurship. Those factors included political and economic rules
and contract, codes of conduct, attitudes, values, norms of behavior, and conventions (Veciana, Aponte & Urbano,
2005). Luthje and Franke (2003) incorporated both personality traits and contextual factors as determinants of
entrepreneurial intentions. The study by Turker, Onvural, Kursunluoglu and Pinar (2005) also considered the
impacts of both internal factors (motivation and self-confidence) and external factors (perceived level of
education, opportunities and support) on entrepreneurial propensity of university students. In short, there was a
general agreement that attitudes towards the entrepreneur, entrepreneurial activity, and its social functions were
determinant factors for university students to decide an entrepreneurial career (Erich, Malgorzata, Daniel, &
Robert, 2009; Frank & Luthje, 2005; Segal, Borgia, & Schoenfeld, 2005)
2.1 Entrepreneurial Intentions
Entrepreneurial intent has proven to be a primary predictor of future entrepreneurial behavior (Krueger, Reilly, &
Carsrund, 2000). This variable examines how much a respondent is interested to be an entrepreneur either in
present scenario or may be some time later in future. Entrepreneurial intentions are an important first step in the
entrepreneurship process. In social psychology, intention is considered as the most immediate and important
antecedent of behavior (Abraham & Sheeram, 2003). Ajzen (1991) and Bagozzi and Yi (1989) both indicatedthat intention is a strong predictor of entrepreneurial activity. Linan, Carlos, and Jose (2008) concluded that
entrepreneurial intentions as one of the strongest predictor for startup decisions.
2.2 Demographic and Entrepreneurial Intentions
According to Shapero and Sokol, (1982), exogenous influences including demographics, skills and society, traits,
financial support, and culture affect the attitudes and also the intentions indirectly and behaviors to become
entrepreneurs. Socio-demographic factors have an indirect influence on entrepreneurial intention (Kolvereid,
1996). However, there is a lack of agreement on the variables that determine the individuals decision to start a
venture. Therefore, there is a need to clarify which elements play the most influential role in shaping the personal
decision to start a firm (Linan et al., 2011).
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2.2.1 Gender differences and entrepreneurial intentions
Several researchers found that males have a higher preference for entrepreneurship behavior than females
(Delmar & Davidsson, 2000; Matthews & Moser, 1995). Ghazali, Ghosh and Tay (1995) found gender
differences in the self-employment rate among non-professional degree holders (science, computer science, arts,
and business) but not for professional degree holders (engineering, medicine, law, accountancy). Kolvereid (1996)
found that males have significantly higher preference for self-employment than females. Wang and Wong (2004)
revealed that besides family business experience and educational level, gender was a significant factor in
explaining entrepreneurial interest in Singapore. Pihie and Afsaneh (2009) found a significant difference between
male and female students in Malaysia on entrepreneurial intention where the male students obtained higher mean
score. Ahmed et al. (2010) however discovered that gender does not have significant affect on entrepreneurial
intentions of students in Pakistan.
2.2.2 Family background and entrepreneurial intentions
Parents act as initial role models and the parents active in a family business influence the future entrepreneurial
intentions through changing attitudes and beliefs (Shapero & Sokol, 1982, Krueger et al.,2000). Exposures to
entrepreneurship both from the family side and personal have an impact on entrepreneurial intentions (Carr &
Sequeira, 2007; Basu & Virick, 1993). Raijman (2001) pointed that self-employment experience was directly
related with entrepreneurial intentions of students. Other researchers discovered that family characteristics have
implication on emergence of new business, recognition of opportunity, start up decisions and resource
mobilizations (Wang & Wong, 2004; Aldrich & Cliff, 2003; Ghazali et al., 1995; Scott & Twomey, 1988). The
involvement of family members in business symbolized for entrepreneurship and can be in assistance for both
financial and non-financial. These factors have direct influence on individuals entrepreneurial intentions.
Further, Ahmed et al. (2010) revealed that prior business experience and family business experience are one of
the important predictor of entrepreneurial intentions. In addition, Wang, Lu and Millington (2011) claimed that
family business background will contribute to the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. Athanasios,
Hadjimanolis, Panikkos, and Poutziouris (2011) claimed that there was a statiscally significant correlation
between a family business background and the intention to start a new business.
2.3 Entrepreneurial innovativeness and entrepreneurial intentions
Personality via psychological traits shown to have impact on entrepreneurial intentions (Davidsson, 1995; Frank,
Lueger & Korunka, 2007; Lu, Wang & Millington, 2010; Wang et al., 2011). Yosuf, Sandu and Jain (2007)
revealed that there is a positive relationship between personality traits and entrepreneurship intentions. Drucker
(1985) indicated that the innovation is the most basic role of entrepreneur. A few researchers claimed that
innovativeness as one of the most important trait of entrepreneurs (e.g. Ang & Hong, 2000; Ahmed et al., 2010).
Carland and Carland (1991) found that successful entrepreneurs are much more innovative than
non-entrepreneurs. Sexton and Bowman-Upton (1986) claimed that students who opt entrepreneurship as theirmajor (specialization) appeared more innovative than students of business administration. Goldsmith and Kerr
(1991) discovered that students who have gone through from the entrepreneurship courses proved to be much
more innovative than the other students of business. The researchers who employed Kirtons (1996) scale also
found entrepreneurship students were more innovative than general business management students (Goldsmith &
Kerr, 1991). Ahmed et al. (2010) suggested that there was a strong relationship between students innovativeness
and their intentions to become entrepreneur in future.
2.4 Entrepreneurial knowledge and entrepreneurial intentions
Dyer (1994) has suggested that entrepreneurship courses, or training in relation to establishment of new business,
contributes towards starting a new business and gives confidence and courage to the students. Lack of
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entrepreneurial educations leads to low level of entrepreneurial intentions of students (Franke & Luthje, 2004).
Entrepreneurial education program are source of entrepreneurial attitude and overall intentions to become future
entrepreneur (Souitaris, Zerbinati, & Al-Laham Andreas, 2007). Entrepreneurship education has been considered
one of the key instruments to increase the entrepreneurial attitudes of both potential and nascent entrepreneurs
(Linan et al., 2011).
According to Ahmed et al. (2010), entrepreneurial subjects were not determinants of entrepreneurial intentions of
students. However, the researchers found that study year was an important predictor of entrepreneurial intentions,
suggesting that the higher the level of awareness and knowledge about the field and market, the higher students
preferences to become entrepreneurship will be.
2.5 Entrepreneurial environment and entrepreneurial intentions
In previous research, personal and environment-based had been identified as determinants of entrepreneurial
intent (Davidsson, 1995; Franke & Luthje, 2004; Segal, Borgia & Schoenfeld, 2005). Entrepreneurial
environment covers both the university and outside university environment. Luiz and Mariotti (2008) grouped
the environment into two: campus environment and country environment. Both environments contributed to
positive entrepreneurial intentions. Turker and Selcuk (2009) on the other hand classified the environment into
three: Educational support (university), relational support (family and friends) and structural support (private,
public and non-government organizations). The research findings identified that all the three supports were
related to entrepreneurial intentions. Erich, Malgorzata, Daniel and Robert (2009) recognized university
environment as significant predictor of students entrepreneurial intentions in Austria. However, the researchers
did not found significant impact of financial support for entrepreneurs or bureaucratic procedures related to
opening a firm on entrepreneurial intentions.
3. Methodology
3.1 Theoretical FrameworkThis research is based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (Azjen, 2002; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The theory
explains that intents towards a specific behavior are subject to influence from different factors. For this study,
both internal and external factors are considered as predictors of entrepreneurial career intentions.
Figure 1: Conceptual Research Model
Demographic
characteristics
Gender
Famil Back round
Entrepreneurial
Entrepreneurial
Entrepreneurial
Entrepreneurial
Career
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3.2 Research Hypotheses
H1: Demographic characteristics determine entrepreneurial career intentions.
H1 (a): Gender influences entrepreneurial career intentions.
H1(b): As compared to female, male students have higher intentions to be entrepreneurs.
H1(c): Family background influences entrepreneurial career intentions.
H1(d): Students with family background in business have higher intentions to be entrepreneurs.
H2: Entrepreneurial innovativeness has an impact on entrepreneurial career intentions.
H3: Entrepreneurial knowledge has an impact on entrepreneurial career intentions.
H4: Entrepreneurial environment will determine entrepreneurial career intentions.
3.3 Sample
The targeted sample size for this study was 300 students. 350 survey questionnaires were distributed to the
diploma and degree students from business and non-business background at a public university known as
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Perak. Purposive convenience sampling was employed to select the
respondents. This sampling method was used to ensure that research respondents consist of male and female
students who pursue their studies at both Diploma and Degree level in various programs offered by the
university. This sample size is consistent with other research conducted in other countries such as Linan et al.
(2011) that used 354 students in Spain, Ahmed et al.s research (2010) used 276 Pakistani business graduate
students, Turker and Selcuks (2009) and Eileens (2008) research both utilizing 300 university students in
Turkey, and 273 students in Ireland respectively.
3.4 Instrument and measurement
The survey questionnaire consists of three sections. Section 1 consist six (6) questions in relation to
entrepreneurship. In Section 2, the survey instrument was based on scales constructed from previous studies.
Likert five-point scales were used to measure the predictors and criterion variables. An entrepreneurial career
intention (dependent variable) was measured using 11 items adapted from Pihie (2009), Linan and Chen (2009),
and Linan et al. (2011). Entrepreneurial environment was measured using 9 items adapted from Luiz andMariotti (2008), entrepreneurial knowledge was measured using 10 items adapted from Linan et al. (2011), and
entrepreneurial innovativeness was operationalized using 10 items adapted from Jackson (1994) Jackson
Personality Inventory. In Section 3, four (4) questions on demographic variables were asked.
3.5 Data Analysis and Hypotheses Testing
Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the completed data. Exploratory Factor Analysis
with orthogonal varimax rotation was used to define the basic structure and to determine each dimension forming
this structure separately as well as to increase the interpretability of factor rotation (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, &
Black, 1998). KMO value and Barletts test of sphericity were used to examine the strength of relationship
among factors. The reliability test using Cronbachs alpha was applied for each of emerged factor to determine
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which items within the scale most reliably represented each construct. Hypotheses were tested using cross
tabulation and regression analysis.
4. Results
4.1 Respondents Profile
Based on the 230 sample of UiTM (Perak) students, the percentage of male and female respondents are 32.2
and 67.8 per cent respectively. While majority of the respondents are below 20 years old (i.e. 52.6 per cent of
total respondents), another 47.4 per cent are within the age range of 20 to 25 years old. 31.3 per cent of the
sample is in Year 1, whilst those in Year 2 and Year 3 make up 52.6 per cent and 16.1 per cent of the total sample
respectively. In term of study program, students are pursuing their studies in business administration,
accountancy, computer science, statistics, office management, art and design, actuarial science, town planning,
architecture, quantity survey, building, geometric science both at the Diploma and Degree levels. 42.1 per cent of
them are science students and 57.9 per cent are social science students (see Appendix-Table 1).
When Section 1 of the survey questionnaire is examined (see Appendix Table 2), 42.2 per cent of the students
have attended entrepreneurial course. Majority (72.2 per cent) of the participants have a favorable attitude
towards entrepreneurship. Unfortunately, 87 per cent of them have no financial support (i.e. money) to start the
business. While 48.3 per cent of the total sample has business experience, respondents that have family business
oriented background (i.e. parents involve in business) account for 27.4 per cent.
4.2 Pilot test
Results from the pilot testing with 20 respondents show that majority of the items has more than 3.50 mean score
(see Appendix Table 3). As such, similar questionnaire were distributed to the targeted sample.
4.3 Cross tabulation
Cross-tabulation was run to examine whether there is a significant difference between demographic variables and
entrepreneurial intentions. Table 4 of the cross-tabulation results (refer to Appendix) indicate that all variables
have significant positive relationship with entrepreneurial intentions but the relationship is quite weak/low
(contingency coefficient are less than 0.50).
A comparison between male and female respondents on entrepreneurial intentions was also examined. A
significant different between gender (=0.00) suggests that female students have higher intentions to be an
entrepreneur. Thus, H1 (b) is rejected. The present finding however, was inconsistent with Pihie and Afsanehs
(2009), and Wang and Wongs (2004) research, which were conducted in Malaysia and Singapore respectively.
This may be due to the ethnic homogeneity effect as all respondents are Malay students. Furthermore, more than
60 per cent of the respondents are female.
A significant different between students who have parents involve in business and those who are not on the
entrepreneurial intentions (=0.00) indicates that family-business oriented value do not influence the
respondents career intentions. Students who brought up in the non-business oriented parents have higherintentions to become entrepreneurs. As such, Hypothesis H1(d) is rejected. However, previous research suggests
this is not always the case (for example Wang and Wong (2004) Singapore, Drennan et al. (2005) Australia,
Mariano et al. (2007), and Hadjimanolis, et al. (2011) Cyprus).In Malaysia, those who have parents involve in
business usually may have more advantages to success in their lives. The findings of the present study however,
may suggest that female students are very ambitious, venturing themselves into the business and become
entrepreneurs for living despite no family (i.e. parents) business orientation values are nourished.
4.4 Factor Analysis and Reliability
Exploratory factor analysis had identified the Eigenvalue, KMO and Barletts Test score. The varimax rotation
method was performed and the numbers of factors was determined based on the eigenvalue criterion ( > 1).
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Barletts Test of Sphercity was statistically significant (5180.86, p = 0.00) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
value was 0.930. Factor loadings for all predictor items were shown in Appendix Table 5.
Principal component analysis revealed the presence of seven factors with eigenvalues exceeding more than 1,
explaining 61.08 per cent of the total variance, which exceeds the 60% threshold used in social sciences (Hair et
al., 1995). Factor 1, Factor 2, Factor 4 and Factor 5 are predictor variables. Factor 1 clearly represents
Entrepreneur Knowledge that comprises eight items, explaining 36.73 percent of the variance with eigenvalues
of 14.70. Factor 2 contributes 6.40 percent of the total variance with eigenvalues of 2.56 is known as
Entrepreneur Environment consisting of nine items. While Factor 4 is considered as Entrepreneur Innovativeness
that comprises nine items, a newly emerged factor 5 consisting of four items, was renamed as Attitude towards
Entreprenership. They both are explaining 3.92 and 2.69 percent of variance with eigenvalues of 1.57 and 1.15
respectively. According to Autio et al. (1997), there is a positive impact of attitude toward entrepreneurship on
entrepreneurial conviction. Krueger et al. (2000) and Erich et al. (2009) indicate that attitude toward
entrepreneurship acts as a primary determinant of students willingness to be self-employed. Franke and Luthje
(2004) suggest that the more students value the entrepreneurial career path, the stronger the interest to start a
business will be. Factor 3 (criterion variable) represents Entrepreneurial Career Intentions consists seven items,
explaining 5.92 percent variance with eigenvalues of 2.37. Factor 6 and 7 were dropped from subsequent
analysis due to less than three items loaded in both factors and the alpha score is too low.
The alpha values were calculated (see Table 5) to assess the internal consistency reliabilities of the scales. Alpha
values for predictors and criterion variables are as follows: Factor 1- entrepreneurial knowledge (=0.803),
Factor 2 entrepreneurial environment (=0.887), Factor 4entrepreneurial innovativeness (=0.766), Factor 5
attitude towards entrepreneurship (= 0.774), and Factor 3 entrepreneurial career intentions ( = 0.883). All
variables had above 0.70 Cronbachs alpha values. According to Sekaran and Bougie (2013), the closer
Cronbachs alpha is to 1, the higher its internal consistency reliability. A reliability less than 0.60 is considered
poor, those in the 0.7 range, is acceptable and over 0.80 is good.
4.5 Regression Analysis and Discussion
The hypotheses of the study were tested using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Overall, the model was
fit (F-change=99.97; F-sig=0.00). There was a strong relationship between demographics characteristics,
entrepreneurial innovativeness, entrepreneurial knowledge, entrepreneurial environment, attitude towards
entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intentions (R=0.82). 66.6 per cent of the changes in entrepreneurial
intentions were explained by the predictors (R2=0.666) refer Table 6.
In Model 1, the demographic variables of gender and family background were regressed towards entrepreneurial
career intentions. The results showed in Table 6 suggest that both gender and family background are significant
predictors to entrepreneurial career intentions. Both gender (=0.269; t=2.955; =0.003) and family background
(=0.262; t=2.748; =0.006) have positive significant relationship with entrepreneurial career intentions. Thisfinding is consistent with previous researches in this area (Ahmed et al., 2010; Carr & Sequeira, 2007; Wang &
Wong, 2004; Aldrich & Cliff, 2003; Ghazali et al., 1995; Scott & Twomey, 1988). Thus, H1, H1 (a) and H1 (c)
are all supported.
In Model 2, other predictors (entrepreneurial innovativeness, entrepreneurial knowledge, entrepreneurial
environment and attitude toward entrepreneurship) were entered into the model. The results showed that
innovativeness, entrepreneurial knowledge, entrepreneurial environment and attitude toward entrepreneurship
have significant influence on entrepreneurial career intentions. Attitude toward entrepreneurship (=0.346;
t=7.087; =0.000) is identifiedas the most important predictor for entrepreneurial career intentions. This finding
provides support to the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 2002) and other researchers general agreement that
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attitudes towards entrepreneurship is a determinant for university students to decide an entrepreneurial career
(Veciana et al.,2005; Linan et al., 2011).
Innovativeness (=0.462; t=6.584; = 0.00) is identified as the second mos t important predictor for
entrepreneurial career intentions. This finding supports Ahmed et al.s (2010) research. The third significant
determinant is entrepreneurial knowledge (=0.109; t=2.429; =0.016). It lends support to the research
conducted by Linan et al. (2011), Souitaris et al. (2007), and Franke and Luthje (2004), however, it contradicts to
Ahmed et al.s findings (2010). The fourth significant determinant is entrepreneurial environment (=0.125;
t=2.404; =0.017).The result supports other researchers findings in this area such as Turker and Selcuk (2009)
and Luiz and Mariotti (2008). In summary, these findings provide support to H2, H3, and H4, suggesting that
all predictors have positive and significant relationship with entrepreneurial career intentions.
5. Conclusion
This study confirmed the importance of demographic variables (i.e. Gender and family background),
entrepreneurial knowledge, environment, innovativeness, and individuals attitude towards entrepreneurship for
entrepreneurial career intentions. The present evidence also suggests that financial support (i.e. money) for
venturing into business is vital as majority of the respondents have favorable attitude towards entrepreneurship.
Financial constraints may impede the increase of the business profits, but an increased in the value of being
independence is highly regarded for job satisfaction (Bianchi, 2012). Thus, the university educators and
administrators as well as policy makers should further develop students interest towards entrepreneurship,
promoting successful entrepreneurial role models and conducting entrepreneurship educational programs for job
creation and growth. The attainment of this objective is undeniable for the long run, provided that initiative to
nurture positive attitude towards entrepreneurship among individuals, aligning them to the business-fit venture,
as well as providing the necessary supports are well developed. This is because individuals, firms and supports
are the three important balancing ingredients in creating remarkable entrepreneurs. Conducive entrepreneurial
environment is also vital in creating business growth. All involved parties should critically think of removing
bureaucratic procedures or regulatory constraints for business start-ups, willingly to offer more incentives (such
as training, mentor-mentee approach, etc.) to the young entrepreneurs, and promoting social acceptance of less
fortunate entrepreneurs. The government program of implementing incubator entrepreneurs should be supported
and promoted to the young generations. Students should also be exposed to the real business environment for
increasing their self-confidence level and further develops their risk taking attitude. Academic trips to the
industries and well-structured industrial attachment are among the initiatives that should be planned for the
students. Hence, university and industrial linkages provide important platforms for motivating and nourishing the
creative and innovative values among students. For example, a contribution in relation to funding from the
organization for students to present their innovative ideas in both local and internationals is highly regarded.
Specifically, this research highlights the importance of knowledge, innovativeness, environment, and attitudetowards entrepreneurship for entrepreneurial career intentions. However, as with any research, issues came to
light through the course of the study which imposed limitation. This related to the sample as only one ethnic of
multiracial Malaysia in Perak state is selected (i.e. Malays ethnic of UiTM (Perak) undergraduate students).
Future research can extend the present study in several directions. One possible direction would be to replicate
the same questionnaire with other UiTM state campuses at the undergraduate level. One could also conduct the
same study on undergraduate students in other public and private universities in Malaysia. In addition to that,
future research may consider self-confidence as a moderating variable between predictors and intentions.
Attitude towards entrepreneurship may also be considered as mediating variable between predictors and
intentions.
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APPENDIX
Table 1: Respondents characteristics (n=230)
Frequency % Frequency %
GENDER
Female
Male
156
74
67.8
32.2
PROGRAM
Science and
Technology
Social Science
97
133
42.1
57.9
AGE
Below 20
20-25
121
109
52.6
47.4
YEAR OF STUDY
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
72
121
37
31.3
52.6
16.1
230 100.0 230 100.0
Table 2: Related Information on Entrepreneurship (n=230)
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Frequency % Frequency %
Entrepreneurial
courses attended
YesNo
97133
42.257.8
Money to start business
YesNo
30200
13.087.0
Business
experiences
Yes
No
111
119
48.3
51.7
Favorable attitude
towards entrepreneurship
Yes
No
166
64
72.2
27.8
Entrepreneurial
parents
Yes
No
63
167
27.4
72.6
Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for Pilot Test (n =20)
Min. Max. Mean Std. Deviation
Entrepreneurial Intentions
CI1 3.00 5.00 4.10 .718CI2 3.00 5.00 4.40 .598
CI3 3.00 5.00 4.60 .598
CI4 1.00 5.00 4.05 1.050
CI5 1.00 5.00 3.70 1.128
CI6 4.00 5.00 4.15 .366
CI7 2.00 5.00 3.90 .718
CI8 3.00 5.00 4.35 .670
CI9 2.00 5.00 4.00 .858
CI10 3.00 5.00 4.30 .656
CI11 2.00 5.00 3.70 .864
Innovativeness
IN1 3.00 5.00 4.00 .458
IN2 3.00 5.00 4.15 .489
IN3 3.00 5.00 4.10 .640
IN4 3.00 5.00 3.60 .680
IN5 1.00 4.00 2.50 .945
IN6 2.00 5.00 3.65 .670
IN7 3.00 5.00 4.05 .394
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IN8 2.00 5.00 3.80 .695
IN9 3.00 5.00 4.00 .561
IN10 3.00 5.00 3.80 .695
Entrepreneurial Knowledge
EK1 3.00 5.00 3.95
.
.686
EK2 1.00 5.00 3.80 .833
EK3 2.00 5.00 3.80 .833
EK4 2.00 5.00 3.65 .745
EK5 2.00 5.00 3.75 .910
EK6 2.00 5.00 3.70 .732
EK7 3.00 5.00 3.90 .640
EK8 3.00 4.00 3.55 .510
EK9 3.00 5.00 3.75 .550
Entrepreneurial Environment
EE1 3.00 5.00 4.05 .686
EE2 3.00 5.00 4.15 .587
EE3 2.00 5.00 3.75 .716
EE4 2.00 5.00 4.25 .786
EE5 4.00 5.00 4.40 .502
EE6 2.00 5.00 4.20 .767
EE7 3.00 5.00 4.10 .718
EE8 3.00 5.00 4.00 .458
EE9 3.00 5.00 4.30 .732
EE10 2.00 5.00 3.85 .875
Note : Likert scales 1-5 points was employed
Table 4: Cross-tabulation (Demographic variables and intentions)
Gender
Total
Female
Male
Intentions:
Low 88
24 112
High 68
50 118
Pearson Chi-Square 11.55
Sig. 0.00**
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Contingency coefficient 0.219
Family as entrepreneur
Total
YesNo
Intentions:
Low 21
91 112
High 42
76 118
Pearson Chi-Square 8.20
Sig. 0.00**
Contingency coefficient 0.185
Table 5: Factor Analysis and Reliability Analysis of the variables (n=231)
Factor Eigenvalues Factor
Loading
%
Variance
Explained
Factor 1: Entrepreneur Knowledge ( = 0.803) 14.70 36.73EK2 I know how to develop an entrepreneurial project. 0.649
EK3 I know the necessary practical details to start a business. 0.665
EK4 I have some knowledge related to young entrepreneur
training.
0.681
EK5 I have the ability to make networking and professional
contacts.
0.416
EK6 I have some knowledge related to the financing aid to
start a business.
0.728
EK7 I have some knowledge on associations related to
entrepreneurship.
0.710
EK8 I have some knowledge related to the technical aid to
start a business.
0.757
EK9 I have some knowledge on support organizations related
to entrepreneurship.
0.665
Factor 2: Entrepreneur Environment ( = 0.887) 2.559 6.398
EE1 My country government support entrepreneurs. 0.715
EE2 Entrepreneurial examples are included in classes. 0.520
EE3 A small amount of grant would encourage 0.457
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entrepreneurship.
EE4 There is many entrepreneurial opportunities in Malaysia. 0.708
EE5 My university encouraged to pursue entrepreneurship
ventures.
0.763
EE6 More business sector interaction would encourage
entrepreneurship.
0.610
EE7 Having a mentor would help students to pursue
entrepreneurship ventures.
0.620
EE8 Private sectors support for student entrepreneurs would
result in more university based business start-up.
0.488
EE9 Ministry of Higher Education promotes entrepreneurship
programs to university students.
0.715
Factor 3: Entrepreneur Career Intentions ( = 0.883) 2.368 5.920
CI3 I want to be a boss to my own business. 0.636
CI4 I will start my business in the next 5 years. 0.607
CI6 Im determined to create a business in the future. 0.689
CI7 I am prepared to do anything to be an entrepreneur. 0.612
CI8 I have a strong intention to start a business someday. 0.621
CI9 Ill make every effort to start and run my own business. 0.630
IN10 I am willingly to take risk and start a new business
venture.
0.505
Factor 4: Innovativeness ( = 0.766) 1.569 3.922
IN1 I value new ideas. 0.661
IN2 I like to improvise. 0.719
IN3 I prefer challenging activities. 0.674
IN4 I am a creative individual. 0.667
IN5 I am a conservative thinker.(R) -0.495
IN6 I am an inventive individual. 0.515
IN7 I like to try new technology. 0.603
IN8 I am able to produce original thought. 0.411
IN9 I am motivated to develop new solutions to problems. 0.469
Factor 5: Attitude towards entrepreneurship ( = 0.774) 1.147 2.868
CI1 I will choose a career as an entrepreneur. 0.530
CI2 I put effort to make more money. 0.497
CI11 I have thought seriously to start my own business after
completing my study.
0.543
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EE10 A programmed to defer student loan payments would
encourage more students to pursue a business after graduation.
0.650
Factor 6 ( = 0.211) - deleted 1.086 2.715
EK1 I have some knowledge about business opportunities. 0.648
CI5 I will start my business in the next 10 years. 0.562
Factor 7 - deleted 1.002 2.506
CI10 I prefer to be an entrepreneur rather than be an employee
in a company.
0.431
KMO 0.930
Barletts Test 5180.86
Sig. 0.00
Total variance 61.08%
Table 6: Result of hierarchical regression on entrepreneurial intentions
Model 1 B t Sig.
Gender
Family background
0.269
0.262
0.189
0.176
2.955
2.748
0.003**
0.006**
R
R2
F-change
F-sig
0.258
0.067
8.097
0.00**
Model 2 B t Sig.
Gender
Family background
Innovativeness
Entrepreneurial knowledge
Entrepreneurial environment
Attitude toward
entrepreneurship
0.008
0.098
0.462
0.109
0.125
0.346
0.005
0.066
0.339
0.119
0.125
0.382
0.136
1.685
6.584
2.429
2.404
7.087
0.892
0.093
0.000**
0.016*
0.017*
0.000**
R
R2
F-change
0.816
0.666
99.97
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F-sig0.00**
Notes: Significant at 0.05 level (*p