JNS IBDP

2012

Entire History RevisionIBDP grade 12

Ashita Pillai Naik

[ T Y P E T H E C O M P A N Y A D D R E S S ]

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HISTORY NOTES

Contents

RUSSIA 3AII, AIII, Revolutions, Lenin, Stalin

GERMANY 28Bismarck, WW1, Weimar, Hitler

WW2 37Appeasement, major campaings

COLD WAR 43Causes, course and themes

VIETNAM 84French, US involvment, civil war

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RUSSIAN HISTORY 1815-DEATH OF STALIN

DATES

1801-1825: Alexander 11825-1855: Nicholas 11854-56: Crimean War1855:Alexander II comes to power1856: AII speech to nobility re. Emancipation and reforms, Treaty of Paris 1857:Reform plan of action proposed1859: Representatives to Moscow, official emancipation decree, army service reduced1861 onwards: Emancipation decree Military reform, educational reform1863: Polish revolt1864: Zemstva decree, judicial reform,1865: Censorship laws slackened1866: First assassination attempt1870: Marxism in Russia1871: Great Power conference in London1873: Three Emperors League with Austria-Hungary and Germany1874: Populists in the country1875 onwards: Balkan issues-slavic uprising in Turkey1876: Serbian uprising1877: Russia declares war on Turkey1878: Treaty of San Stefano, Vera Zusilish trial1881: Alexander II dies, Alexander III comes to power, Russification begins1887:Universities statute1890 onwards: Period of industrialisation and urbanisation1891: Famine1894: Nicholas II comes to power1896: Coronation celebrations1904 May:Russo-Japanese War1905 Aug 25:Treaty of Portsmouth1905 Jan:First revolution1905 Oct: October Manifesto1906 April: Fundamental laws1906 April-June: First Duma1907 Feb-June: Second Duma1907 Nov-June 1912: Third Duma1911 Sept: Stolypin murdered, end of land reform1912 Nov-Aug 1914: Fourth Duma1914: First World war breaks out1915: NII becomes supreme commander of the Russian Army1917 Feb: Second Revolution part one and even earlier...1917 March 2nd: Tsar Abdicates, beginning of PG1917 April: April Theses (surprisingly enough...)1917 June: PG go for major offensive and army gets wasted1917: August: Kornilov Affair 1917 Oct: Second Revolution part two1917 Oct: Beginning of ideological period1918 Jan: Constituent assembly election and dissolution1918: RSFSR is formed1918 Aug: Lenin assassination attempt, Red Terror begins1918 3rd March: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk1918-1921: Civil War in Russia, Period of War Communism1920 Feb: Kolchak shot1920 mid: Won Crimean region1921 March: Krondstadt mutiny1921: NEP, ban on factions

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1921: Famine1922 onwards, Lenin’s descent, Stalin’s rise1922: Red Terror1922: Treaty of Rapallo1922: Stalin becomes Gen Sec1924: Lenin dies1924 onwards: Stalin consolidates his power1926: Trotsky is falling from power1927: Failed communist uprising in China, Britain and Russia break off diplomatic relations, collectivisation pilotedlate 1927: Collectivisation is made official policy1929: Collectivisation introduced across Russia1931: Stalin’s 50-100 yrs speech1931-34: Famine1934: Purges begin1934 Dec: Kirov assassinated1934: Decree against Terrorism act1936: Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov killed1936: Collectivisation is complete1936: Rome-Berlin Axis1936: The originally named ‘1936 constitution’1937: Japan joins the Rome-Berlin Axis1938: Yezhow, Tomsky, Bukharin killed1939 August: Molotov/Ribbentropp pact1941: Trosky killed with an ice-pick in Mexico1946: Post-war five year plan is undertaken1949: Leningrad party leadership is purged1953 March: Stalin dies

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EVENTS and POLICIES

ALEXANDER I: 1801-1825AI was known for foreign policy, fights Napoleon for 14 years, victorious, Russia is a powerful and influential nation.

NICHOLAS I: 1825-1855Extremely reactionary, revolutions in 1821, 1830, 1848. Fights Crimean War and is losing when dies.

ALEXANDER II: 1855-1881. Became Tsar aged 38. Military education, political experience, seemed to be well prepared for the job. Ideas moulded by the events of 1948-i.e. riots, liberalism, unrest. Made him more conservative, reactionary and traditional. He was more humane ad sensitive than his father. Similar to Gorbachev in some ways. Wants to reform everything except the autocratic system,so is basically doomed to failure. Mild reforms in first year raised expectations. Tried to be autocratic when autocratism is dying, gave out freedom in very small doses, very naïve, didn’t realise that repression only buys time and didn’t judge the national mood very well.PROBLEMS FACED IN 1855: Different cultural groups and nationalities spread over huge country with communication difficulties. Poor relations with countries on Western borders. In arctic circle so low agricultural productivity with land that is frozen throughout much of the year, as is the sea. Agricultural nation, not industrialising, low productivity, frequent land redistribution leading to no innovation (odd system whereby land is split between all of the inheritors evenly, meaning that from generation to generation the amount of land available drops dramatically), £144 million pounds in debt, expanding population with landless peasants. Crimean War, behind the western powers in terms of technology and military capablility. Ineffective and poorly trained army. Noble officers and peasant squaddies. 25 years conscription. Conservative and traditional peasants controlled by mir. Land split repeatedly through the nobility. Bureaucracy are extremely corrupt. Form 1/80th of the population (1 million of them in 1880).

SERFS:Basically divided on geographical lines i. State, pay by rent or obrok, ii. Private, owned by landlord, works on his land, pays by labour (barschina). Permission required to get married. Can be exiled or forced to join the army by landlord. 99% of land workers are serfs. System ended in 1861. Ignorant and illiterate, make up 80% of the population. Russia is an agricultural nation, depends on these groups. Little migration, traditional and conservative group. Loves and wants his own land. Religious but dislike church which teaches obedience. Land was often redistributed and was divided up into small strips so that each family had some good fields and some bad ones- this is also bad for production.

MIR:Elder peasant group, ultra-conservative. Landlord deals through the mir. Obeyed and respected by the peasants. Used by the nobles to communicate with the village people. Looks after its interests but also controls it. More important than the individual. The mir made all of the decisions relating to the land.

RUSSIAN CLERGY:Works with nobles and clergy. Catechism, urged obedience to Tsar. Church is viewed as an oppressive thing by the peasants. A reactionary force, eastern form of christianity.

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EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS:WHY: Catalyst of the Crimean War ‘War is the locomotive of history’-the war exposes Russian weaknesses in terms of military strength as well as with industry and agricultural production. Russia is behind the West and it is a backwards country. Economic reform before military reform. Treaty of Paris (which ended the Crimean War in 1855) condition-emancipation. The system is inefficient and the people are conservative leading to low production. Emancipation could have come earlier, were it not for the attitude of the peasants, who were extremely fatalistic and conservative. They believed that the problems were on a local scale, and that it was not a national issue which needed to be dealt with centrally. THE CONDITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE RUSSIAN PEASANTRY was a crucial factor in the weakness of the country. It is an agricultural nation, and peasants make up 80% of the population, pay taxes and are locked in serf system. They are vital since they produce grain, the most valuable export. Serfdom is crap because productivity was not increasing with the population. This is a major issue since more than half the peasants are serfs. Poverty for the peasants and debt for nobility were the results of this ineffective system. Did not encourage innovation. Less stability, not enough land, frequent peasant revolts. Serfs cannot leave land without landlord’s permission. Dominated by the mir, who are extremely conservative, as are the peasants. AII saw the discontent in the countryside and realised that emancipation had to be from above not below HOW WAS EMANCIPATION ACHIEVED?Emancipation seemed progressive (this had long since been the view of the intellectuals), he had to use the defeat in the Crimean War to underline the need for change. He argued that if economic and social reform were to occur, serfdom must end. Put full weight of autocracy behind emancipation. The serfs soon began to believe that emancipation was about to occur, meaning that after a time there was ‘no turning back’. March 1856 made speech to nobility to try and get them onside. Most hoped that he would drop his plans, but were convinced by the ‘from above not below’ argument. Nov 1857 –plan of action.. 1861- Emancipation decree the ‘right of bondage’ was ‘forever abolished’. Serfs to receive land from nobility, nobility to receive compensation ‘Redemption payments’. Unwritten contract with Nobles, convinced them that he was on their side. Mir held land collectively. He used the fact that there was serious unrest in the countryside to convince the nobles that a revolution could come from below. Serfs free to move and trade.

RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION: PEASANTS: Riots followed decree, in 1861 alone there were 499 cases of riots which required army intervention to be stopped. Peasants forced to pay over inflated redemption payments (20% in the first year then 49 annual payments with an interest charge), but felt that the land rightfully belonged to them. Wage labour turned out to be the most effective, particularly in fertile areas. 49 year Redemption payments were too high, mir was a break on innovation, industrial expansion not rapid enough to accommodate landless peasants, the land was apportioned unfairly, the process of land transfer was too lengthy, money was pumped into industry not modernisation. People paid too much for bad land, particularly in non black soil provincesLANDLORDS: not content. Landlord in Poland got a worse deal, due to the 1863 revolt, with redemption payments here being far lower. Began demise of nobility. In short, too much for the nobility, not enough for the radicals, whilst the serfs were angered at being forced to pay redemption payments. The nobility began to rapidly decline, as did its ability to act as a stabilising force in Russian society. Progress was made, but when compared to the other nations of Europe, Russia was still far behind.

DID EMANCIPATION CHANGE ANYTHING?

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Emancipation basically changed the legal status of many peasants. It did not change the way they farmed the land. The system remained the same, with communal tender and strip farming- a system which had always worked ok because it was implemented on a local scale, and the country is not dependant on internal trade. But emancipation also didn’t face the peasant demands- they wanted the transfer of land without being forced to pay compensation. The fact that the population was increasing so rapidly meant that the impact of this lack of alteration to the system was greater.

REASONS FOR POPULATION GROWTHThe Zemstva had brought about some public health improvements in the provinces- there was also a run of good weather and hence better harvests. An unintended consequence of redemption payments was that it increased the population. Villages were taxed communally at this stage, and it was left to the mir to hand over the taxes. The tax burden could be decreased by forming more households and by allowing earlier marriage- this leads to a rapid population expansion. But the problem is that the system has not modernised enough to deal with the increasing demand.

OTHER REFORMS BY AII MOTIVATION: To maintain stability, to modernise Russia and make it a world power once again. Underlying motivation was the need to modernise the army which had been crushed in the Crimea. This was the catalyst for reform. Also the need for internal reform and modernisation. Political reform was not included, although above all Alexander wanted to remain in control without changing his role. He was known as the Reforming Tsar, and he played an important role in pushing through these reforms, but he refused to alter his own role at all.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT 1864: MOTIVATION: Felt that there was administrative inefficiency, but did not want to decentralise too much since this would have lessened his influence and rendered him less powerful. IMPLICATIONS: The decree establishing the Zemstva was published in January 1864. Locally elected councils with jurisdiction over public education, health, local economic development, services. Liberals wanted them to have real power, and they did, but only over certain things. They did not have power for example over taxes as AII thought that this would undermine his own power. 45% nobility, 40% peasants, 15% townspeople and clergy. 1870 saw a similar urban system set up. Set up by Valuiev. Two tier system, district and province. Could always be overruled by the centre of the party. They had no real powers and became a forum for complaining, did ease the governing of the provinces and performed well in the famine. This and the legal reform was not motivated by the military imperatives. Their success demonstrated that a central representative government may also have been effective. Another implication was that it raised literacy levels in the provinces. In a village, if one person can read then the village can read, so peasants quickly start to formulate new ideas.

LEGAL REFORMS 1864: MOTIVATION: Before 1864, there were numerous different types of court with poorly trained and often illiterate officials. Evidence was presented in written form, with evidence from the nobility given far more credence than that of any other group. It was clear that a fair and just system was necessary, and that this could only be achieved through reform.IMPLICATIONS: Salaries set high to avoid bribery and corruption. Public trials by jury, appeal courts, oral evidence, JPs for 3 years, judges nominated by Tsar, independent bar, lots of lawyers trained. Still some imprisonment without trial, initial shortage of well trained lawyers. Backfired as it was fair to political prisoners and gave them a forum to get publicity (eg Vera Zasulish trial in 1878 after which regular courts were not relied on to deal with terrorist cases). The

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training of lawyers and judges led to the creation of a new very liberal and well educated class, many of whom would go on to demand political reform. They were a dangerous by-product of the reforms. MILITARY REFORM 1862: MOTIVATION: Consumed 1/3rd of national income yet still got wasted in Crimean, shortcomings were exposed. Admin and command structure inflexible and punishments in the army were severe and barbaric. Conscription lasted 25 years, so it was basically a life sentence. IMPLICATIONS: Miliutin became Minster for war in 1861 and sought to humanise the military and improve its efficiency.. 1862 –regional commands set up. 1863, capital punishment ended, army schools set up in 1864. 1859 conscription period lessened to just 16 years. The Prussian success helped him to convince the sceptical nobles and conservative military leaders that a well-led modern army was necessary. Russia needed to protect itself and play a role in diplomatic affairs- not really a success as they got trashed in the Russo-Japanese war and in WW1, however some improvements had been made, as was demonstrated by the performance of the army in the Russo-Turkish war of 1878.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM: MOTIVATION: Difficult balance had to be struck, since AII aimed to educate the people without causing them to think and question his regime. Up until 1861, strict and repressive control had been maintained over education. Peasants would be more effective with education, and industrial and economic reform could be effected more quickly with a well trained workforce. IMPLICATIONS: Golvonin in 1861, primary education set up in villages, X4 primary schools 1961-1881. In 1862, schools were placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education rather than the chuch. Lead to more literacy, secondary education was open to all classes but most people could not afford to go, not controlled by church. 1863 University Regulations allowed freedom of expression and given autonomy in administrative matters. Outsiders were permitted to attend lectures, foreigners were allowed to obtain degrees, scholarly texts from abroad were brought in, and political literature was not subject to censorship. 1866 assassination attempt by university student at Kazan university, liberal education fosters radical ideas, Tolstoy comes in and is much more reactionary, introducing crappy subjects like classics. The central government also had more power to dictate the curriculum. Liberals saw this clampdown as unreservedly reactionary. As with the local government reforms, AII was trying to strike a difficult balance. In 1887, the universities statute took it all away.

REDUCTION TO CENSORSHIP: In 1863, responsibility for censorship was passed to Valuev. 1865-press laws, progressive, things freed from censorship such as periodicals, government publications and publications in universities .New books published, more freedom of ideas and expression. In comparison to Britain, censorship was strict, but compared to what had gone before in Russia it was pretty liberal.

ECONOMIC REFORM: Reutern in 1862, unified treasury, centralised administration, exports improved thanks to railway expansion, 1878-278 municipal banks, 727 loan and savings associations, 566 joint stock companies, 33 commercial banks, foreign jews trading and living throughout empire. Least important and actually pretty boring. 1862 budgets were published, 1863 system of excise duties replaced the old system. IN SHORT: These reforms did not go far enough. AII had to reform his own role if he was to successfully reform the country. Ironically, he was assassinated on his way to signing a bill that would begin constitutional reform. Generally speaking, tried to please everyone, and ended up backfiring everywhere and alienating various groups

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POLITICAL OPPOSITION TO ALEXANDER II:Often middle-class intelligentsia who had developed radical ideas due to their exposure to Western literature and political writings.POPULISM: Made up of young radicals, negative, focussed on the peasants, believing them to have the most potential, if educated. Go into the country in 1874-1875, 3000 of them dress up as peasants and try to enlighten the masses, 1600 are shot and the rest are arrested. Peasants don’t understand what is being suggested to them. Split into two factions- the milder land and liberty and the mental people’s will. Believe in terror as a means of overthrowing the system.NIHILISM: Accept nothing, question everything, criticise anything, middle class intelligentsia group, highly theoretical, very negative want everything to be changed but are not terrorists.

ALEXANDER II’S FOREIGN POLICY:EUROPE: Governed by the internal state that Russia was in. Wanted to encourage Franco-Austrian rivalry, aimed for closer links with France, against tradition, French then supported the Poles in 1863, ending all co-operation between the two. Only ally was Prussia, Black Sea became neutral in 1871 following the great power conference in London. In 1873, recognising the threat that Germany was likely to pose, he joined the three emperor’s league. Held a conservative attitude which generally didn’t offend anyone too much and worked out alright. Ideological differences with these non-autocratic nations. Several treaties were made later on, 1894 with France, 1904 with Britain and France and 1907 with Britain. ASIA: Policy of sustained expansion. Conflict in Caucasus region, eventual victory in 1864, looked towards Persia and Afghanistan and gradually extended influence eastwards. Gained land in Japan and China, maintained relations with US though sale of Alaska $7 million in 1867. Was a means of getting raw materials, consolidating borders and looking well ‘ard. PAN-SLAVISM: Idealistic, saw Russia as leader and protector of the Slav peoples. Aimed to protect Baltic Christians under Turkish rule. In 1875, Bosnians rebel against Turkish rule, given financial support by Russia. Spread to Bulgaria, Serbia in 1876. Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877 but hoped that the Turks would back down. Treaty of San Stephano improved Russia’s position in Europe, Berlin- treaty was revised (took away sea access in Bulgaria). In this region, Austria is the main rival with another mixed nationality empire. Ottoman Empire is collapsing leaving a power vacuum which both nations were trying to fill.

POLISH REVOLT OF 1863:Poland had become part of Russia during 1815, all Tsars are therefore also king of Poland. 1830 revolt, lose constitution and parliament, regime becomes more oppressive, they become much more pissed off, 1863 they revolt again, 1/3 of their land given away to peasants to punish the landlords during the emancipation, doesn’t make them much happier, Russification occurs, people start to seriously dislike AII. Result is that AII becomes more repressive. And then he gets killed, so that is that.

ASSESS ALEXANDER IIHIS AIMS: To maintain stability and create a strong Russia. Ultimate aim was to create a military and industrial power through reform but to remain autocratic. Wanted to emancipate the serfs to increase productivity and industrial growth and end serfdom, from above, not below. EXTERNAL CONSTRAINTS: Geographical/physical issues which faced all Russian leaders, the huge population, corrupt and massive bureaucracy, mir, nobles, landowners. All of these are very conservative and present a barrier to reform. Also has some conservative ministers. Has some nasty opposition within the country (see later on) and has to deal with the Poles.HOW EFFECTIVE WERE THE REFORMS? Education- Primary schools much improved, universities lead to free thinking, so are only given limited freedom for

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a limited time. Local government- Zemstva have power on local scale and are symbolically important. Military reforms- Turkey 1878 lookin’ good, then get wasted against Japan and in WW1. Emancipation- Serfs were emancipated, but alienates the nobles. Redemption payments remain an issue for absolutely ages. He gives people a taste of what they could have and then refused to give any more, thus creating more problems. He refused to reform his own position, and this was the main problem with the whole reform thing.

ALEXANDER III: 1881-1894Extremely reactionary following father’s assassination and assasination attempts, makes education expensive and elitist, bans foreign literature. Changed judicial system, no open trials, trial by jury, more state police. 1890 Russia was a police state, freedom of speech, freedom of ideas all suppressed. Lots of people got sent to Siberia, good practice for Stalin. Came to power in very bad circumstances. The Okhrana was given more power, and censorship was tightened up, universities were brought under much stricter control in 1887. Was helped by Pobedonovstev, chief minister between 1881 and 1905 who believed that democracy is the great lie of our time. He had a policy of Russification, which aimed to bring national minorities under stricter control, Russian became the only official language, and there was increased racism and victimisation. National identities in Baltic states were attacked. It was also a period of intense anti-Semitism, and the mini purges on the Jews were known as the Pogroms.

WITTE: 1893-1903 Finance minister.Finance minister who brings about the rapid industrialisation of Russia. Equated economic power with military power. Wanted to industrialise along Western lines. Recognised the importance of communications but had a serious railways fetish.

WITTE’S ECONOMIC REFORMS:AIMS AND MOTIVATION: Modernisation of economy, industry and agriculture, leading to military modernisation, end economic slumber. Exploited by Western nations, unbeneficial trading relationship, selling goods and raw materials very cheaply. Needed economic independence. Need to exploit natural resource wealth, primitive methods, boost heavy industries and improve export potential. Needed an economy to compare with other Western European nations, whom they are around 150 years behind. They are being exploited by these Western powers, and Russia needed to become economically independent, not just politically independent.HOW IT WAS ACHIEVED: Infrastructure had to improved first. The process was very uneven and severely limited. Through improvements to infrastructure, particularly transport with projects such as the Trans-Siberian railways. 1890-1900, coal production increased from 5.9 to 16.1 million tonnes per year, pig iron went from 0.89 to 2.66, oil went from 3.9 to 10.2 million. Also increased agricultural production, due to mechanisation, more grain production. 1891-1913 railway length in km grew from 31,219 to 70,156. Foreign experts were also brought in. With huge loans that had to repaid. The emphasis was on heavy industry and exports, leading to huge trade deficit. System of state capitalism with the expansion of basic raw materials. Between 1880 and 1913, grain production increases from 34 million to 90 million tons. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION: Less emphasis on agriculture, peasants left land. Urbanisation occurred at a very rapid rate, facilities in towns and cities not sufficient to deal with this, leading to overcrowding and disease due to poor hygiene, after 1900 as industrialisation slowed down, there was widespread unemployment. High tax and currency value, as well as government emphasis on heavy goods led to a shortage of consumer goods at high prices, workers had no union representation, at the mercy of their employers. Exports increased but there was still a huge debt problem and inflation within the country. Depression began at the beginning of the century.

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Some people called it a great spurt, but it was more of a dribble. It was mostly due to private enterprises being sustained by government policy, and industrialisation was viewed solely as a means of improving the economy. The huge loans led to very high taxes within Russia, and this was not very popular. There was a huge amount of direct investment into the railways. Also came as part of a World-wide boom in the 1890s which was ending by the 1900s. Normal people and workers did not really benefit from the industrial expansion. Led to depression and unemployment as the population increased at a faster rate than productivity. Industrialisation was far too rapid and brutal and the use of money was extremely uneven with consumer industries being completely neglected. Debt: 116 million in 1897 and 155 million by 1913, the biggest in the world. In 1902, troops were used to put down riots 365 times. A working class is also formed, and they are politicised for the first time. THE DEPRESSION: Started at the turn of the century and was a world-wide thing. Urbanisation had been too rapid, there were no facilities for the new workers leading to overcrowding. With the recession came widespread unemployment, and people no longer accepted the poor conditions. There is social unrest, and the authorities began to find it increasingly difficult to deal with the problems. The workers don’t gain from the slight recovery and still are not represented by trade unions.

MARXISM:First introduced to Russia in 1870. Plakhanov wrote ‘Society and the Political Struggle’ in 1897, first Russian Marxist book. This and ‘Das Kapital’ are not banned because no-one understands them. Utopian. Not like populism because it centres on the workers not the peasants. Class and ruling class are always in conflict. Dialectic- history evolves through conflicts at various stages in development. This idea had in fact first been put forward by the philospher Hegel. He and Marx subscribed to the theory that, in every argument or theory, there is a thesis (argument), antithesis (counter-argument) and a synthesis (brings together the best bits of both), but there is a never ending cycle since this synthesis is itself then subjucted to antithesis, and must also evolve, ending, Marx believed, in Communism. Hegel believed that History had progressed through a series of dialectics. Marx basically took this idea and expanded it slightly, relating it to the class struggle. Marx stated that every society has a ruling class which exploits the ruled class. (The status of any one group in society is determined by its wealth- this is known as economic determinism) Periodically the ruled class with rise up and overcome the ruling class (think dialectic, thesis, synthesis etc). There were several stages which every society must pass through before communism, but when in Capitalism the proletariat overthrows the ruling class, Communism could be achieved. In a Communist community, so the theory went, everything would be distributed evenly among the people ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Eventually the state, and all its institutions would no longer be necessary, and hence would wither away. Ta-daa, perfect communist state. As you can see, very like how Russia turned out… or not. By 1890s, Marxists are one of many opposition groups. Social Democrats, later to split into Menseviks and Bolsheviks. Economics is the most important thing, economic determinism. Primitive Communism, Empire, Feudalism, Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, led to Trotskyism –permanent revolution (these are the stages through which a society must pass).

RUSSIA 1881-1890Alexander III is not a reformer, particularly after seeing the assassination of his father. He is helped during this reactionary period by his chief minister Pobedonestev who describes democracy as ‘the great lie of our time’. 1881 brings the Statute of State security which extends the powers of the secret police. Pipes states that during this period Russia could be categorised as a police state. Russification occurs from 1881 onwards- national identities are attacked in the

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Baltic states, Russian is the only official language, only Russian religion is permitted. He is also very anti-semitic, carrying out the pogroms and introducing 600 new laws against the Jews.

FAMINE OF 1891:36 million people affected in 17 provinces (area 2X larger than France) diseases, people are weakened by starvation. Crisis response was very bad, Vishnygradsky’s ‘let us starve but let us export’ policy of absolute denial, needed proof before aid could be sent out, word ‘famine’ is banned. People of all classes are shocked, government passes the buck to Zemstvas which do very well leading for calls for a nation-wide Zemstva. Transportation methods are not sufficient to get food to the needy. Strengthens the potential revolutionary movement, it is this famine that makes Lenin revolutionary. The famine was also caused in part by the completion of the railroad across the US, which meant that cheap American grain from the prairies could be exported. The global wheat price plummets, leaving the Russians with nothing to export.

NICHOLAS II: 1894-1918 (Abdication 1917)Good husband, crap politician. Limited intelligence, couldn’t speak very good Russian, spoke good French, had no military experience, hated the Japanese after his grand tour, didn’t want to be leader of Russia, did his own paperwork and had no sense of the big picture. Taking over the Russian army was a seriously bad move, as it left Russia in the hands of Rasputin and the Tsarina, who were unpopular as you like.

THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAROccurred between 1904 and 1905. Japan a rapidly modernising power in the far east with imperial interests in Korea and China. This expansion threatened Russia’s interests in the area. NII underestimated the strength of this nation. Internally, Plehve suggested that a war might take people’s minds off of the crisis (the economic depression following the over-the-top, brutal industrialisation). The Russians were very poorly equipped for this war , had out of date techniques, and were trying to organise it from 6000 miles away. Infantry was soon defeated in Manchuria, whilst the fleet was beaten at Tsushima. The unrest triggered by the conflict meant that there were calls for reform. NII was not willing to meet these, leading to Bloody Sunday.

THE REVOLUTION OF 1905CAUSES: The war, see aboveUnrest since 1861 emancipation:This changed the status of the peasants, but did not change the system which they worked in. When you live in an agricultural country with little internal trade this is ok, but when industrialisation begins, industrial production must increase. In addition to this, redemption payments were dispisedPopulation growth: Partially as a result of the zemstvas which had improved the conditions in rural areas. More households reduced the tax burden, so the zemstva encouraged people to marry younger. The population is expanding, but the modernisation isn’t occuring with it.Famine: 36 million people were affected in 17 provinces, and distribution remains a really serious problem. Zemstva: Raised literacy levels and hence allowed the spread of ideas and opposition to occur more rapidly. Industrialisation: Urban conditions were awful, and labour unrest had increased dramatically. Despite the St Petersburg textile workers strike of 1896 the workers still weren’t really politicised. Bloody Sunday massacre (when 150,000 workers go to the winter palace to deliver a petition to the Tsar, and then get shot), the feeling that politics is failing and force is the only solution, cross class outrage. Not aimed at Nicholas, although he is an out of touch loser implementing an anachronistic system-badly.

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There are many more workers due to the rapid industrialisation, and many of them have a bad standard of living.DEMANDS: Liberals was national parliament with democratic elections, constitution, freedom of speech, political amnesty. Peasants want food and an end to redemption payments. Workers want trade unions, better conditions, shorter hours and better pay, at this stage no-one wants to abolish Tsarism, which was definitely the case in 1917. Obviously these demands are not exactly compatible so there is not a great deal of co-operation.EVENTS: Localised and sporadic countryside violence, peasants get more well organised and form some unions, All Russia Peasant Union (which makes up 65% of the Russian Population). Troops put down these uprisings (2700 of the bloody things). Middle classes and liberals are frightened of peasants and have very different demands to them. Establish a Union of Unions under Milyukov in May 1905. Workers have spontaneous riots but little is planned. General strike by October. Black sea fleet mutinied, and troops were sent in to Odessa to sort it out. NICHOLAS’S RESPONSE: Had done nothing by Sept, August published a vague plan for Duma. October manifesto, satisfied the liberals –legislative powers, freedom of assembly worship and speech. November NII dropped the redemption dues. Put down strikes and urban uprisings with force. Backtracked completely with Fundamental laws of April 1906, which stated that he still had ultimate power. The workers got nothing, although they are too disorganised to really care. The perception of the Tsar had also completely changed, he is no longer seen as the little Tsar. WHY HE SURVIVED: Most importantly had the support of the army thanks to the Treaty of Portsmouth. Troops were able to put down worker unrest which was localised and not organised. All spontaneous and fragmented plus none of it was actually targeted at the Tsar and the autocratic system. Opposition is divided and have different demands which he is basically able to meet. Government was relatively decisive and acted quickly. He was lucky in that at this stage he still had something to offer people. HISTORIOGRAPHY: Did the 1905 revolution and the Tsar’s reaction to it make the events of 1917 somewhat inevitable?

TREATY OF PORTSMOUTH:August 1905, negotiated by Witte and brought about an end to the Russo-Japanese war. Very favourable to Russia, did not have to pay war indemnity, did not surrender all of their territory in Manchuria, army retained faith in Tsar and government. Russia still got absolutely shat on in this war, particularly at the battle of Tsushima.

THE OCTOBER MANIFESTONII offered state parliament with legislative powers, freedom of assembly worship and speech, legal rights for trade unions, and government positions to moderate liberals. In November he also dropped outstanding redemption dues. These divide and rule/carrot and stick tactics were very effective. The fundamental laws of 1906 backtracked completely from what had been promised. They stated that the Tsar would remain autocrat, with the power to dismiss or appoint any officials, middle classes were to have the most power in the Dumas, he chose most of the people (50%) of the people in the Upper House. He could also veto any legislation, and dismiss the Duma at will. However, 1905 had some important effects: Middle Classes decide that tyranny is better than anarchy, people really begin to sort out their demands, and each of the groups becomes more well organised. Most importantly, the role of the army was absolutely crucial.

DUMA ERA: First Duma-April-June 1906. As with all of the Dumas, it was composed of two chambers, one which was elected and one above it consisting of members selected by the Tsar. Hence the first duma met in a mood of bitterness since its

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power had been completely cut and it demanded more influence so the Tsar disbanded it. Dominated by liberals and does absolutely bugger all. Second Duma: February-June 1907. Very few Kadets as a result of the Vyborg group, more Socialist Revolutionaries, who would become the most popular party. Considerable disagreement within Duma as the right was better represented. This duma also opposed Stolypin’s reforms. Third Duma: November 1907-June 1912. Lasted longer, made Russia look good for the triple entente of 1907, heavily dominated by right wing parties thanks to Stolypin. ‘Rubber Stamp Democracy’ , got on better with Stolypin as the balance of power was more in his favour. Fourth Duma: November 1912-August 1914. Period of social unrest was beginning once again. Whole period was a lost opportunity, Dumas had some potential, had war not occurred, perhaps Stolypin would have sorted out Russia (he had claimed ‘give me 20 years and you will not know Russia’ or words to that effect, the war meant that he didn’t get these 20 years). Too much repression, people were already beginning to lose faith. The failure of the Dumas disillusions the liberals. The most frustrating thing is that they had real potential, and it should be seen as a period of missed opportunity. If the Tsar had allowed it a few more powers, he may have allowed his own survival, but as he was so unwilling to change his position he ironically brought about his own demise with the loss of the liberal support.

STOLYPIN: 1862-1911Came from the provinces: Saratov. Famous for his ‘necktie’ and ‘carriages’, Minister of interior for 1906-1907, PM 1907-1911. Believed in economic reform and political repression, in his view peasants are clearly the key to future economic success in Russia. He worked with the last two dumas to get things done as these were more conservative.

STOLYPIN’S REFORMS:Wanted an agricultural revolution, and felt that he needed 20 years (needed way longer and plus there was the small problem of WW1). Had faith in the new generation peasants like those in Lithuania and Poland, who were more enterprising and there was no mir. He wanted peasants to break from the mir and convert their strips to private land, set up bank to help them do this. Plans fail dismally because the peasants are just too conservative. Most of them don’t opt out of the mir. Russia is still in an economic depression at this stage which doesn’t help. Simultaneously, he was implementing a scheme of political repression. Summary courts, prisons 100% over-filled, also ended pogroms, sought to regulate police, supported compulsory primary school education, sought to improve factory conditions. In the short-term, there was chaos in the countryside, in the long term there was discontent as a result of the repression.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR:00 17 million roubles spent on it, army reforms had helped but it was still inflexible, artillery renovation, equipment shortages, 10 days worth of shells, 10 shots per day per soldier, 679 cars and 2 ambulances. Supreme commander (Duke Nikolai) had never fought before, on 22nd August 1915, Tsar took personal control of army and this meant that he could be personally blamed when it screwed up. Between 1914-15, the army lost 4 million men (50% conscripts). Officers got shot easily as they went into battle in full uniform. Disease, disillusionment, desertion. Army started to hate Tsar-key factor was lack of army support in 1917. Rail network still couldn’t cope, Rasputin was appointed and was very unpopular, there was a serious lack of continuity in the Duma, leading to a slow decision making process. Inflation quadrupled up to 1917, there were shortages of absolutely anything and everything, no jobs, loads of crime, loads of death, both internal and external problems, everything was crap, it was the man catalyst for the 1917 revolution.

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Sparked off loads of opposition. Strikes in 1915 over price of bread, by 1917 people began to target the Tsar himself. Revolutionary leaders were not involved at this stage. 63 factories in Oct 1916 went on strike. Petrograd garrison (had been key in 1905), whom NII was relying on were all viciously anti-war.

THE IMPACT OF WW1ECONOMIC IMPACT: The regime has had to mobilise 12 million men- arm them, feed them and clothe them. The government at one stage attempted to print money to pay for all of this, leading to inflation, although wages do not rise. There is also uneven economic growth, as there is a demand for certain products, although there is a dramatic shift away from consumer industries. Grain cannot get from the countryside to the cities- infrastructure problems and issues with hoarding (as there is no point selling it). The railways are crap, and there are shortages in the cities.SOCIAL IMPACT: The growth of the working class is accelerated. Amenities are never provided and it is a very grim life. The peasantry is also empowered, many soldiers are peasants, and there is a major garrison in Petrograd. Also a refugee problem, as there are many minority groups displaced around Russia. There is a serious polarisation of the classes, as the poor recognise how well off some of the industrialists are.POLITICAL IMPACT: Undermines the legitimacy of the regime-why should people obey the Tsar? The educated people also have more influence, and clash more with the bureaucracy. After the Tsar takes personal control, he can be personally held responsible. Rasputin is also unpopular, and people become more disrespectful of the Tsar through him. The lower classes become politicised and the Tsar’s legitimacy is undermined. The officer core also suffers huge losses which pisses off the nobility immensely.

POLITICAL INEPTITUDE PRIOR TO 1917Duma reconvened in July 1915, and only the Bolsheviks refused to support the war (everyone else was caught up in this crazy wave of patriotic fervour). NII didn’t like this new duma, and dissolved it by September. With NII off buggering things up on the front line, the Tsarina was left to appoint lots of crap ministers, as well as putting immense faith in Rasputin, who everyone was very suspicious of. By 1916, she was known as the traitor, and in December he was assassinated.

ECONOMIC/SOCIAL INEPTITUDE PRIOR TO 1917Inflation quadrupled prices between 1914 and 1917. There were food and goods shortages, distribution of food was dodgy, there were labour shortages due to conscription. There was no rationing until 1916, peasants didn’t bother to produce surplus since there were no goods for them to buy. The government tried to requisition grain from the peasants but did not have the manpower to do this. In Jan 1917 food deliveries to Moscow fell 60% short of need, infant mortality doubled and the crime rate tripled.

THE FIRST 1917 REVOLUTION:CAUSES: The war. This meant that Stolypin could not finish off his reforms (and he was dead too). More importantly, it meant that the army no longer supported the Tsar, who was the subject of criticism haven taken personal control of the army. He could no longer rely on force. The scale of the conflict was huge, millions of casualties and Russian soil occupied. It placed economic strains on the country, leading to shortages. He no longer had anything to offer to the people. The dumas had been a failure so the liberals and the middle classes were unimpressed, the workers were also a far larger and more well organised group. Land reform had ended in 1911, so by 1916 tension levels in the countryside were very high once again, particularly with the added problems of shortages due to the war. Left behind the inept politicians, Rasputin and Alexandra who no-one liked and who dismissed every single vaguely good prime minister or foreign minister. The workers were far more organised as were the peasants- ‘this time

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it’s personal’ and he has nothing to offer them- he is also lacking the support of the nobles and the elites. Lenin et al were not involved- it was a spontaneous revolution. EVENTS: Jan 9th –150,000 workers go on strike in commemoration of Bloody SundayJan 14th – Demonstration in support of the Duma as it re-opened. Feb 18th – Putilov workers went on strikeFeb 22nd – Nicholas returns to the frontFeb 23rd – Demonstration confronting soldiers v. PopularFeb 26th – Last instance of soldiers shooting at demonstratorsFeb 27th – Duma blamed by Tsar, Kerensky tries to sort something out.Feb 28th – Red flag raisedMarch 2nd – Tsar abdicates, 1st Provisional Government is set up.

BOLSHEVISM: BP was formally part of the Socialist Democratic party which then split into Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks, under Lenin did not believe in revolution as a mass movement, and couldn’t wait for Russia to go through the capitalist phase. In contrast, the Mensheviks (Trotsky was a former member) had theories which were closer to Marxist theory, but were not as well supported or represented in the Soviets.

THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT MONTHS: MARCH-OCTPROBLEMS FACED: WAR. Wanted to have some success before quitting, and needed to maintain support from the allies (Br and Fr), this was in conflict with public opinion, people wanted to see an end to all of their families being dead. June offensive means they lose even more support, and army discipline collapses yet further. LAND. Peasants wanted it and began to take it illegally. PG does nothing much, needs peasant support too. There is still chaos in the countryside, and the mir remains the controlling factor. DUAL AUTHORITY. Soviet drains support from PG, have practical control over Petrograd which is the important thing. People in both begin to lose credibility. Bolsheviks gain support as they were never involved in the PG, bided their time. The country was in complete chaos as a result of the war.EVENTS: April – war continues as the provisional government seeks recognition from the West. The Soviets bide their time, believing themselves to be in the bourgeois phase. 3rd April- The April theses, Lenin writes that capitalism must be overthrown and that the time is now.May-July – 1st coalition. And the failed June offensive3rd June – meeting of all-Russia congress of Soviets, mostly SRs and Mensheviks who are the big two at this stage. Bolsheviks had grass roots support however.3rd July – Kronstadt naval officers revolt, supported, but not organised by Bolsheviks.July-Sept – 2nd coalition.Kerensky was the leader of it, Bolsheviks were denounced by him. August – Kornilov affair, general tried a military coup to take away the power of the Soviets, Kerensky’s involvement damaged his reputation. Led to further collapses in army discipline. Sept 29th Oct 25th – 3rd coalition.

KERENSKY: Led the Provisional Government, got a bad reputation from his dealings with Kornilov, played everybody off against one another and was a member of all political groups. Failed to see the real threat that the Bolsheviks posed in late 1917.

APRIL THESES:Made by Lenin. Said that – capitalism must be overthrown, no support should be given to the provisional government, power should lie with the Soviets, land and

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banks should be nationalised. First suggestion of a second revolution, also contradicting Marxist theory.

LENIN: Died in 1924, was not really in control from 1922.April Theses was the first suggestion of revolution, he was important as it was anti-Marxist, he wanted to force a revolution to occur, and doesn’t believe in the need for a mass movement. He was extremely influential.Between 1918 and 1922 he was a dictator, almost personally responsible for the conclusion to WW1, the ban on factions, the end of the assembly, War Communism, the NEP and Red Terror.From 1922 onwards he was still important as he influenced the power struggle, believing that there should not be one single successor.He was an ideological pragmatist that thought that politics just got in the way of spreading the Marxist message, which was his main aim. Russia came before Marxism, hence the NEP. Made sacrifices for the safety of the revolution, and he didn’t care about individuals. At the time of his death, this was the issue that split the party. The revolution achieved an end to the provisional government, but led to a whole lot more shit.

SECOND 1917 REVOLUTION:PG had done no better than the Tsar- just another ‘Rubber Stamp democracy’. They had continued the war, and there was chaos in the countryside. Kerensky is a complete dickhead, had lost credibility due to his role in the Kornilov coup and the failed June offensive. Working and living conditions were still terrible, Soviets had more power than PG and Trotsky had the brilliantly organised Red Army. OCTOBER 1917- Incited by the Bolsheviks, Mensheviks did not believe that the time was right. It was not a revolution involving the masses, but was undertaken by a number of professional revolutionaries under the leadership of Lenin and Trotsky. It was not spontaneous- it is a coup carried out by an elite group. Thought that Europe was on the brink of Revolution, and that Russia could set it off. Kerensky didn’t believe that it was actually going to happen. On the 25 th

October the Bolsheviks occupied the Winter Palace, and proclaimed that a revolutionary socialist government would be formed. The next day, Lenin issued his peace and land decrees.

THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF LENIN’S ROLE IN THESE EVENTSTraditionally there was unanimity about Lenin’s importance- he was presented as the maker of the revolution. People thought that he’d founded and developed a strictly controlled and disciplined party, made in his own image. This view also states that the Bolsheviks gained support legitimately in the Soviets, and that the lower classes were aware of what Bolshevism stood for.

THE MORE RECENT VIEWModern opinion is quite different. In fact, the Bolshevik party was not a strict, disciplined party- it was very loosely organised. Regional leaders often disobeyed the central party line, and did not follow the policy dictated by Lenin. It certainly was not a robotic organisation with Lenin in some kind of all powerful role at its head. Lenin himself was not present between April and October, and his suggestion for an earlier revolution was ignored. He was not always the active leader, and there was a lot of talent at the provincial leadership level- not just in the central committee. Many of the members of the party didn’t even know what he looked like, and he also rarely wrote in pravda.

HOW IMPORTANT WAS LENIN?Must not downgrade him too much. He was quite a modern politician in terms of his ability to manipulate people and appease all kinds of audiences. With fellow Marxists, he talked about the need for terror, and a dictatorship over the proletariat, whilst with workers, he toned his ideas down and talked about freedom for the workers. He was also far less arrogant than someone like Trotsky

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or Zinoviev. He had the common touch. He didn’t really have control over the whole party, but critically was dominant in Petrograd. He knew that the party would not reject a seizure of power if it was already underway, meaning that he did not need widespread support, even among the party. Also set up the first modern dictatorships, which in time would go on to cover almost 1/3rd of the globe.

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE SOVIET STATE:Summer of 1918 a state was set up that remained in power until 1985. 1917-1918 could be called the idealistic period. People still believed in the ideas of world revolution at this stage. There is a period of artistic, cultural and social freedom, and country become RSFSR. The constituent assembly meets for one day in January and is dissolved by Red Guards as the Bolsheviks only gain ¼ of the seats.

THE END TO RUSSIAN INVOLVEMENT IN THE WAR:Peace was important as to create economic and political stability. Trotsky meanwhile is trying to get the Germans to follow the Russian example and have a revolution. This gives the Russians more time, but also aggravates the Germans. Lenin is typically pragmatic, believing that sacrifices such as a crap treaty have to be made in order to secure the safety of the revolution. On 16 th Feb, Germany is getting so impatient that it re-declares war, so the Russians are forced to accept that a treaty is necessary. Brest-Litovsk March 3rd. Russia loses 32% of its land, 34% of its population, 54% of its industry and 89% of its coal. Poland, Ukraine, Finland and Baltic states all gain independence.

THE CIVIL WAR:Bolsheviks v. Tsarists, SRs, Mensheviks, Liberals, Cossacks, Peasants, National Groups, British, French, Americans, Japanese and the Czech regiment. 3 main white armies:Western: Yudenich-on PetrogradSouthern: Kornilov and Deniken (Ex-Tsarists)Eastern: Kolchak. The allies are involved because they are afraid of Communism, in addition to this, the Bolsheviks were refusing to pay back huge debts to the French. However, they never fully commit to the war effort.Those in the South probably had the most success, threatening supply lines and generally being really annoying. Kolchak was shot in Feb 1920, following a steady retreat into the Urals. The Crimea was the last white stronghold in April 1920, and eventually the whites gave it up.REASONS FOR OUTBREAK OF WAR AND WHITE CAUSEBy 1918, large portions of the Russian population had been alienated, but they did not have united aims. The Whites were those from other revolutionary groups, former imperial officers angered by the Betrayal of Brest-Litovsk, nationalist groups seeking independence. Most of the generals were Tsarists like Deniken, Kornilov, Krasnov, who wanted to restore the Provisional Government. There were also Kadets such as Miliukov, SRs such as Chernov and Nationalist groups such as the cossacks.

CAMPAIGNSIn S- Deniken with British and French support, had cleared the Don and Kuban regions of Bolsheviks. In the E, a coalition eventually formed between those holding the Trans Siberian railway. In the N, Tsarist general EK miller with British support controlled Murmansk. In the W, there were Germans and hostile nationalities. In Russia, individual uprisings led by the SRs occurred. DEFEAT OF KOLCHAK: In E, centred on Omsk. Reds were unified, the whites were not. In November 1918, Kolchak became the ‘Supreme Leader of all Russians’, and by June 1919 he’d been pushed back beyond the Urals. By November 1919

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Omsk was taken, and in February 1920 Kolchak was handed over to the Red Army and shot.BOLSHEVIK VICTORY IN S AND W: Deniken and Yudenich initially made rapid progress, got from Odessa to quite near Moscow and St.Petersburg. Retreat was equally rapid, after stubborn defence from Trotsky they were pushed back to Estonia. From April 1920, only the Crimean region, with the whites led by Wrangel, remained untaken. He was quite a good commander, but evacuated in November 1920.

REASONS FOR THE BOLSHEVIK SUCCESSWhites in the SE, had wide fronts with poor communications. The aims of the commanders were not always the same as those of the intevening allies. Other than Wrangel, none made an attempt to deal with the peasants and the people. People did not dislike the Bolsheviks enough. The communists had excellent leadership and propaganda. Trotsky brilliantly directed the war on most fronts. Some of the allies were French and American.

WHITES: Divided and incompatible. Included Tsarists, peasants, allied nations plus Japan, Czech legion, liberals, Mensheviks, SRs and some peasants. They are brutal, often as bad as War Communist requisitioning squads. Make Tsarist cities up with ‘all the family’.

REDS: United under brilliant leadership of Trotsky. Gave them an identity, fully professional and well trained, many members were involved with supply and admin, so it was a ‘well oiled machine’. Full of peasants, many of the officers served under the Tsar and are forced to fight with the reds. Discipline is very tight, and the death penalty is introduced once again. Illness and desertion were both major issues. Also education introduced.

IDEOLOGICAL REASONS FOR FOREIGN INTERVENTIONSOVIET HISTORIAN AND LENIN’S VIEW: Allied mission was to suppress global communism. Some Western historians also sympathise with this viewEH CARR: Intension to redeclare war against Germany in the East as a pretext, and due to ‘fear and hatred felt by Western governments for the revolutionary campaign’.JOHN BRADLEY: Foch’s anti-Bolshevik plan rejected by allies at Versailles Jan 1919, and in February the US had proposed negotiations. Prior to the treaty of Brest Litovsk, the British and Americans had almost given their support to the reds against the Germans.

OTHER REASONS FOR INTERVENTIONViewed in context of WW1. -PG promised to keep Russia in the war, and as such was given resources and finance. Prior to 1914, little attention had been given to Bolshevism. During the war, Germany gave the Bolsheviks money, in the hope of bringing about a Russian revolution and collapse. During 1917, the fighting ceased, pleasing the Germans. The French and British still held onto the faint hope that the war could continue. Lloyd George was ‘neither for or against Bolshevism, but was anti-German’. So aid for anti-German Russians ended up going to the Bolsheviks, and the British and French were determined that this aid would not fall into German hands.- After Brest-Litovsk, many Germans were left in the West, near to huge resources in Poland, Ukraine and Russia, and threaten allied stores. British armies go into Murmansk, whilst the Japanese go into Vladivostok to ease the reclaiming of these stores. They wanted also to restart the war in the East. Britain then seized Baku, not wanting Germany to get the oil from there.

AFTER 1918 MOTIVATIONS WERE DIFFERENT

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After Germany had been defeated, continuation of the war effort was no longer a priority. FRENCH: Had invested 16 billioin francs in Tsarist Russia between 1887 and 1918. Enterprises set up with this cash had now been nationalised, but they’d received no compensationBRITAIN AND THE USA: Had slightly smaller investments to defendJAPAN: Wanted to make territorial gains in Asia at Russia’s expense. So US sent troops into Siberia to block Japanese aspirations in the region. In 1918, 70,000 Japanese troops were sent into Vladivostok, Sakhalin and E.Siberia.MID 1919: Comintern was established with the declaration that it would ‘overthrow capitalism and establish dictatorship of the proletariat and USSR’- after this point intervention became more ideological but much less relevant.

WHAT DID THE INTERVENTION ACHIEVE?BR, FR, US into MurmanskCZ, FIN, LIT, POL, ROM all wanted independenceFRENCH established a land base around Odessa in April 1918JAPANESE occupied VladivostokJAPAN AND US occupied Siberia in 1919At the end of 1918 there were 150,000 troops in N.Russia who were all extremely war weary. The USA sent 6000 troops to Siberia, with limited objectives. More important than these troops was cash. Br and Fr gave the equivalent of 20 million pounds for this, although little of the aid reached the front. Foreign troops in small numbers based around Murmansk had some effect. Aims and motives were often at odds, limiting success, as with Siberia. The US refused to co-operate with the undemocratic Kolchak, the French did, but with ‘great difficulty’. Bolsheviks could also claim that they were fighting imperialism, which acted as a great distraction from the internal disputes. All in all, it was bollox, and a complete failure (but the french were involved so what did you expect…) By 1919 all the French and US troops had been pulled out. In 1922 Japan pulled out.

CIVIL WAR ECONOMY:In a seriously bad state. Germany had control over many of the industrial areas following Brest-Litovsk treaty. The army took people away from industry and agriculture, leading to inevitable problems. Shops are shut, and the economy switches to barter. Money becomes useless and hyperinflation sets in as the peasants refuse to sell their produce. Bagmen went into countryside to try to buy food, most of them are factory workers (30% of all workers did this) which had serious implications for industrial production. Private ownership of land was banned in November 1917. By 1920, Bolsheviks have nationalised electricity, railways and larger banks. A centralised economic planning agency is set up.

WAR COMMUNISM:Was a pragmatic response to the situation created by the war. Also ideological in some ways as it is more similar to true Marxism. About control as much as about food and supplies. Bolsheviks ran factories and began a program of nationalisation. Rationing was based on class, with soldiers and workers being the most favoured. The Bolsheviks take the peasants grain and apportion it all over the country, no private dealing is allowed and all surplus is taken, so the peasants just stop producing surplus, or at least try and hide any surplus that they have. Only works at gunpoint, led by the CHEKA. There is a famine in 1921 that kills 5 million people, the word famine is also banned, echoes of Tsarist regime. Gorky tries to get international aid. US gives a huge amount of money $61 million, and Russia continues to export grain which is very cheeky. This keeps lots of the population alive. Lenin viewed all of this as a sacrifice to the Soviet state, and therefore justified.

THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY:

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Introduced on the last day of the tenth party conference in 1921, particularly necessary as a response to the Kronstadt Mutiny. No-one can say anything against it as he reveals it on the last day of the conference. The NEP reverses War Communism, there is to be no more requisitioning, private trade is allowed, peasants are encouraged to produce more and allowed to keep surplus, small scale private industries are allowed, this is capitalist. Not particularly Marxist, was a policy that rose out of the war, but may also hint that Lenin had realised that Russia needed an extension to its capitalist period, public expenditure cut, fees introduced for education and health facilities. Idealist Bolsheviks are shocked, but everyone assumes that it is just a short term policy.

LENIN’S POTENTIAL SUCCESSORS:TROTSKY: Had led the Red Army and was probably the most able but was very arrogant, he was seen as Lenin’s 2IC, particularly during the Civil War era. He had a Ukrainian Jewish background, and was an intellectual who had formally been with the Mensheviks. He never held a party post and was not a team player, he did not have political allies and was vocally anti-NEP as he was such an idealist. He put Marxism before Russia. Most importantly, he believed in world revolution, this was clearly not going to happen by 1924, and believers began to lose credibility. He was accused of Bonapartism, as in someone who would betray the revolution. Was defeated by the Triumvirate. BUKHARIN: Editor of Pravda, Secretary of the Comintern, thought that the economy should be allowed to develop at its own pace and was pro-NEP, thought that they would need the peasants, and heavy central control could lead to another famine, his views on the economy are not popular, and the party comes down more on the side of the left at the critical moments. ‘Marxist with reserve’ i.e. does not have the right belief system.KAMENEV AND ZINOVIEV: Lost credibility as they were opportunistic. First of all in Triumvirate with Stalin as they hated Trotsky and saw him as their main threat. As tide turned, allied themselves with Trotsky in 1925 but lost credibility for doing this. In 1927 they were both evicted from the party and the Politburo. STALIN: Manipulated the economic policy debate and was fortunate in that he managed to judge the party mood relatively well. As gen sec, he had filled the party with his own people and was surrounded by his supporters. Everyone underestimated him. Used Triumvirate to eliminate opposition from the right. All of his previous jobs had him dealing with the admin side of things. He was ordinary and not pretentious like Trotsky, he was also xenophobic, as were many Russian people. Did not believe in world revolution which was becoming increasingly unpopular. He used the image of Lenin, making him seem like a God with the ‘Cult of Lenin’ and then presenting himself as the rightful heir, he gained from the association. Nobody believed that he had the ambition, used the CHEKA to get all of the dirt on his opponents. Lenin didn’t stop him as he was too ill and also wanted to balance out the threat of Trotsky, he also never appointed a successor.

TRIUMVIRATE:Had power from 1922-1924 and split up when Zinoviev and Kamenev jumped ship to go work with Trotsky. Defeated Trotsky and the left by working together, united by hate of Trotsky, also thought that Stalin was the weaker candidate. Right was defeated because no-one liked their economic beliefs as it was a deviation from Marxism.

POLITICS 1917-1924Had to deal with internal and external opposition. Party was becoming a mass movement, how would they turn the party into a government. Tsarist elements still remained, most obviously the bureaucracy, if the Bolsheviks sack all of them, who will they replace them with. Council of People’s Commissars, 10 members, the most powerful body, power was concentrated on

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just a few people. Bolsheviks begin to bring their own people into the bureaucracy, this leads to Stalin’s appointment as Gen Sec in 1922 which would prove to be a very important position, in 1918 it was a shit job. By 1921 the bureaucracy is 10X larger than the Tsarist one, consuming 90% of all the paper in Russia… As the size of the party grew, it became more corrupt. In the 1921 conference, Lenin introduced a ban on factions i.e. no internal opposition, for some reason, this was actually very effective. To deal with external opposition they won the civil war. Also arrested a vast number of SRs and Mensheviks. Cheka played a very important role in the Red Terror which ran from 1921 to 1923. Terror was used as part of an official government policy, it was a tool of control. Innocent people got caught up in what was a bit like a dry run for the purges. Feelix Dhzerzhinsky led it, bit of a sadist. Tsar and his family are killed in Ekaterinburg in 1918. The terror was responsible for around 2 million deaths. 30,000 members in the Cheka. Trotsky ‘we shall not enter into the Kingdom of socialism with white gloves on a polished floor’ –it’s going to get messy.

NATIONALITIES ISSUE 1917-1924:Russia is an empire so there are lots of different nationalities within it. Lenin initially believed in self-determination, but by 1920 is beginning to change his mind after the failed invasion of Poland. Stalin is Commissar for nationalities, but Marx doesn’t really say how you should deal with this type of problem. Jan 1918-declaration of the rights of the toiling and exploited people. Federal system with a degree of independence, B’shiks continue to unofficially support communist uprisings such as in Poland. Baltic states supposedly get independence following Brest-Litovsk. Ukraine is retaken in 1921 and made part of the old empire. Asian states are brought into the empire, despite the race issue. By 1922 USSR had emerged, remained up until 1991.

CULTURE AND SOCIAL LIFE 1917-1924:1918-Proletkult is set up, and there is lots of talent about. By 1922, there are lots of very confused and worried peasants, this is all far too abstract for them. Proletkult is disbanded, bringing and end to the cultural flowering, instead you get lots of Socialist Realism art. Religion was also eventually banned, 8000 clergy are killed in the terror, and the wealth of the church is taken over by the state. There is also more personal freedom, i.e. it is much easier to get a divorce, women get equal property rights, it is a forward looking period. Lots of the ‘fun stuff’ is censored because Lenin is boring. In 1924 it all began to change and all of the writers and poets got exiled, people couldn’t write what they wanted to anymore, very depressing.

THE COMMUNIST PARTY UNDER LENIN:PARTY MEMBERSHIP: 1917-24000, 1921-733000, 1924- 1700000. Members were given elite jobs in the armies and factories. By 1921, most of the members had little understanding of the concepts of Marxism or Leninism but knew that being in the party would be good for them. It became a mass movement.

STALIN’S PLANS FOR RUSSIAHis economic plans involved reform of agriculture and industry. Famous ‘50-100 years’ speech, had to ‘make good the difference in 10 years’ or be crushed by the Western powers. Unlike Lenin and Trotsky, he believed in ‘Socialism in one country’ and was inward looking and xenophobic. He wanted to make Russia strong and socialists. His economic reforms would also be slightly ideological, more anti-NEP. By 1926, Trotsky is out of the power struggle, so Stalin is able to take the leftist line on the economy and hence shaft Bukharin (good bloke) and Rykov. He wanted to take the country back to true communism, things had to be changing, with none of this capitalist economy bollocks. NEP is also not a very effective policy, by 1926 only 17% of what is grown is marketed. Peasants hoard

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grain, afraid of famine, also no point having money because there are no goods in Russia. The government grain prices were also very low. Crisis developing- now is the time to implement Stalin’s plans for Russia. As with Lenin, he is an ideological pragmatist, if you know what I mean.

COLLECTIVISATIONCollectivisation was Stalin’s plan for agricultural reform and aimed in part to increase Stalin’s control over the peasantry, though its primary purpose was to increase efficiency and productivity through modernisation and improvement of methods. Was piloted at first in Siberia in early 1927 and made official policy by the party by the end of the year. Involved large farms, owned by the state with a work force of 1000s. Resources and labour were shared on the land, the government took a set percentage of what was produced and set quotas centrally. By 1929 it was being introduced across Russia, initially as a voluntary program, which no-one wanted to join- until the government began to use coercion. Between Dec 1929 and March 1930, 60% of the peasants are collectivised, brings chaos to countryside, crops burnt, livestock killed. The process is stopped in March, Stalin ‘dizzy with success’ recognises that the process needs to be slowed down. By June, 25% of the peasants are collectivised (so 35% have chosen to leave collective farms). The process began again after the Sept 1930 harvest, with the goal of collectivisation for every peasant by 1932. This time, much more organised, exciting ‘incentives’ like tractors, but the peasants still mess around (mostly because they don’t trust the communists who have this knack of taking all of their food). In 1936 it is finally complete. Kulak class (around 10 million people) disappear, either sent to Gulags like Kolyma or collectivised.

FAMINE 1931-1934Inevitably this chaos in the countryside led to a famine. 10-15 million people die, but the whole thing is kept secret. Mostly as a result of the peasants burning their crops, and the fact that collectivised farms take a while to ‘get going’. In typical Russian style, grain continued to be exported, no access to worst affected regions, peasants so hungry they eat next year’s seeds. Stalin’s fault for pushing collectivisation, but he wanted to get rid of the mir and the kulaks. He had the right idea, just went about it in the crap way, not recognising that it would take time and require a situation where there would be little opposition. It consolidates his power but definitely alienates the peasants.

THE FIVE YEAR PLANSThe five year plans were implemented to help Russia to rapidly industrialise, hopefully with more success than they had last time that was tried. AIMS: An abandonment of the NEP, not like Bukharin’s ideas of unforced economy, was a break from the right. Had to be rapid and forced industrialisation controlled centrally. Wanted an economy that could compare to that of Western nations in 10 years. Tool for it was Gosplan, central planning agency set up in 1921- national quotas which filter down to the local level. THE FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN:Ran from 1928 to December 1932. Main emphasis was on infrastructure and the production of energy and construction materials, at an envisaged rate of increase of 20%. Not all quotas were reached, but there were significant increases in production in all areas. Machinery output increased X4, oil production X2, electrical output by 250%, 17 new blast furnaces. Some showpieces, Dnieprostoi Dam, and iron and steel production centres at Magniotogorsk and Kuznetsk. Laid foundations for second five year plan. Some quota shortfalls, (Steel, iron, heavy metallurgy and consumer goods suffering the worst setbacks). Also kinda like a ‘peasant buying a gramophone not a cow’- although the showpieces were very nice, they weren’t exactly all that practical. Possibly a little too hard and fast.THE SECOND FIVE YEAR PLAN:

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Ran from 1933 to 1937. Had a lower annual target of 14% and was designed to build on the successes of the first five year plan with a more skilled workforce. Focussed again on heavy industry, metallurgical resources (Pb, Zn, Ni, Sn) and communications. Much better quality and less waste than first five year plan, more showpieces, Moscow-Volga canal and Moscow metro. Some quota shortfalls again, some administrative inefficiency and deterioration of diplomatic situation leading to spiralling military expenditure all slowed the developments. Military expenditure was 3.4% of gov’s total expenditure in 33, 16.1% by 1936 and 32.6% by 1940.

LIVING STANDARDS UNDER STALINFew individual freedoms for the worker. Working conditions were dangerous, particularly on the major projects away from the traditional industrial centres. If targets were not met, even a lowly worker could face charges of sabotage. However, they did get subsidised food and free medical care. But there were still problems of overcrowding and poor sanitation since the size of the industrial work force doubled between 1927 and 1933. Food prices were high during the early years of collectivisation. In 1933, there was an 80% increase in the price of food and bread and a 55% increase in the price of butter. The industrial drive also brought rewards for some people, and there were privileges for the most skilled and productive workers. In 1935, a Donbas miner Alexei Stakhanov cut fourteen times his quota of coal. Workers such as this got better houses, higher wages and access to scarce consumer goods. But for everyone else, the Stakhanovite movement created problems, as shift production quotas increased by up to 50% between 1936 and 1939.

THE PURGESResulted in around 20 million deaths (estimates range from 8m to 25m)- it is impossible to get clear figures. More stats: Central committee of communist party lost 110/139 members between 1934 and 1939. In army, 3/5 marshals are killed, all admirals killed, 60/67 political commanders, 70% divisional commanders, 60% political commanders. 1934 party congress 1108/1996 delegates were shot. In Georgia, between ‘37 and ’39, 4/5 party secretaries were shot, around 80,000 people. By 41 Trotsky, Bukharin (‘38), Kamenev (‘36), Zinoviev (‘36), Rykov (‘36), Yezhov (‘38) and Tomsky (suicide ‘38) were all dead, accused of being enemies of the people. Precedent had been set by the Red Terror. Everyone knew somebody that had been purged. Between ’33 and ’34, 1 million people were expelled from the party for being rightist, big changeover in party, people always wanted to join. In December of 1934, The Leningrad party boss Kirov was assassinated, probably on Stalin’s orders as he was getting very popular. Stalin is the chief mourner and being a crafty bastard uses the assassination as a pretext for the purges. NKVD are even more powerful than before, under Beria (a complete sadist, makes Stalin look quiet alright). From 1934, the purges ‘program’ was headed up by Yagoda, head of the NKVD, which becomes a law unto itself. The army was also extensively purged, beginning in 1937. In June, Tukhachevsky and some fellow generals were shot. The purge of the army was completed by 1939, but it was not in a great state at the time of the outbreak of WW2.

SHOW TRIALSIn the show trials of 1936, 37 and 38, all of the previous leading Bolsheviks confess to their guilt. Everybody tried confessed to the crime, be it fascism, spying, Trotskyism etc. People genuinely thought that there was a big conspiracy. People who were accused almost began to believe it for themselves. There was never any hard evidence for the convictions, and lots of people implicated other people (Kamenev and Zinoviev implicated Bukharin, bastards. They were on trial charged with involvment with Kirov’s murder and plotting to overthrow the Soviet State. They accepted these charges and read out confessions in court.) Coercion and torture were used if people did not confess, the prosecutor always made a

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good show speech and the accused was never even given the chance to defend themselves. The party was people’s belief system- some of them genuinely thought that they had betrayed the party (screwed up or what…). In the coming years there would be a strange indifference in Russia, many people still think that it may have been for the greater good.

STALIN’S FOREIGN POLICYIn the early years of the USSR, Russian foreign policy had been dictated by the needs of world revolution. However, operating this kind of policy was not easy, since Lenin’s position was not strong enough, the Bolsheviks were weak, there were internal problems and Europe/the USA were both strongly anti-Communist. 1921 the Spartakist uprising in Germany was violently supressed, a sign that world revolution just ain’t gonna happen. This fact means that the USSR is forced to co-operate with non-Communist governments in order to ensure its survival on the diplomatic scene. In 1922, the USSR signed the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany. These two nations were the ‘black sheep’ of Europe (and remained thus until the Nazi/Soviet pact of 1939), and the treaty was a trading agreement- it also allowed German troops to train in the USSR, breaking the Treaty of Versailles. In 1924, the conservative British government withdraws its recognition of the USSR (choosing just not to look at that part of the map...?) and in 1926 accused the USSR of causing the General Strike- this leads to a breakdown in diplomatic relations. By 1928 Russian foreign policy is most definitely Socialism in one Country. The USSR even chooses to help the nationalist party in China, and was very reserved with its aid to the Spanish Republic.FOREIGN POLICY BEFORE WW2: In 1934 Stalin realises that Hitler is a threat and joins the League of Nations as well as signing a Treaty with France. In 1935 Russia signs a mutual assistance pact with Czechoslovakia, but GB and Fr never agree to a full alliance (see Germany notes to recognise the crapness of this decision). 1935 also brought with it the beginning of the Popular Front policy, this is the idea of an alliance between all left-wing parties, Spain and France both had one for a while. In 1936 Italy and Germany sign the anti-Comintern pact, with Japan signing in 1937. (See Germany notes for details of run-up to war.) In 1939, the USSR signs the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact. This is a non-aggression pact, with Germany and USSR publicly agreeing to enjoy peaceful relations but privately agreeing to split Poland, giving Stalin territory and Hitler a one-front war. The USSR regains some territory that it lost at the end of WW1.

THE STALINIST GOVERNMENTUSSR claimed to be a democracy because of 1936 constitution which provided all citizens over the age of 18 the right to elect the Supreme Soviet. But there was only one party to vote for... and any real power lay within the party itself. There was very strict censorship of the press, and little freedom of speech or freedom of movement. Jews were persecuted, and the Orthodox church was also attacked, with many churches closed and priests purged. In 1941 he set up the State Defence Committee to co-ordinate the war effort, the army was reorganised, with able officers being promoted.

CULT OF STALINLenin never had his own cult, it was made for him by Stalin who then manipulated it to put forward his own image. ‘Stalin is the new Lenin’ idea, the cult was legitimised by the Cult of Lenin. Socialism is ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Stalinism changes the ‘need’ to ‘work’. Technical jobs are the most profitable, intellectual jobs are downgraded. Emphasis more on hands-on style education, but by 1940 94% of all Russians are literate (probably better than in most of the world today). The Russian character is conservative, and Stalin brought these values back (conservative socialism?!?)- in 1936 abortion was made illegal, and it was far harder to get a divorce- society became much more permissive. Religion was attacked on all fronts, ‘League of Militant Godless Volunteers’ was set up, and they went around pulling down churches. By

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1940, only 1 in 40 churches function. 60,000 priests in 1920 down to 5665 by 1940. Also some growth in popular culture, by 1940 Russia had 28,000 cinemas, and stadiums were built in all the bigger towns as were parks such as Gorky park. Books became very popular, but all the art was ‘Social Realism’ whilst all architecture was ‘Stalinist Gothic’. In order to further elevate his status he used art, posters and media. Artists were forced to create works which glorified Russian achievement- 'Social Realism’ art, lots of reds and tractors and Stalin in the sky (yes… realism…). Anything else was branded as Bourgeois. Posters with slogans such as ‘For the Greater Cause’ encouraged people to join the army or work harder in their factory or on their collective farm. The media was totally state controlled, and also glorified the state and Stalin, not that anyone cared, since only about 1% of the population owned radios. All of this propaganda was highly successful, despite its brutality. People did genuinely believe much of what they were told, and arguably Stalin’s ‘popularity’ increased as a result of its use. It was also quite effective for recruiting people for the army.

STALIN AND MARXISMStalin modified Marxist theories and operated a state under ‘Stalinist’ principles. Stalinism could be seen as the rightful next step from ‘Leninism’. It is important to remember that even before Stalin came along, the USSR was not a true Marxist state by any means. The USSR had only come into being following a violent coup carried out by an armed minority, and not as a result of a mass movement, as Marx had written in the Communist manifesto ‘the proletarian movement is the… movement of the immense majority, in the interests of the immense majority’. The state had also clearly not ‘withered away’, as institutions such as the armed forces, the courts and the police were still very much in existance. The NEP was very far removed from marxist principles, and Leninism had become a political system in its own right, Stalin continued existing trends, elevating the state of the leader and further increasing state control. The political system under these two could probably be best described as state socialism.ECONOMICS: Used the economic debate to rise to power, branding the rightists as ‘anti-Marxist’. Set up a ‘Totalitarian State Economy’- pragmatic, wanted a strong economy rather than one based on Marxist ideologies. Marx had been an economic determinist-believing that the socio-political situation of a country was a direct result of its economic structure- but Stalin and Lenin both inverted this, since the nature of the Russian economy under them was determined by the political system. He also manipulated the ideological debate in order to speed up industrialisation and economic reform. By 1928, it was clear that the NEP was no longer working. In order to ensure the survival of the revolution and of Soviet Russia, it was necessary to transform the nation into a strong, modern, industrialised power in the shortest possible time. But Stalin could justify ending the NEP and forcing rapid industrialisation by referring back to Marxist ideology. The NEP was far more anti-marxist than any of the economic policies under Stalin, and the lessening emphasis on consumer industries as well as a reduction to private enterprise during the first five year plan was far closer to true Marxism. The destruction of the Kuluk class was also facilitated through the implementation of the ideological argument. The Kulaks were identified as the class who were holding back the worker’s revolution. Stalinist propaganda labelled them as betrayers of the revolution, who monopolised the best land and had grown wealthy under the NEP. In fact, they were simply slightly more industrious peasants who had employed more efficient methods, but the scapegoating of the kulak class provided a pretext for a reform of the peasantry as a whole.FOREIGN/DOMESTIC POLICIES: Stalin believed in Socialism in one country, not in world revolution. This is a major contradiction of Marxism, and demonstrates his insular, xenophobic and paranoid character. The Russian character, on the other hand, is inherently conservative. Stalin brought many conservative values back, making divorce far more difficult, outlawing abortion and in general making society much less permissive. This too did not exactly correspond with Marxist theories of constant social upheaval and political change. One of the crucial

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components of Marxist, and early Bolshevik ideology was the abolition of all forms of social distinction. Marx famously wrote ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Stalin changed this ‘need’ to ‘work’, reviving distinctions, and the influence of the Stakhanovite movement greatly lessened the degree of wage equality. Stalin’s foreign policy was dictated by the diplomatic needs of the USSR, and Stalin did not always offer whole-hearted support to other Communist nations in order to improve the status of global communism. During the Spanish Civil War in the late 1930s, his tentative support of the Republican side only came once he could be sure that he had the backing of Britain and France. One of the primary purposes of the intervention was to limit the activities of the Spanish communist party, whereas in China, the USSR lent its support to the Nationalists. The Popular Front policy of 1934 was also a contradiction of Marxist ideologies, since it encouraged co-operation between all left-wing parties.POLITICS: It has been argued that with the establishment of the USSR, Marxism ceased to be a science of society and instead became the ideology of a political party. Bruno Rizzi, an Italin ex-Trotskist argued that the Soviet Bureaucracy had turned into a new kind of ruling class and that their exploitation of the proletariat was ‘akin to that found in slave societies’. The party had also become extremely detached from the workers who they were supposed to be representing- it was not a communal style society.

THE LAST YEARS OF STALINThe war had destroyed the centralised planning structure of the five year plans, Russian infrastructure also very screwed. Between 1941 and 1943, 50% of the Russian population is under German occupation and 60% of the iron production is lost. After 1943 the war turns around, and there is something of a military and economic recovery. By 1945, 20 million Russians have died as result of the war, 5 million from starvation. Stalin and the Russian people are all pretty paranoid, have been invaded before, begin to retreat into ‘fortress’ mentality. Stalin is seen as the man who won the war, and his popularity increases immensely as the ‘saviour of Russia’. Between 1946 and 1950, another 5 year plan is undertaken to catch up with the West, with the emphasis once again on heavy industry and not on the production of consumer goods. Within Russia there were poor living conditions, poor housing and harsh labour laws. Returning POWs were not treated as returning heros but were purged as they had been in contact with Nazis, placing doubts over their loyalty. Russians who fought with the Germans were also purged, as were ethnic groups like Chechens and Cossacks. 400,000 people from the Baltic states were also purged. He is also ‘jealous’ of Leningrad which survived the 1000 day siege during the war and was known as the hero city. In 1949 the Leningrad party leadership was purged, with Marshall Zkukov sent to Siberia (he had defended Leningrad and Moscow during the war). In 1953 Stalin discovered a ‘Doctor’s plot’ and believed that Jewish Kremlin doctors were trying to kill him. He died in March of 1953- lots of official mourning, he is embalmed and then stuck next to Lenin, there is also some genuine grief as people remembered what he did for Russia.

OVERVIEW OF STALINTHE STATE OF RUSSIA AT THE TIME OF HIS DEATH: Russia is a fully industrialised modern power, it has nuclear capabilities, by 1953 it has more territory than in 1914 having gained the Baltics, and has control over most of Eastern Europe. She is a world superpower and without doubt the strongest power in Europe, it is also the leading light of World Communism, something that becomes more relevant as China turns Communist. It is a totalitarian dictatorship. Within the country the USSR ain’t so tough- many people live in fear and the economy is totally inbalanced due to the lack of focus on consumer industries. Politically it is a strong nation, the state is extremely powerful and the secret police are very effective. People need a strong Russia- they still have the inherent fear of the USA. The culture has been totally politicised, including art,

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plays the music and the literature. The standard of living of the people is very basic, they have basic educatio. There is no organised crime. In short, Communism has provided a safety net, but everyone is on it. WAS THIS ALL DOWN TO STALIN? The industrialisation was due to his five year plans which began in 1928. Russia is more uniform, but this uniformity has been imposed by the state. Stalin has tightened up what Lenin started in terms of censorship. The state organisations are more efficient and more intrusive in people’s lives. Their relationship with the world sucks, partly down to Stalin although it had to be a least slightly inevitable due to the inherent suspicion of Communism around the world. In terms of foreign policy he was in a tight spot though, since no-one wanted to ally with them. He also set up the cult of Stalin, and Communism had changed to become Stalinism. He had been accused of (or thought of) as being the Red Tsar. Also killed almost 20 million people, genuinely pretty much all down to him. He kills people bigger and better- his is a legacy of terror and fear. Collectivisation was also important, reformed the entire agricultural system, in the end for the better, though the peasant stoopidity almost messed it up.

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GERMAN HISTORY 1815-HITLER

DATES

1815: No of German states cut from 300-391815-48: Confederation under Metternich1848-49: Europe-wide revolutions, German one fails1848 March: Vienna riots, Metternich flees1850 March: Erfurt, unification proposals1850 Oct: Capitulation of Olmutz1854-56: Crimean War1857: Von Moltke appointed chief of staff1862: Bismarck comes to power1863: Polish revolt1864: War v. Denmark1865: Convention of Gastein1865 Autumn : Bismarck ensures French neutrality1866: War v. Austria1867: Bismarck refuses to give Luxembourg to the French1870: Franco-Prussian War1875-78: 1st Balkan Crisis1878: Treaty of San Stefano1879: Dual Alliance1881: Triple Alliance (with Italy)1885-86: Bulgarian Crisis, G no support for A1887: Reinsurance Treaty1890: Bismarck sacked1897: A-H and Russia freeze on Balkans1898: Naval laws1898: Fashoda crisis1902: British treaty with Japan1904: Entente Cordiale1905: End of Russo-Japanese War1906: Algeciras crisis1906: Dreadnought launched1906: Beginning of military conversations1907: Anglo-Russian entente1908: Buchlau1909: A-H annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, G support for A1909: British naval expansion, 5:3 ratio1911: Agadir crisis1912: Announcement of 3rd battle squadron1912: Haldain Mission1912: Reichstag Elections, SPD becomes the biggest single party1912: Potsdam conference1914 28th June: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated1914 5th July: Hoyos Mission1914 23rd July: Ultimatum handed over1914 25th July: Serbians accept most of ultimatum1914 31st July: Russians mobilise1918 Nov: Kaiser’s abdication1919 Jan: Spartakist uprising1919 Spring: Weimar constitution drawn up1919 June: Treaty of Versailles signed1923 Nov: Munich Putsch1923: Ruhr occupation1924: Dawes Plan1925: Ebert Dies, Hindenburg new president1924-29: Stresseman era

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1928 May: Elections (nazi gain 12 seats)1929 Oct: Wall Street Crash1929: World depression1930 March: Muller’s coalition breaks up1930 Sept: Bruning calls Election (nazis gain 107 seats)1932 Jan: Dusseldorf industrialists meeting1932 March: Presidential elections1932 May: Bruning sacked after two years1932 July: Nazis gain 230 seats1932 May-Nov: Von Papen Era1932 Nov: Nazis get 196 votes1932-33: Shliecher in power1932 July: Nazi biggest partyin elections1933 Jan: Hitler becomes Chancellor1933 March: Hitler gains a majority

1848-1933

18481815- Number of Russian states cut from 300-39, beginning of Austrian leadership of German confederation, under leadership of Metternich. Biggest and most powerful individual state is Prussia. He was a very autocratic leader.March 1948-Series of Revolutions right across Europe, partly due to bad harvest. The government collapses, Vienna is in conflict, poorer working classes are the source of the conflict. Spreads to Germany, but revolutions fail. This is because the army remains loyal, harvests improved. The revolutions have a greater impact in Austria, weakening its power. Metternich is forced to flee to Britain. In contrast, the Prussian king completely caves into the demands made by the people. In the short term, Prussia becomes more powerful than Austria. The following year, the majority of the leaders across Europe had regained control.

FRANKFURT PARLIAMENTMeeting of liberals in May of 1948. They hoped to set up a unified Germany, but there were obviously many problems with this. They didn’t succeed, as the Habsburgian authority recovered in October of 1848. However, they had tried, and to Bismarck, 12 years later, this was a sign that if the Kaiser and the Chancellor wanted to maintain power, they were going to have to ensure that the middle classes and the liberals didn’t get round to taking it first.

ERFURT UNIONFollowing the events of 1848, the prestige of the Prussian state was temporarily higher than that of the Austrian state, with a more important role in German affairs. Von Radowitz put forward a proposal for a united Germany, to include the North German states under a Prussian king in march 1850. This proposal leaves out Austria, taking advantage of their present weaknesses. 11 out of 30 states refused to send a representative. It was bound to fail for this reason, as it was based on only a temporary Austrian weakness.

CAPITULATION OF OLMUTZThe proposals of Erfurt were weak, based on only a temporarily weaker Austria. In Nov 1850, the Prussian leaders were forced to concede and give up the leadership of Germany. The Russians also gave the Austrians their support.(Austria did not support Russia in the Crimean War though- cheeky...)

PRUSSIAN ADVANTAGES-1860SWas the leading member of the economic Union-the Zollevrein (est 1834). Austria was in decline and diplomatic isolation, as Russia was unimpressed after the Crimean. Also had conflicting interests in the Balkan states. Prussia on the other

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hand had Russian support after supporting them in the Polish revolt of 1863. Also had industrial advantages with a good railway system- designed for swift troop transport and booming coal and steel industries. Government legislation had also been passed to enable maximum industrial output. More money from good economic situation meant that they had a really good army, 63000 troop intake annually (a figure which had risen from 40,000). Prussia could mobilise 370,000 men by 1866, had good officers and good admin. Von Moltke appointed in ’57, very ‘humane’ supposedly, which is why he became a soldier, very successful commander. Von Roon reformed the army-59-61.

THE DIPLOMATIC SITUATIONBritain supported a strong Germany that could balance out the French, the traditional enemies. Russia and Prussia common interest in controlling Poles and Lithuanians, Austria and Russia had different ones, particularly after Crimean. Russia was too weak to stop Prussia after the Crimean, and was screwed re. AII’s reforms. French unwittingly helped Prussia also. Meanwhile Austria was always bound to come into conflict with Russia over issues relating to the Balkans

WHY UNIFY GERMANYInevitable, take opportunity of diplomatic situation above, it could be on the middle classes terms, but they wanted a constitution also, which didn’t suit the Kaiser or Bismarck, who knew that the liberals would settle for unification. He felt that by unifying Germany he could get rid of the liberal threat to the system. ‘I prefer to make revolutions rather than be destroyed by them’.

1864 WAR V DENMARKKing Christian 9th annexes Schleswig-Hostein in 1864. This took Bismarck by surprise. Germany, including Austria, calls for war and the Prussians have a swift victory. S-H remains German, Bismarck shows off his new army and he becomes more popular after defending the honour of the German people. Public opinion was firmly with him. At the convention of Gastein in 1865, it was agreed that S-H was to be jointly governed by Austria and Prussia.

1866 WAR V AUSTRIAMuch more carefully planned. Bismarck had isolated Austria with a series of secret treaties. After the 1863 Polish revolt, the Russians were not going to come in on Austria’s side, in August 1865, Bismarck visited Biarritz and gets Napolean III’s agreement to stay neutral, in exchange for Luxembourg. He also expected a slow war that would weaken both nations, so didn’t want to intervene. Early 1866 signed treaty with Italy meaning that they would also attack at the start of the war. Hungarians unofficial blocked Austria. Quick victory, won at Battle of Konigsgratz (S. Moravia). Austria are beaten but not destroyed as Bismarck will want their support again soon.

1870 WAR V FRANCEBlatently not planned at all. France and Prussia not getting along as Luxembourg was not handed over. 1870 Spanish approach Prussian prince to become new king, Bismarck says yes, ally against France, French realised what was happening and demanded the candidate be withdrawn. Ems telegram- supposedly an apology was edited by Bismarck, who made it more ‘strongly worded’. War breaks out in August. The three southern German states also fight for German honour- despite the Kulterkampf campaign against the Catholic Church. Made the decision about whether to involve them in Germany for him. Decisive Battle at Sedan. NIII abdicates and flees to Britain, siege of Paris until 1871, hall of mirrors Germany is unified. Also annexes Alsace Lorraine-public opinion and mountain borders. Bad move, as French want to get it back. Unification was achieved, therefore by ‘Blood and iron’.

THE MAINTENANCE OF STABILITY

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Government dominated by Protestants, Catholics distrusted by Liberals. Minority nations integrated but under very strict controls. May 1973, May laws were passed which tried to weaken the Catholic community. In fact it strengthened their resolve, though relations between the two groups improved in 1878 following the instatement of a new pope. Wanted to keep it quiet in Europe so that the new nation could sort itself out. Needed peace, main problem was France and A-L, had to eliminate the French from the forefront of European politics to maintain the ‘delicate balance’ that was Germany.

DRIEKAISERBUND 1873 Had to diffuse tension between A-H and Russia over the Balkans, and try to isolate the French, and block any link between them and Russia. This treaty seemed to fulfil all of those aims, leaving the French isolated, despite the fact that these complex alliances he formed seemed to not last long or really mean all that much. It also meant that he didn’t have to choose between A-H and Russia.

FRENCH CRISIS 1875French recovery was very speedy. Bismarck began to hint that a war against the French was planned, and hoped that this might make them retreat into diplomatic obscurity once again. Britain, Italy and Russia all demanded that he back down, and the appeals for support from the other major European nations by the French went some way to bringing them out of isolation.

THE BALKANS 1875-78Russian interest-Pan Slavism, encouraging Slav nationalism, in conflict with A-H policy, as an empire full of different nationalities where nationalism would cause serious problems. Tension came to a head in July 1875. Bosnia-Herzegovinian and Serbian slavs rebelled against their Turkish rulers, a turkish power collapse would have led to a power vacuum which A-H and Russia would obviously both try to fill. Russians supported the Slavs and defeated Turkey in Jan 1878. Bismarck had offered the Russians some support, but would not commit to either A-H or Russia if a war were to break out.

POST BALKAN WAR TREATIESTREATY OF SAN STEPHANO Imposed by Russia on Turkey following the war. European Turkey reduced through enlargement of Bulgaria, Romania, Montenegro, Serbia. Bulgaria got sea access, this is crucial because at this stage Bulgaria had very close ties with Russia. The Austrians thought that this Treaty was too kind to Russia.CONGRESS OF BERLIN Reversed parts of the treaty. (June-July 1878). Probably a short term success, diffusing some tension. Russia lost a lot of what it had gained, strains were put on the Dreikaiserbund, and it signalled the beginning of the end of the ‘Bismarckian system’.

THE DUAL ALLIANCE 1879A-H and Germany. Comes only 13 years after Battle of Koningsgratz, showing that Bismarck’s plan of not permanently alienating them had paid off. Led to two nations fighting on same side in WW1. Like all of Bismarck’s Treaties, it was only a short contract, it is defensive and anti-Russian. France made a treaty with Russia, and Europe began to take sides. Britain remained in ‘splendid isolation’. May have tried to scare Russia into isolation or into improving relations with Germany. In 1882 Italy also joined in. Was beginning to draw Germany into the Balkan issues.

SECOND BALKAN CRISIS 1885-1886Austria almost goes to war against Russia over Bulgaria, but Bismarck says that Germany will not support as it was not part of the Dual Alliance. Austria backs down, humiliation. ‘The Balkans are not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian Grenadier’.

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END OF THE BISMARCKIAN SYSTEM REDUCTION OF TENSION IN THE BALKANS In 1887, Russia, A-H and Germany signed the Re-insurance treaty. In 1897, Austria and Russia agreed to not be aggressive in the Balkans, and Russia adopted a steady expansionist policy in Asia whilst Germany tried to take over parts of Africa. Meant that Germany no longer had to decide between the two, and could still arbitrate over European affairs, and that France could be kept out even longer.DETERIORATING RELATIONS WITH RUSSIA In 1890, Bismarck was sacked. When, in 1892, Russia approached Germany about signing the Re-insurance treaty, Germany refused. No-one was capable of operating the Bismarckian system of treaties. In 1894, Russia instead made a treaty with France, who begin to invest large sums of money in Russia. This brings France out of isolation.

THE ROLE OF BRITAINHad more in common with the Germans during the period 1894-1914 in a way. After the treaties was the only unattached country in Europe. In 1898 come into conflict with the French at Fashoda, then in 1902 form a Treaty with Japan which is an anti-Russian treaty. After the Russo-Japanese War, Britain and Russia can be on better terms. In 1904 signed the 1904 Entente Cordiale, which began to form links between France and Britain. Will come into conflict with Germany who begin their Weltpolitik policy, with efforts to expand their empire in Africa. In 1906 launched the dreadnought which made the rest of the Fleet obsolete and began the Naval race with Germany. In 1909, Britain announced that it wanted to build 5 battle ships for each of Germany’s 3. Put immense strains on resources, particularly in 1912 when Germany launches a 3rd battle squadron. Haldane mission, British minister sent to Germany to try to freeze the arms race. Germany agree on the condition that Britain remain neutral in any future wars. Solved when British Mediterranean fleet moves to the North Sea, and the French channel fleet moved to the Mediterranean. Important in bringing Britain into the war on the French side.

BUCHLAU AND THE BALKANS (AGAIN)After Russian defeat, particularly Battle of Tsushima, Russian eyes turned back to West and the Balkans. At Buchlau in 1908, Austrians say they want to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina which annoys the Serbians, and in return Russia say they want Med access through the Dardanelles. In 1909, A-H go ahead and annex B-H but Dardanelles issue has not been resolved. Russia feels double crossed. This time, against Bismarckian policy, Germany says it will give unequivocal support to Austria against Russia who back down, this time. Will they back down 5 years later?

COLONIAL DISPUTESBritain has Egypt and Sudan. France has Tunisia and wants Morocco, this would give them control over the Med. In the 1904 Entente cordiale agreement, they agree that Britain can have Egypt and France can have Morocco. In 1905, the Kaiser visited Morocco, an indication that he wanted to break up this relationship and block a French takeover. In 1906, the major European powers meet in Algeciras to discuss the future of Morocco. All of them supported the French, including Italy, Spain, Russia, Great Britain, the USA support the French. This whole issue starts the military conversations, which begin to commit Britain to joining the war on the side of France. In May 1911, the French occupied Fez, an indication that they were about to take it over completely, rather than having it as a protectorate. Germany saw another opportunity to have a go at the French. They sent a gunboat to Agadir, claiming that it was in the port to protect German interests. This resurrected the Naval dispute, and Britain issued a statement supporting the French on the 21st of June 1911. A formal protectorate was established in March 1912. There was a serious lack of Russian interest in the whole thing, partly because they had a screwed country and partly because this

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part of the world wasn’t really important to them. This worsened relations between Britain and Germany though, and perhaps even made war more inevitable. It was also another sign of a formal commitment between the British and the French.

THE BALKANS 1912-1913 (ITS THE LAST TIME, I PROMISE) In 1912 a Balkan league had been formed, including the nations of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro. They all fought a war against Turkey in 1912. By 1913, the Turkish empire was all but defeated, and the Balkan league was also beginning to split up as the nations began to fight amongst themselves over what they had won. Bulgaria lost out the most, with the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913 taking away much of their territory, whilst Serbia was fast affirming itself as the dominant force in the Balkans, after Buchlau, they were now more of a Russian protectorate than an Austrian one. The French were also giving more support to the Russians over these Balkan issues, and Pointcare basically handed the Russians a blank cheque in October 1913. If Britain had made its position clearer would Germany have been less arrogant and aggressive?

GERMAN REICHSTAG ELECTIONSIn 1912, reflecting the industrial nature of Germany and the size of its working class, the SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag, and threatened to cut the powers of the conservative parliament. They wanted to reform the government, giving people a real constitution rather than rule by the Kaiser and the Chancellor. The Kaiser and the Chancellor decided that a war was needed to unite the people behind the present government and forget about the socialist demands. Internal conflicts would be suspended, or so went the theory. In 1912, the military top brass met in Potsdam to discuss this proposal. There was a feeling that Russia was catching up, and that by 1916 (as Von Moltke said) they may not be able to defeat them so easily. The Russians were also in the process of refitting their artillery squads. The general feeling is that mid 1914 would be the best time for war. Everyone gets caught up in the patriotism.

THE JULY CRISIS28th July-assasination of Franz FerdinandThe Austrian cabinet meets and is undecided. Some wanted to punish the Serbs, some thought this would destroy the empire, and that Russia would join in. 5th July-Hoyos mission. Hungarian minister goes to Potsdam and asks whether the Germans will support them. Kaiser says do it. There are three options:

Balkan War- Russia backs down as in 1909 Russia supports Serbia- this is what the army was going for Britain and France get involved, at this stage the Kaiser wants to take on all of them.

23rd July-ultimatum handed over to the Serbs. The delay was due to the fact that Pointcare was in St Petersburg before, also had to get army ready for mobilisation. It had actually been prepared by July 8th. 25th June-Serbians accepts almost all of the terms. The military leadership was now in charge, and the war was no longer about Serbia31st July- Russia mobilise, getting onto a war footing. Germany says stop mobilisation or we will declare war- hoping to look good, perhaps to stop Britain from entering the war. They seem to be not making the first move, but records of meetings show that the German command didn’t even want to wait for the Russians. It had to be a war on two fronts following the Franco-Russian entente of 1894. The Schieffen plan kicked on on August 4 th, and Britain was fortunate in that it had an excuse to join the war-was committed, but the public didn’t know. After Belgian invasion, they were justified. Each of the nations are drawn in one by one.

SUMMARY OF THE CAUSES OF WW1Balkans: Tension between A-H and Russia. Buchlau v.important.

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Colonial Disputes: Britain supports French, both in conflict with Germany over North AfricaNaval race: Tension between Germany and BritainReichstag Elections: Germany needed to inspire nationalism to stop the socialists gaining too much support- they were waiting for the right time for a war.July Crisis: Draw all the countries into the war. German government manipulated the situation, Bismarckian treaties started problems.

WHO DO WE BLAME?GERMANY?- They were most likely to actually WANT war

-had the Schlieffen plan, obvious contingency plan, but did they actually want to fight Britain, as the plan did not include this at all.

-The timing was perhaps down to them, as in the Potsdam meeting they had determined that 1914 was the best time to fight the Russians, as they predicted a slow Russian mobilisation, and were also aware that by 1916 the Russians would have completed their artillery reforms.

-If they didn’t want war, then why did they support Austria? Had they advised Austria to back down (the chance came with the Hoyos mission), then the situation may not have escalated.

-Some historians have claimed that they didn’t want war at all, but thought that by supporting Austria, they might have scared the Russians into staying neutral. But this didn’t happen, probably because they didn’t want to be humiliated again after Buchlau. AUSTRIA?- If they hadn’t been so paranoid about Serbia and slav nationalism, they may have been prepared to negotiate after the assassination. RUSSIA?- If they had not backed Serbia with such infinity, then the situation could not have escalated, or if it had, then the Germans would obviously have been to blame. BRITAIN AND FRANCE?- If they had not kept their affair secret, then the Germans may not have wanted to invade France, as they may have feared a world war as opposed to a confined Balkan conflict or a war with just Russia.

TREATY OF VERSAILLESWHAT DID THE VICTORIOUS POWERS WANT?Britain: Defence of democracy, and wanted the injustice that he believed had been done to the French to be righted (as in the loss of Alsace and Lorraine). He also wanted independence for Poland and the restoration of Belgium and Serbia, self government for the countries of the A-H empire and self determination for the former German colonies.US: Wilson put forward his famous 14 points for peace in January 1918. The most important and original was his call for a peace keeping organisation.WHAT DID THE DEMAND WHEN THEY MET?French: Wanted a really harsh peace, and wanted never to fee threatened from that border again. Britain: Did not want a harsh peace as they wanted to continue the trading relationship. But he had won an election in November 1918 with phrases like ‘hang the Kaiser’, and so the public expected a harsh settlement.USA: Had been in favour of a lenient peace, but after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Wilson did not really see why Germany should be treated well. In particular, he was in favour of self-determination for all the former German states.WHAT WAS THE UPSHOT: The treaty was criticised immensly. On the one hand, it was so harsh on the Germans that is made another war almost inevitable, yet on the other hand there was little provision for the terms of the treaty to actually be upheld. Germany not occupied and not completely beaten, but it was a matter of time before they were. Soldiers and public opinion were behind a continuation of the war effort. The provisional government was given the great job of making peace after the Kaiser’s abdication in early Nov 1918. Socialist government lost support

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because of signing the Treaty, but had no choice about it. Treaty was signed in June 1919. It involved 440 clauses. 231-War guilt, most crushing, justified the rest of them. Those with the worst implications were:THE TERMS OF THE TREATY:i. Germany lost territory in Europe, Alsace-Lorraine to France, Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium, North Schleswig to Denmark, West Prussia to Poland, Memel to Lithuania. France got the use of the saar coal mines. Germany also lost all of its African colonies which became mandates under league supervision, and Anschluss was forbidden. ii. The size of the German army was strictly limited. 100,000 troops were permitted, without conscription, no tanks, military aircraft or submarines were allowed, whilst the navy could only have 6 battleships. The Rhineland also became a demilitarised zone. iii. The war guilt clause left the Germans responsible for the outbreak of the war, and legimised reparations payments.iv. Germany was forced to pay reparations, amounting to £6600 (this figure was finally announced in 1921)v. A league fo Nations was set up, but it was shit.THE GERMAN REACTION:The Germans were angry at being offered a dictated peace, and had no role in the discussions. However unfair this was, it was also the same with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. They also felt a little cheated, as they were not offered a peace based on Wilson’s 14 points. They felt distinctly pissed off at being forced to give up their African territories, as this was done because France and Britain stood to gain by operating the mandates, as it basically gave them an easy way to seize these colonies. On grounds of nationality, they were annoyed at the loss of land in Upper Silesia. In addition, they resented the disarmament clause. They were left with barely enough troops to deal with domestic disturbances. According to point four of Wilson’s 14 points, there should be general disarmament, but only the Germans had it forced upon them. They resented having all of the blame for starting the war placed upon them, as they felt that a combination of factors had led to its outbreak, and didn’t see why they should be blamed entirely for it. We can look back now with the benefit of hindsight and point the finger at Germany, but after 6 months it seems a bit premature to conclude that it was all their fault. The reparations payments were the final insult. The amount seemed far too high, since they couldn’t really afford it, and this would cause problems for the victorious nations also. The Young plan reduced the payments to $2000 million in 1929. If Clemenceau had had his way, it would have been even harsher. The promise to reverse this treaty was central to the Nazi campaign, and the Socialists who signed this Treaty were seen as the November criminals, who had stabbed Germany in the back. It was also nothing to do with Wilson’s 14 points, and had the French had their way it would have been even more harsh.

THE OTHER PEACE TREATIES OF PARISTREATY OF ST GERMAIN, 1919, WITH AUSTRIA: Austria lost Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia, Dalmatia, B-H and Montenegro to Serbia, which became known as Yugoslavia, Bukovina was given to Romania, whilst Galicia went to Poland. Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and Triest went to Italy. TREATY OF TRIANON WITH HUNGARY 1920: Was signed much later because there was an attempted communist coup going on in Budapest. Slovakia was given to Cz, Croatia and Slovenia were given to Yugoslavia, Transylvania was given to Romania.The treaties both seemed harsh, and were made in the spirit of self-determination. But not everyone was placed under the right government, as 3 million Germans were put into Cz, whilst 1 million were wacked into Poland, under the guise of making these states economically viable. My arse. What it made

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them was politically unstable, and it also gave Hitler an excuse to take em back and hold the other nations of Europe to ransom prior to world war two. The treaties left these countries in economic difficulty. Austria was a very small state, its population reduced from 22 million to just 6.5 million, with all of its industrial wealth lost. She needed constant loans. The Hungarian population was reduced from 21 to just 7.5 million, and in addition also lost its valuable corn land. There was actually a real economic advantage to anschluss, and it was a bit stupid that it had been banned. THE TREATY OF SEVRES WITH TURKEY 1920: Turkey lost Eastern Thrace, some Aegean islands and Smyrna to Greece, Adalia and Rhodes to Italy, the Straits were made permenantly open, Syria became a French mandate, Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan all became British mandates. The Turks were outraged at losing so much territory to their hated rivals Greece, and under the leadership of (baba.. ) Mustafa Kemal they chased the Greeks out of Smyrna. Under the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, the Turks regained bits of Eastern Thrace after the Chanak incident. The arabs, along with Laurence of Arabia btw, got a shit deal, as they did not get independence from Turkey and then a bunch of bloody zionists came in and took over most of Palestine. THE TREATY OF NEULLI WITH BULGARIA 1919: Lost territory to Greece, and lost its Aegean coastline. At least 2 million Bulgars were under foreign government as a result.

THE SPARTAKIST UPRISINGJan 1919. Spartakists (group of German Marxists) under leadership of Karl Liebmecht and Rosa Luxembourg want to seize power, as Lenin had done two years earlier in Russia. Armed uprising in Berlin which is crushed by the army. It was absolutely crucial, as this caused a split in the SPD, which now became two parties, the KPD-communist and the SPD, more moderate, including the president of the soon to be Weimar Republic: Ebert. Had the party not split, it could have formed a stable coalition for longer and kept Hitler out of power.

THE FORMATION OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLICRepublic and constitution born out of defeat in July 1919. Should have been an opportunity to set up a good, effective system, but they tried too hard to make it fair. Opted for a policy of proportional representation, so even the smallest parties would have a voice, but this meant that it was even more fragmented. The republic was plagued by problems of indecision, as every government was a coalition. The president was given considerable power, as was the Chancellor (particularly during the era of presidential decree). The first five years were plagued by crisis, but to be honest the whole thing really was just bollocks.

RUHR OCCUPATIONThe stupidly large (particularly seeing as the allies caused much of the damage) reparations payments would have crippled Germany had it not been for the Dawes Plan of 1924. Germany struggled with the reparations payments right from the start, and it was agreed that they could pay in raw materials.(Weisbaden accord of October 1921). In November 1922, Germany claimed it was just too poor to pay. French and Belgian troops then entered the Ruhr and just began taking what they believed to be rightfully theirs. The measure was greeted by nation-wide outrage, and Chancellor Cuno ordered a policy of passive resistance. This led to some unity and nationalism, and made the government more popular. The workers then went on strike, and industrial production fell by 90%, meaning that the Germans had nothing to export, leading to domestic shortages and spiralling prices. The government paid for this by just printing money. The situation led to hyperinflation, destroying the middle classes as the value of the Mark plummeted. Nazi party membership doubled to 55,000, and people began to lose faith in the government.

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THE MUNICH PUTCHHitler decided in November 1923 that the time had come to seize power, overestimating the support for the Nazi party. He walked into the Bavarian government in the Beerhall and claimed that the revolution had begun. Marched around the streets of Berlin and absolutely no-one came out to support him. 12 or 13 nazis were shot when they met a police barricade, and Hitler was arrested. In some ways it was a complete failure, but it was also a turning point for the party, as Hitler realised the need for a nation-wide movement, and also that force would not bring him power. He used his trial to raise publicity for his cause. Became a secular religion, explaining why they were less popular in the South which was a strongly Catholic region.

THE STRESEMAN ERAApril 1924-Dawes plan reduced reparations payments and sets up loans cycle. The passive resistance policy was ended, and a new currency was introduced. The middle classes began to recover. Ebert died in 1925 and was replaced by Hindenburg, a pretty crap politician. Ebert and Streseman were probably the only two men who could have stopped Hitler. The Nazis had almost no support during this period, and were viewed as an obscure fringe party, gaining 2.6% of the vote in the 1928 election. The good years ended in 1929.

THE WALL STREET CRASHThe economic boom had been fuelled by confidence that evaporated in 1929. In October 1929, there was a crash on Wall Street as prices plummeted. Instantly, all US money was pulled out of Germany and there was a global depression. Before the crash, unemployment in Germany had been at about 1 million, by 1933 it was 6 million. Once again, the middle class were crushed, but the effect on the working class was far greater than it had been six years earlier.

1930 ELECTIONS In March 1930, the coalition under Chancellor Muller broke down following a disagreement over how to handle the crisis. Hindenburg appointed Bruning as the new leader, but he was no more capable of creating a stable government that could agree, so he was forced to call an election which took place in September 1930. The Nazis gained 107 seats, making them the second largest party. They gained support as people began to lose faith in the republic which had screwed up the economy twice. The Nazis were also better than the communists (who would probably never had come to power because the army would have prevented it), although fear of them coming to power made people vote for the Nazis. Hitler also had very effective propaganda and blamed the problems on scapegoats such as the Jews and the November criminals. He had the support of many influential and powerful people, following the Dussledorf Industrialists conference in Jan 1932. He was seen by capitalists as a favourable alternative to the Communists.

YEARS OF PRESIDENTIAL DECREEBruning made the mistake of calling yet another election, in an attempt to go for an all out majority for his party. Bruning had no more joy in establishing a coalition, but a clause in the coalition meant that he could bypass the Reichstag and rule by presidential decree. This was how Bruning ruled for 2 years, during which time the Nazis gained support as they promised to alleviate problems such as unemployment. People were now beginning to lose faith in conventional politicians as the system was in such a mess. It didn’t help that the KPD were also gaining support, most of which came from former SPD supporters (i.e. workers).

MARCH 1932 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONIn March 1932, Hindenburg was up for re-election. Hitler decided to run against him, to show the greatly increased strength of the Nazi party, despite the fact that he risked alienation from the President if he were to lose. He was a very modern

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politician, travelling everywhere by air. Hitler did not win, but he ran Hindenburg very close, showing how strong the Nazis had become.

1932-33In May 1932, it was clear that Bruning had failed, having not sorted out the government or the economy, and he was replaced by Von Papen, an aristocratic member of the centre party who was not a great politician. Yet another election was called, and this time Hitler won 230 seats making them the biggest party. In the run up to the July election, the country began to descend into chaos. There was a very brutal election campaign, and the SA intimidated many voters, sense of a growing crisis (Von Papen had cunningly raised the ban on the SA). Police completely lose control of the situation. Von Papen tried to ally himself to Hitler, and failed dismally. Shliecher also had a go at being Chancellor (from dec 1932-Jan 1933), and ambitiously tried to split the Nazi party, hoping to gain the support of the more left wing faction. November election, support for Nazis was fading 196 seats, coming out of recession, army taking control. Nobody was able to establish a government, and the Republic was falling apart. Von Papen and other leading conservatives engineered Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor, believing that they would be able to control him but this was not the case. In the elections of March 1933, the Nazi party finally gained a majority with 288 seats, and Hitler was able to pass the enabling act, making him the leader of a one-party state. (the DNVP and centre party supported him).

SUMMARY OF HITLER’S RISE TO POWERVersailles: Sense of being stabbed in the back, November criminalsSpartakists: Split up the Socialist party meaning that no-one could establish a strong governmentWeimar Republic: Proportional representation, problems of fragmentation and then presidential decreeEconomic Depressions: 1923 hyperinflation, 1929 global depression, middle classes and workers crushed, unemploymentSupport for Nazis: Dussledorf industrialists, not communist, nationalisation, scapegoating Bad politicians: all the good ones died, Von Papen, Schliecher and Bruning all underestimated Hitler and called elections that played into his hands.

THE ALTERNATIVE VIEW ON HITLERIt is really easy to blame Hitler’s rise to power on economic problems and the ‘stab in the back’ legend, but there is more to it that that…UNEMPLOYMENT RISES, NAZI VOTES RISE- So you assume that those who are unemployed are voting Nazi. This is not really true. Those who had been laid off from factories were far more likely to vote for the KPD than the Nazis. The middle classes on the other hand lost all of their savings twice, and made up a pretty large proportion of Hitler’s vote. More important is that extreme politics in general is gaining support, and everyone apart from the working classes is scared of communism so they vote nazi. HITLER USED THE STAB IN THE BACK ARGUMENT- Yes he did, but so did all of the other opposition, this is not really a legit reason for his rise to power, but if you’re desperateWHO THE HELL DID VOTE NAZI?- They did particularly well in small towns where small business owners wanted to see a return of conservative values.HITLER WAS VOTED IN- No, fraid not. He came to power through a ‘backstairs intrigue’. A rightwing coalition under Von Papen thought that if he were Chancellor, the left would be destroyed. They thought Hitler would be their propet, and that is why they made him Chancellor in 1932. The nazis never gained and absolute majority, and at the time of Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor, they were in fact losing support.

HITLER’S CONSOLIDATION OF POWER

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PROBLEMS FACED: Nazis held few posts in the cabinet, Papen and Hindenburg were trying to limit his power. Nazis did not have a majority in the Reichstag, and vote was declining. The SA, trade unions, lander and Reichswehr were also obstacles.DEALING WITH THESE PROBLEMS:THE ENABLING ACT: Of March 1933. The Reichstag fire helped to further downgrade the status of the KPD. GLEICHSCHALTUNG: Setting up Nazi organisations to work alongside existing gov’t institutions. In January 1934, the Landtage were abolished and federal government ended. In may 1933, all trade unions were banned, and their leaders imprisoned and Nazi work organisations replaced them. Between February and July 1933, all other political parties were banned, and on the 14 th July the Nazi party became the only legal party.THE SA AND THE NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES: The purge of the SA took place on June 30th. 400 members were murdered. The army allied itself behind Hitler and upon the death of Hindenburg on the 2nd August 1934 swore a personal oath of loyalty to him.

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CAUSES OF WW2 AND THE COLD WAR

DATESJune 1919- Treaty of Versailles1922- Treaty of Rapello1931- Japanese Invasion of Manchuria1933- Hitler withdraws from the League of Nations1934- German non-aggression treaty with Poland1934 Summer- Dolfuss putsch1935- Stresa Front1935- Hitler Re-occupies Rhineland1935 October Abyssinia Crisis1936- Spanish Civil War at its Peak1936 October- Rome Berlin Axis1938 February- Schuschnig meets Hitler1938 March- Anschluss1938 September- Nuremburg Party Rally1938 September- Munich crisis1939 March- Rest of Czechoslovakia invaded1939- Molotov replaces Litvinov1939 August 23rd- Nazi-Soviet Pact1939 World War Two starts1941 June- Attack on Russia1941 December 7th- Pearl Harbour (‘Danny!!’, please don’t take my wings away!!)1942 Autumn- German army stuck in Stalingrad1942- Battle of El Alamen1943 December- Meeting at Teheran1944 June 6th- D-Day1944 July- Warsaw Uprising1944 August- Paris liberated1944 September- Bridge too far offensive at Arnhem. 1944 October- Blue Pencil meeting1944 December- Germany abandons Greece1945 February- Yalta conference1945 July- First successful detonation of an atomic weapon1945 July- Potsdam conference1945 August- End of WW1, Japan bombed1946- Elections in Romania and Bulgaria- Communist dictorships set up1946- Problems with economy, in Eastern Germany1946 March- Iron Curtain speech1947- New currency launched for Western Germany1947 February- British pull out of Greece1947 March- Truman Doctrine1947- Marshall aid1947- Poland goes Communist1948- Czechoslovakia goes Communist1948 May- Berlin Blockade begins1948 Summer- Yugoslavia expelled from comintern1949- First successful Soviet detonation1949- Official separation of Korea1949- NATO set up1949 Summer- Berlin Blockade ends1949- Germany is formally split1950 June- N Korea invades the South1950 August- US troops are holding out at Pusan1950 August- Landing at Inchon1950 Sept- Seoul retaken1950 Oct- Chinese troops come across the river1951 Spring- Stalemate develops

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1952- First H-bomb1952- Eisenhower become pres of the US1953- First Soviet H-bomb1953 Summer- Korean war ends1953- Riots in Berlin1953 Death of Stalin1954- Geneva peace accords re Indo China1955- Geneva summit1955 May- Austrian state treaty1955- Germany allowed to join NATO1956 April- Cominform abadonned1956 Feb- Khrushchev’s destalinisation speech1956 October- Polish uprising1956 Oct- Hungarian uprising1957- Sputnik launched1958- Mini Berlin crisis1958 New Year’s Eve- Batista flees Cuba1959 New Year’s Day- Tanks go into Havana1960- US investments in Cuba nationalised, commie state set up1961 spring- Bay of Pigs invasion1961 Oct- Cuban missile crisis1961- August Berlin Wall erected1961- Gagarin makes first flight1961- JFK comes to power1961- Kennedy and Khrushchev meet for the first time1964- Brezhnev comes to power1968 Jan- Novotny voted out in Cz1968 August- Russian tanks move into Cz1969 Feb- Jan Palack burns himself to death in protest at the Soviet oppression1980 August- Beginning of Solidarity movement1981- Andropov becomes Russian premier1985- Gorbachev becomes Russian leader1988- Polish communist regime begins to split up1989- Hungarian gov’t adopts peristroika1989 Nov 9th- Berlin wall comes down1991 Aug- attempted coup, Yeltsin comes to power

EVENTS AND POLICIES

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLESThe Treaty of Versailles, finally singed In 1919 had dire implications for Germany and was also seriously flawed. The main problems with it involved three main issues. Firstly, it was being enforced by the League of Nations which was weak since the USA had not joined, secondly it would be impossible to make Germany adhere to it, and they only would until they were strong enough to be able to rise against it and finally the nationalities issue- problems are always caused when world leaders get together and draw lines on the map. The implications for Germany were also serious, it was forced to - Reduce its army to 100,000 men without conscription, reduce the navy to 6 warships without submarines, destroy all of its air force. Also had to return land to Belgium, France, Denmark and Poland. the land given to Poland became known as the "Polish Corridor" and it separated the main part of Germany from East Prussia and hand over all of its colonies. Agree to pay Reparations to the Allies for all of the damage caused by the war; these came to £6,600,000,000. Put no soldiers or military equipment within 30 miles of the east bank of the Rhine.

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Accept all of the blame for the war, the "War Guilt Clause" clause 231. See in the Germany section for more on this.

NATIONALITIES ISSUE AFTER WORLD WAR ONEThe borders of countries in Western Europe are defined by geographical features, and hence have remained unchanged for long periods of time. In Eastern Europe there are fewer natural frontiers, and nations such as Czechoslovakia were created by drawing lines on a map which roughly encompassed a single ethnic group. New countries were created after the war, basically based on Wilson’s principle of self-determination. These included Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland (strictly speaking not new, it was re-created). The Baltic states, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were given their independence, although Finland is the only country that is able to hold onto it. It was difficult to create these nations since ethnic groups were often dispersed between one another. This was the issue with Czechoslovakia- out of the population of 14 million there were 3 million Sudeten Deutsch- German people being governed by Czechs and Slovaks. Minority groups were a constant source of trouble, and Hitler was able to use the self-determination argument in order to get these people back within Germany at Munich. Basically, Eastern Europe was a very volatile place after World War One. The two most powerful nations (Russia and Germany) have suffered due to war, and are also politically volatile internally. The problems would come when these countries began to rearm once again and regain some of their strength.

WHY APPEASEMENT?In 1935 Hitler basically ‘tore up’ the treaty of Versailles as Germany re-occupied the Rhineland. But in this, as in several other future cases, the allies simply allowed him to do this. The policy basically entailed trying to put off war for as long as possible, and if possible, to prevent it from occurring altogether. Chamberlain is a big fan of it, and Churchill thinks that it is crap- an attitude which for many years was very important, and then everyone saw that he had been right all along. There were many reasons why it seemed to be the best policy. The USSR was potentially more dangerous than Germany, and Britain saw Germany as potentially a strong future ally. There was also the sense of the ‘lost generation’- people who had died during WW1, and an overwhelming public feeling that war could not occur again. The world was also only just lifting itself out of depression, meaning that millions of people were unemployed in Britain and that the government was not in a strong enough position to begin extensive re-armament. They needed more time, an economic recovery was necessary before the army itself could be improved.

FACTORS WHICH LED TO APPEASEMENTMEMORIES OF WW1:There was a serious reluctance among the British to go to war. 1million men had been lost in the previous world conflict, and 1 in 10 men of fighting age in France had died. People did not want war unless it was absolutely necessary, and it could not have been justified during 1938, when Germany could not really be seen as aggressive. Public opinion was a vitally important factor. The glorious image of a patriotic war had forever been dispelled by battles such as Paschendaele, which exposed the harsh realities of global conflict. DIFFICULT TO REARM: Coupled with this was the fact that Britain was hardly in a position to commence rearming. High unemployment meant that government expenditure was high although there was little money coming in. The government simply did not have the money required to undertake such an ambitious program of re-armament. Public opinion shifted slightly in favour of such a policy during 1935 and 1936, during which years there were two crises both of which were quite close to home in Abyssinia and Spain. WHO IS THE ENEMY? Germany, Italy and Japan were all potential enemies. The nightmare scenario facing the war planners was that these three powers would all get together right from the start. Britain and France knew that they would need the help of the US and the USSR to win such a war.

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RE-ARMAMENT TAKES TIME: They needed to build the factories in order to build new planes (spitfires and hurricanes) since the old bi-planes were completely obsolete. At the time of the Munich agreement, the RAF had 6 squadrons of around 12 planes. By 1939, this figure had increased to 27. By 1940 and the battle of Britain they had 46. This aerial battle would not have been won had it not been for this rapid construction of new aircraft.

1933-1935This was the main period of German re-armament. Much of the research on aircraft and tanks for Germany had been taking place in the USSR (as these were both revisionist countries). The Treaty of Rapello of 1922 meant that both countries agreed to co-operate and to limit the damage that had been caused by the Treaty. 1933-Hitler withdraws from the League of Nations- this is a symbolic action as this is the organisation which is upholding the Treaty of Versailles. In 1934 he signed a non-aggression treaty with Poland, taking them out of the equation. The USSR joined the League of Nations- searching for some kind of collective security, but basically wanting to be friends with anyone as the Nazi-Soviet pact of 1939 demonstrated.

1935-1937In these years, it became clear that Europe could be on the brink of conflict. There were several aggressive acts by evil fascist people in these years: Firstly the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in October of 1935, secondly the re-occupation of the Rhineland in March of 1936, and finally the Spanish Civil War in July of 1936.

ITALY’S ROLE IN THE 1930s1920s- the balance of power in Europe is definitely with GB and France- hence Italy chose the winning side.In 1930s- Germany is getting much stronger, and Italy’s influence becomes more relevant- they could go either way. Mussolini sees the opportunities when Hitler comes to power, but is worried about the Anschluss as this would give Germany access to Northern Italy. In summer 1934, Austrian Nazis attempted to take power in the failed Dolfuss Putsch. Mussolini moved his troops North- a clear indication that he was prepared to fight for Austrian independence, as well as work with Britain and France. In 1935, it looks as though this might be about to happen when in April these three countries met at Stresa. The three agreed to work together to contain the threat that Hitler posed to Europe, and Italy thought that they had Britain on board and so went ahead with the invasion of Abyssinia. Abyssinia is the only non-colonised part of Africa, and Mussolini wanted it (the stoopid French had said, on the quiet at least, that in theory this was ok). In October Italy invades big schtilee (troops, poison gas the usual shit, they were pissed as they had been beaten in 1896) and this provokes outrage among the people who think that it just ain’t right. Abyssinia appeals to the LoN stating that is the victim of aggression, little knowing that the LofN is about as useful as a… yes well… Britain and France both vote for economic sanctions against Italy, which makes Mussolini feel like he has been stabbed in the back- hence he begins to turn more towards Germany. Whilst Britain and France are busy arsing around in the LofN, Hitler occupies the Rhineland in a brave gamble that pays off, greatly increasing his confidence. The Spanish civil war continues to join these two countries together, and in October of 1936 they sign the Axis agreement, and the Stresa pact is all but forgotten.

THE SITUATION IN ASIAJapan had invaded Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 began moving SE down the coast towards the rest of Asia. This situation obviously placed Russia under threat, meaning that potentially they had to deal with a conflict from both sides. They believed that the raw material wealth of Siberia may lead to a Japanese attempted invasion. So Stalin kept some troops in Eastern Russia. When he heard about Pearl Harbour, and realised that Japan would be tied up with the US,

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and so he could afford to move these troops back to the Western front where they were definitely needed.

HITLER’S ROLE IN ALL THISDoesn’t do all that much in 1937. Is trying to strike a balance in terms on re-armament. On the one had, he recognises the weakness of the British position, yet Germany also needed to build more tanks and develop a heavy bomber. There are very few archives from this time, so it is difficult to establish Hitler’s role in the war plans, but it could well be argued that he tried to push the whole thing forward-seeing that the western leaders were weak and fearing his own ill health. AJP Taylor reckoned that Hitler was an opportunist who did not plan things as carefully as some people thought (look at Nazi-Soviet pact for example), he places more of the blame on mistakes made by the allies.

ANSCHLUSS 193834- Dolfuss affair as Austrian Nazis try to seize power. 36 Stresa front falls apart so Hitler no longer has to deal with Italian opposition to his plans to bring Austria and Germany together. Austria was now surrounded, and it looked like it was only a matter of time until Anschluss was achieved, and Austria agreed to basically become a German satellite. In February 1938, Schuschnig, the Austrian Chancellor, visited Hitler at his castle in Bavaria, and they agreed that a referendum on the issue would be held. This was something Hitler could not afford to lose, so he sent in troops to ‘oversee the referendum’ and ensure that it was carried out ‘fairly’. The Austrians, under this intimidation voted overwhelmingly in favour of Anschluss, which was declared on the 13 of March 1938.

THE MUNICH CRISIS AND CZECHOSLOVAKIAThe Sudentenland in Eastern Czechoslovakia was predominantly inhabited by Germans (around 3 million of them). This was a hilly region which also contained some Czech fortifications, and given the fact that Anschluss had just been declared provided a vital barrier between Czechoslovakia and Germany. The betrayal of Czechoslovakia by the Western powers goes along way towards explaining the nature of the relationship between them and the USSR after the war. In 1938, the Sudeten Germans had been making trouble, and claiming that they were maltreated by the Czech leaders and compatriots (this was not the case, the Germans living in this region had in fact got a very good deal. In September, during the Nuremburg party rally, Hitler makes a speech in which he stated that German patience was exhausted and that they had to take back the Sudetenland. At the same time, the British were trying to encourage the Czechs to hand over the land, promising them future security if they were to do this. ‘If they don’t, they won’t get any help’ argument is used. Crisis culminated with three meetings in mid September, at Berchtesgaden, Godesburg and then Munich. Hitler announces that if the powers don’t give in he will invade Czechoslovakia. The day before the proposed invasion, Chamberlain goes back to Munich to try and solve the crisis. The Czechs are not even present at the meeting in which Chamberlain signs away part of their country. Czechoslovakia soon becomes a full-on German satellite, whilst Chamberlain believes that he has secured ‘peace for our time’. Unlikely that Britain could reasonably have gone to war over this. By the end of March 1939, and with the invasion of Bohemia and Moravia, it is clear that the era of appeasement is dead, as Britain and France promise to go to war if Hitler invades Poland.

STALIN’S ROLEStalin did not want to alienate Britain and France and needed collective security (hence attitudes in Spain). Between 33-39, and with Litvinov, the official Soviet policy was the Popular Front. Munich convinced him that Britain and France would not be able to stop Hitler, and made him suspect that for these two nations,

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the ideal situation would be a Soviet/German war- erasing totalitarian regimes. He doesn’t trust them.

ANGLO/SOVIET NEGOTIATION APRIL-AUGUST ’39This period saw attempts by Britain and France to try and revive old Triple Entente style relations. However, there are now vital ideological differences between the communist and capitalist regimes. Britain didn’t really seem to be taking the negotiations very seriously. In May, Litvinov was replaced by Molotov, a clear sign to the Germans that the USSR would consider doing business with them. Publicly they are trying to improve relations with Britain and France, and privately they are in Berlin. In August there is the Drax mission- he meets with Voroshilov- who basically says that ‘we have shit loads of equipment’, and in suitably unimpressed with the shite which the British have. Stalin realises that in order to secure peace for as long as possible, he will have to sort something out with the Germans.

RIBBENTROP/MOLOTOV PACT23rd August 1939. A non-aggression pact, privately Stalin takes back the Baltics, and Poland is divided. Ribbentrop thought that faced with this, Britain and France would not intervene, Stalin recognised that they would. His plan was to try and ensure a long drawn out war between Britain and France and Germany. He got land, and a war in the West that he didn’t have to get involved with, at least for some time. Germans, on the other hand, get a one-front war, at least to begin with, giving them the chance to take France rapidly. Basically it is crap for Britain and France.

CAUSES OF WW2- WHO IS TO BLAME?Nuremburg Trials and early opinion concluded that the war was a deliberate bit of aggression by the Nazis which had been planned well in advance. Taylor in the 60s thought it was more of an opportunist thing, Nazis had broad objectives, but the course of events was determined by allied mistakes. Hitler’s occupation of Prague was perhaps the main sign that he wanted war, it wasn’t necessary as Czechoslovakia was basically already under German control at this stage. He may have been trying to figure out how far he could push the allies. But it did mean that he could no longer use the self-determination argument, which he could have employed with reference to Danzig. But Britain did make mistakes, it is not surprising that Hitler did not take the British promises to Poland very seriously as we had made no real attempt to form an alliance with the USSR. Was appeasement crap? In my opinion yes, since a deal with the USSR would have been far more beneficial. YE OLDE HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE:Option a: Germany is to blame. This was the view held by everyone immediately after the war. The key bit of evidence is Hitler’s invasion of Poland, as he could have just occupied the corridor. Trevor-Roper believed that Hitler wanted a major war right from the start, as part of some big anti-communist plan, the evidence for this lying in Hitler’s book ‘Mein Kampf’ and from the Hossbach memorandum. This view would argue that appeasement did not cause the war, but it made Hitler’s job a lot easier.Option b: Appeasement is equally to blame, and Britain and France should have taken a tougher line. Bullock writes that ‘success and the absence of resistence tempted Hitler to take bigger risks’. The attack on Poland should hence be seen as a gamble which did not pay off, as Hitler didn’t want a war but expected the allies to allow him to just take it.Option c: AJP Taylor thinks that all Hitler wanted was a war with Poland, but that he was an opportunist. His methods are more ruthless than previous German leaders and he took advantage of the situation. Chamberlain miscalculated, and Hitler was lured into a war which he as he didn’t expect the allies to retaliate when he invaded Poland.

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Option d: The USSR is accused of making war more likely by signing the Nazi Soviet pact when it could have allied itself with the west. But the west could have made more of an effort to ally itself with the USSR too. But the treaty helped the war to be won for the allies, as it gave the USSR the chance to prepare its army. The Soviet fighters bore the brunt of the war, and had they entered it earlier perhaps it wouldn’t have been won.

WW2 SUMMARYAttack in the West began with Holland and Belgium, as the French and British moved up into Belgium to meet them. German attack force was moving into S. Belgium, as had been shown by photos from recon aeroplanes although high command had largely ignored this information, believing it to be a diversion. Critically the Germans had to cross the Meuse and achieved this, totally screwing over the British and French. The Panzer divisions then headed toward the channel, forcing the British and French into a rapid retreat, and France was defeated very quickly. People expected an invasion of Britain during the summer (operation sealion) but it never came- the Germans never gained control of the air thanks to RAF superiority during the Battle of Britain- difficult situation as the Germans now had bases in Northern France. Britain began the bombing of Berlin, which then pissed off Hitler making him divert bombers from bases to London and giving the RAF chance to re-organise their bases. By the end of September it was clear that an invasion was not imminent, although the RAF was seriously depleted.

1941In June 1941 the attack on Russia comes (Operation Barbarosa), and it almost succeeds. He started it too late however, and the advancing German forces got bogged down on the outskirts of Leningrad and Moscow by Autumn. On December 7th 1941, Pearl Harbour had the shit bombed out of it- Britain now has two vastly powerful allies. There are two very separate theatres. Important Battle also to keep the sea lanes open.

1942-43 Autumn 1942 is the turning point of the war as Germany gets stuck in Stalingrad. 250,000 men of the German 6th army are surrounded in Stalingrad by February of 1943,very few of them came back. In 1942 at the Battle of El Alamen during October Britain wins the conflict in North Africa. 1943 a critical year. Stalin pushed for an early French invasion to open up a second front in the war, whilst the US and GB are keen to hold back as they were aware that any invasion had to be successful. Russians believe that the Western allies were trying to weaken the USSR, Churchill’s motivation was more that he didn’t want another Somme-style bloodbath. Even with all of the planning things did not exactly go swimmingly (Omaha beach for example). In December 1943, there was the meeting at Teheran. Br+US informs USSR about plans for a D-Day the following summer- US was still not completely committed to Europe.

1944June 6th- D-Day, works pretty well as the allies get on shore with the help of US airborne etc. In August, Paris is liberated, during September the allies win back much of Belgium- there is a speedy advance. By Autumn things are slowing down again- there is the need to get more supplies through. The British lines of Communication are lengthening, whilst those of the Germans are shortening as they are in retreat. September and the bridge too far offensive- in Holland.

POLAND The Warsaw uprising occurs in July ’44 when Soviet forces are within 20-30 miles of Warsaw. The Polish resistance was divided up into two main groups: the Home Army and The Communist Polish resistance. The Home Army takes its orders from London and is pro-West and anti-Russian (not much keener on Russia than

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on Germany since the Katyn Wood massacre). The Communist Polish resistance basically is controlled by the USSR. In July 1944 the Home Army rises up against the Germans, expecting the Russians to help, but they don’t, claiming to have problems with supplying equipment- they wanted this group to be defeated since they are so anti-Russian. The Home Army are very heroic, but they get slaughtered in Warsaw- it is a complete bloodbath, as British planes attempted to help in August, most of the equipment ended up going to the Germans.

FEBRUARY 1945- THE YALTA CONFERENCEChurchill, Roosevelt and Stalin attend. At this stage the war is basically over-this meeting is all about figuring out how to draw lines on the map of Europe, sorting out Germany and planning what kind of political structures will be permitted throughout Europe. The West is however anxious not to repeat the mistakes made at Versailles. For example, Poland is moved West- Russia gains some land on the East side, and Germany loses some on the West side (new line is called the Oder-Neisse line)

OTHER STUFF GOING ON AFTER THE WARStalin desires control over states of Eastern Europe for his own protection, or is it imperialism? (in my opinion no, btw). Not surprisingly, Russia does not want to get invaded again, they haven’t had much luck recently, and many men died at Stalingrad, and during the 3 year siege of Leningrad. In October 1944, Stalin and Churchill had the Blue Pencil meeting- talked about Balkan issues. Greece and Yugoslavia in particular since they had won their own independence, thanks to Communist guerrillas (ELAS in Greece). Greece now in civil war (remember that cos its important later). Churchill wants Greece to be a Western Sphere of influence, and to that end is willing to sacrifice Romania and Bulgaria- people’s views are not really taken into account at all. In December of 1944, Germany abandoned Greece- had it been left to its own devices this country may have turned communist and the British army move in to sort it all out, fighting the Communist side and triggering a civil war which lasts until 1949. Most of the Balkans given to USSR, but Greece remains a western foothold.

BEGINNINGS OF THE GERMANY DEBATEDivide it up into four spheres of influence. Russia gets the Eastern bit, Britain gets the North, US the South and France the crappy bits that no-one else wanted. A single currency is introduced throughout Germany. Berlin also to be divided into sectors- USSR, Br and FR and US- basically East West. West Germany linked to Berlin by railway and autobahn.

WHY DID THE WARTIME ALLIANCE COLLAPSEFundamental differences in ideology (when it was convenient- look at the US support for Tito…) US capitalist liberal democracy (good one) but still supports some outright dictatorships. There is also inevitable rivalry between big-ass countries like the US and the USSR- all about military and economic capabilities. The US has enormous breasts, including oil, coal, agriculture workforce etc etc (if you missed that that then WAKE UP- we’re talking about resources here). Same deal with the USSR, although they are obviously far behind in terms of the exploitation of these assets.

HOW DID THE ALLIANCE BEGIN TO COLLAPSE?The main issue was that of Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe. At the blue pencil meeting, Churchill had recognised that Stalin wanted control over much of the region although he was not happy with the nature of the states which Stalin set up. In 1946, elections were held in Romania and Bulgaria, although the results of these were totally fixed. The Communists gained a majority and rapidly took over- Red Army was running the countries. Poland raised more sensitive issues for people. After all, we had gone to war over them, and so to betray them now seemed a bit cheeky. Stalin was desperate to set up a Communist

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government in Poland, and the fixed elections of 1947 gave another resounding Communist victory. Hungary fell in the same year. Czechoslovakia fell in 1948- this was particularly important because prior to the war, it had been a democracy- it was a very shocking case for the West. However, it is hardly surprising that the USSR was more popular in Czechoslovakia since they had been betrayed by the West at Munich.

DEVELOPMENT OF ATOMIC WEAPONSEinstein had warned FDR that such a weapon could be built, and that there was a risk that the Germans could develop it first. FDR (Roosevelt btw) set up a very secret project, which employed leading scientists from all over the world, including Germans and Italians. They were led by Robert Oppenheimer, who was very intelligent. The project was based at Los Alamos on a mesa in Northern New Mexico- the town was completely cut off, and to this day the national research lab of the US is still based there. In July 1945, the US carried out its first successful detonation at the Trinity Site in the New Mexico desert- Truman tells Stalin of its success at Potsdam. In August, two bombs are dropped on Japan- ending the war. The first successful Soviet detonation took place in 1949, wiping out the American advantage. The speed with which the USSR closed the gap surprised the US, and was partly down to the part played by brave spies. First Hydrogen bomb detonated by US in 1952- based on fusion not fission, USSR gets one in 1953- anti-Communist paranoia with people like McCarthy was rife in the USA. Rosenburg case- people suspected of spying were executed (it wasn’t even Texas)- this highlights the degree of paranoia in the country.

THE DIVISION OF GERMANYBerlin an important symbol. At first country viewed as one- with a single currency. Originally there were no plans for a permanent separation. But the Russians showed had taken lots of stuff from their half- meaning that economically it was in a very bad shape, in late 1946 there in inflation again. In 1947, the allies, who had been pumping resources into their bit decide that they will have to launch a new currency for the Western section (Allied Control Commission). The USSR denounces these reforms, but it is the beginning of the separation. In May 1948 the Berlin Blockade starts. Stalin tries to drive the West out of Berlin by shutting off road and rail links. The airlift went on for about a year- saving Berlin but at enormous cost- everything was taken by plane, not just food, and the planes were landing about once every minute even in very risky conditions. In Summer 1949, Stalin re-opens the frontiers- psychological importance of working together with the German people for the West. In 1949, the country is formally split. West, with capital of Bonn becomes BRD (Federal Republic of Germany). The new East German state, the DDR (German Democratic Republic) is a communist state. Reflection of cold war tensions, and also helps to heighten them.

US RESPONSE TO IT1946- March, Churchill makes his iron curtain speech at Fulton in Missouri. In February 1947 the British informed the US that they would no longer be able to continue their role in Greece and Turkey. Britain is in a shit state, for the first time, even bread has been rationed. Truman takes the US into the conflict with the Truman Doctrine in 1947- this is the beginning of US imperialism, and lays the way for Marshall Aid (That was in fact the point of the Doctrine).

YUGOSLAVIA AND ALBANIAIn these countries, Communist governments came to power when communist armies liberated their own country, not thanks to the Red Army. Therefore, they did not have the same loyalty to Stalin. Tito completely refused to accept the dominance of Moscow. In Summer of 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from the Comintern by Stalin- Tito was able to break free because he had a large army. The US fund his regime because it was anti-Russian (but communist, so Truman

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was clearly talking out of his ass with the doctrine) This was a terrible humiliation for Stalin, and prompted a series of purges across Europe.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLD WARCzechoslovakia- unlike others a country with a history of democracy which had never been ruled by the USSR. Their betrayal by the West at Munich shows why they were more welcoming to the Red Army troops after the war. Between 45 and 48 they had a coalition government which included communist elements. In the genuinely free elections of 1946, they received 38% of the vote- a very large proportion. It is quite an industrial country, meaning that there is a large working class which supported the communists. In 1947, the US becomes very worried about the impoverished state of Europe, and is worried that it may lead to problems with its own economy. Beginning of Marshall aid which resulted in an economic recovery in Western Europe by the 1950s. It was offered to the Czech people also, but Stalin ordered them not to accept- with a further election due in 1948, the CCP was worried that it would lose support over this unpopular decision- this leads to the Communist takeover in February of 1948. The CCP force a political crisis, destroying the coalition as the other members storm out. Benes, (old giffer) doesn’t call an election, so the Communists hold onto power. Gottwald (leader of the Communists) had warned him that the issue could lead to a civil war, so Benes told him to take control of the country. A very repressive Communist regime is hence set up.

NATONato was set up in 1949. Organisation including nations such as the UK, Belgium, Norway, US etc etc- it’s a collective security thing- an attack on one equals an attack on all- has a very integrated command structure and is basically anti-USSR. In 1955, Germany is allowed to join NATO and to begin to re-arm- its becoming a prosperous and important country, although the Russians and the French are NOT happy about the rearming. Russians set up the Warsaw pact in response to this- the rearming argument was also used by the Russians.

THE BERLIN WALLWest Berlin was a prosperous and open place, which meant that it was a problem for the USSR. It was seen as a island of freedom and prosperity. USSR and East Germans want to get rid of it. In 1955, a treaty between the USSR and the DDR granted East Germany the right to conduct its foreign affairs as it saw fit. At the same time, Khrushchev wrote to the USA that the USSR would continue to have control of rights of movement between West Berlin and West Germany, which would mean that the West would not have to deal with East Germany. The note meant that if the USA refused to recognise the DDR, the USSR would no longer control rights of movement, forcing the USA to have direct relations with the DDR. This would obviously render the Western policy of refusing to view the DDR as a sovereign power impractical. By 1958 however, the Western stance on Eastern Germany had not changed, and in response Khrushchev delivered an ultimatum in which he claimed that West Berlin had become ‘a springboard for espionage and anti-Soviet acts’ and demanded that if the West did not act positively to alleviate the problem within 6 months, the USSR would grant the DDR full sovereign status, which would effectively give it the right to claim all of the land in its capital, Berlin. Although Khrushchev had not stated this directly, he was demanding that the West recognise the DDR or lose access to the city. For the West, the second option was simply not a possibility, as Berlin was such an important symbol of hope, though they were equally unkeen to yield to Soviet demands. The final result was that the US reasserted the absolute right of free access to Berlin for the Western powers. Khrushchev, faced with the prospect of World War Three, backed down at a summit in 1959 signalling the end of this period of heightened tension.

Berlin continued to be an issue and a problem, particularly for Khrushchev. Whilst West Berlin was a flourishing, open city, the Eastern side was drab,

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communist, and inferior. This, coupled with the proximity of the two sides, and the relative ease with which the border could be crossed, meant that between 1949 and 1957 more than two million refugees had fled across to West Berlin in search of employment or to escape the Soviet regime. When Khrushchev met Kennedy in June 1961 and repeated the warning that the Western powers must be prepared to leave Berlin within six months, the number of defectees increased to almost 1000 a day, many of whom were young, skilled intelligent workers, which had an effect on the economy of the city as well as being a cause of embarrassment for Khrushchev. In August 1961, a wall was erected to prevent people from fleeing from East to West, which in some ways was a success for Khrushchev, as it stopped the loss of essential manpower. On the other hand, it did not please the Western powers, and meant that for the next 28 years Berlin remained a source of tension between the US and USSR.

CHALLENGES TO SOVIET CONTROLBERLIN 1953 Serious rioting occurs among the workers of East Berlin. Living standards are low and conditions are shit. A riot is put down by Soviet tanks.FEBRUARY 1956 DESTALINISATION At the 20th party congress Khrushchev whos position in power is now virtually assured denounces Stalin. The speech was supposed to be kept secret, but wasn’t. Khrushchev was basically stating that Stalin had committed crimes, and that some of those who had been purged should be rehabilitated. This pissed off the Stalinist Chinese and also meant that many Eastern European people were given false hopes about the immediate future of the communist regimes in their countriesPOLAND OCTOBER 1956: Mass demonstrations in support of Gomulka occur. Gomulka has always stood up for Polish interests against Stalin, but was never executed. Also in Poland the power of the church was never broken, and this can be associated with Polish nationalism. The Russians could either allow him to become leader, or use force to suppress him. In the end, he is allowed to become leader, and this set off a similar kind of thing in HungaryHUNGARY OCTOBER 1956: On 20th october there was a demonstration in support of Imre Nagy, a long time communist who was popular among the Hungarian people. On this day there was a riot at the radio station, but instead of crushing the riot many soldiers and policemen joined the protesters, who now wanted freedom as well as Nagy. Khrushchev was faced with a difficult decision, as sending in tanks would damage relations with the West, whilst if he did nothing he would be seen as weak. In the end, under the advice of Mao and Zhou Enlai he sends in tanks on Sunday November the 4th, denying the Hungarians their demands to leave the Warsaw pact and hold free elections. 1 week of street fighting follows, in which the Russians regain control of Budapest. Thousands are killed and Nagy is executed. Hungary appealed for help from the West, who do absolutely bugger all, despite encouraging the Hungarians on Radio Free Europe. Mass resignations from other communist parties followed, as there was serious disillutionment.CZECHOSLOVAKIA: PRAGUE SPRING 1968:It came as a complete surprise at the time. In January 1968, Novotny, leader of the Czech communist party is voted out by the politburo, and Dubcek is voted in, launching a program of reforms. By February many political prisoners had been released and censorship had been completely abolished. There were even elements of genuine democracy within the party. Policy of ‘Socialism with a Human Face’. Other Eastern leaders started to get worried, but Dubcek, after seeing what had happened in Hungary made it clear that he didn’t want to break from the Warsaw pact. July meeting at Cherna, in which Brezhnev tells Dubcek that he will not tolerate it. At an August meeting in Bratislava there seems to be some chance of a deal. Then on 21st of August 1968 the Russian tanks moved in, and there was little resistance, as it would have been futile.In 1969 the USSR started arresting people again and regained comlpete control. In February Jan Palack burnt himself in public in protest, 1 million people attended

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his funeral, and then repression returns. Anyone who was at one stage associated with Dubcek is basically screwed for life, and lost their education and their careers. Confirms that Brezhnev is a good candidate for dickhead of the decade.

THE KOREAN WARBACKGROUND: Up to 45 Korea had been occupied by the Japanese (since 1910). After the end of the war, the N was occupied by Soviet troops, whilst the S was occupied by US troops. The idea was that they would withdraw eventually with an election, and leave a unified and fluffy Korea behind. What with the cold war in Europe, Korea got slightly forgotton about, but in 1949 the split between the North and South was more formalised. The S became the republic of Korea, whilst the North became the People’s Democratic Republic of Korea. At the same time, the US occupying forces were withdrawn and pulled back to bases in Japan, they thought that they could cover S Korea from there. Didn’t notice a steady build-up of troops in the North.OUTBREAK OF THE WAR: June, when N Korean forces invaded the S, seeking to overrun it as rapidly as possible, before the US could really respond. Leader of the N was called Kim Il Sung, a bit of a local Stalin.THE UN: The S appealed to the UN, and there was some discussion about whether or not troops should go in. The USSR could have supported global communism and vetoed this, but their delegation was not present as they were protesting at the UN’s failure to recognise the real China. This was either a cunning move by Stalin to draw the US into an unwinnable war, forcing it to retreat out of East Asia, or possibly a slightly stupid move. Stalin was also trying to convince the Chinese to join in, but did he really know that they would? So the US, under the blue flag of the UN, goes into KoreaMILITARY HISTORY OF KOREA: Invasion starts as the N Korean forces push S. They reach Pusan, a deep water harbour, and put in under seige, although the US troops are holding out in August. Then MacArthur develops a cunning plan, and does a mini D-day amphibian landing at Inchon, just to the North of the 38 th

parallel. By late September, it looks good, Seoul has been retaken, and the situation reversed, the South is liberated, and the war looks won. Perhaps that should have been the end of it. But the US decide to push North to get rid of the communist influence throughout the whole country. The Chinese are waiting though. In late October 1000s of Chinese troops come across the river, they are flexible and fast moving, and push the US troops back. By Christmas, they are back at the 38th parallel. And by spring 1951 there is a stalemate at the 38th parallel, with the war basically being between China and the US, meaning that it becomes much more politically sensitive. There are Soviet Migs in the skies, challengin US air superiority, but the US fighters are not allowed to persue them over Chinese soil, since the result of this would be more serious diplomatic consequences. MACARTHUR THE TWAT: Wanted the war to be extended to fight big, bad China, and was even talking about using nuclear weapons. He was sacked in 1951, and this decision was quite unpopular, since the people liked MacArthur, but this brave move did establish Truman as the man in charge of all US forces. THE STALEMATE: Whilst the fighting continues, there are some attempts to negotiate a truce, but certain issues stop major agreements from being reached. For example, the Chinese and N. Korean troops wanted all POWs to be returned, but some of them didn’t want to, and the US delegation thought that they should be given the choice. Eisenhower was elected president in 1952, promising to end the war, and sorted it out. With the threat of a nuclear conflict, the war ended in summer 1953. It was a very pointless war.CONSEQUENCES OF KOREA: 45-50 the US had been interventionist, they were committed to a global role, and as such had a big, bad army. They now have a global focus, with bases all around the world, giving the Russians a sense of being surrounded.

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THE THAW 53-62The main reason for this relaxation was the death of Stalin in 1953, which heralded an era of improved relations and increasing communication between East and West. Stalin and his successor Khrushchev had vastly different views on both foreign policy and domestic affairs, although until Beria’s arrest in June 1953 a Stalinist line was followed in both. Between 1953 and 1956, power was shared by three men, Malenkov, Bulganin and Khrushchev, all of whom wished to improve relations with the USA. By 1955, both Bulganin and Malenkov were in a far less strong position than Khrushchev, who emergence as supreme leader was finally completed in February 1957, although it was all but assured at the time of the Twentieth Party congress in February 1956. Khrushchev believed that peaceful co-existence with the west was both possible and necessary, and acknowledged that in a full-scale nuclear war there could be no winners. At the twentieth party congress he denounced Stalin and began the process of rehabilitation of those who had been sent to labour camps during the purges. Although Khrushchev’s speech to congress on this subject had been intended to be kept secret, news of it had spread throughout Europe and to the US by the end of the month.

The West viewed this denouncement of the purges and rehabilitation of the victims of Stalin and Beria as indicative of Khrushchev’s desire to distance himself from Stalinist policy and to adopt a more moderate line on both domestic and foreign issues. This was indeed the case, as Khrushchev did not believe, as Stalin had, that violent conflict with the West and its forces of capitalism would be both inevitable and necessary. Khrushchev wrote of Stalin’s foreign policy that ‘He overemphasised the importance of military might, and put too much faith in our armed forces’. Khrushchev, in contrast stated that the feeling among the Soviet leadership after Stalin’s death was that ‘after such a bloody war we and the West could come to terms and agree among ourselves on rational principles of peaceful co-existence’ .The people of Eastern Europe hoped and truly believed that Khrushchev words were the first stage in a relaxation of the communist regime, and that the era of extreme repression would soon be drawing to a close. Hence, the direct result of Khrushchev’s speech was that relations with the US and the West were eased. On the other hand, it also led to the events in Poland and Hungary in October 1956, both of which resulted in heightened tension between East and West.

However, the death of Stalin and ensuing rise to power of Khrushchev was the fundamental factor in the development of a partial thaw of Cold War tensions. For Khrushchev, it was no longer a viable option to threaten the US with force, since the destructive capabilities of the hydrogen bomb rendered it basically unusable. In addition to this, the USSR appeared to be enjoying a period of economic and military strength. Heavy industrial production was massive, and the USSR was the world leader in new technology, as was displayed by the deployment of Sputnik in 1957 and the first human flight in space, by Yuri Gagarin in 1961. Although these facts mask the true nature of the Soviet economy, which was extremely unbalanced and ultimately very vulnerable, as consumer industries were totally neglected, Khrushchev believed that these successes demonstrated that planned economies were fundamentally better than those of capitalist countries, and that as a result the USSR did not need to use force in order for Communism to spread throughout the world. Meanwhile, the Western powers were becoming increasingly conscious of apparent Soviet successes, particularly in terms of their technological advances and military strength. Kennedy was particularly aware that under Khrushchev communism appeared to be delivering, and was anxious that the missile gap which had opened up as a result of American complacence should be closed as rapidly as possible. Khrushchev did not want conflict with the West, nor view it as necessary whilst the US feared conflict with the apparently superior strength of the USSR, and as a result of this relations were better between 1953 and 1962. The other side of this is that the Soviet Union became more confident, and it was this confidence which could be

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said to have caused the Cuban Missile crisis, which almost sparked a full-scale nuclear conflict between the two countries.

During the period 1953 to 1962 there were several other indications that something of a thaw was occurring. The first of these was the conclusion of the war in Indo-China with the Geneva peace accords of 1954 and relative success of the summit in the summer of 1955, also held in Geneva. The Soviet delegation at the summit was headed by Bulganin, although Molotov and Khrushchev also attended. Khrushchev himself claimed that the Soviet aim at Geneva was to ‘sign a peace treaty that would recognise the existence of two German states and would guarantee that each state would be allowed to develop as its own people saw fit’, whilst he also thought that the goal of the Western powers would be ‘the reunification of Germany’ and the ‘liquidation of Socialism in the German Democratic Republic’. Although these perceived aims were obviously not compatible, the very fact that the Soviet leadership was meeting with Eisenhower and other Western leaders signalled a sharp reversal of Stalinist foreign policy, and it is important not to underestimate the value of communication, even if little is actually agreed. The conference also did much to boost Soviet conference, as Khrushchev considered Eisenhower a ‘mediocre military leader and a weak president’ and recognised that there was ‘something soft about his character’. Khrushchev summed up the conversations with the US delegation as ‘generally constructive and useful for both parties, although neither side changed its position’, and stated that ‘We returned to Moscow knowing that we hadn’t achieved any concrete results, but were encouraged, realising now that our enemies probably feared us as much as we feared them’. It was this mutual fear and development of some form of mutual respect which meant that relations between Khrushchev and Eisenhower were never very strained.

The Austrian state treaty of May 1955 was a more significant agreement and an indication of increased co-operation between East and West. As with Germany, Austria had been divided up into four zones following World War Two, but had been allowed her own government and was viewed as a liberated state as a opposed to a defeated enemy. Problems developed as the Russians seemed to be trying to drain the Soviet sector of resources whilst the three Western powers were trying to rebuild their zones of occupation. However, the Austrian state treaty of May 1955 meant that Austria did not become a divided nation. It is likely that the Russians chose to co-operate with the West as they feared that a strong Western Austria would merge with West Germany to create a strong an economically powerful state. The state treaty resulted in the withdrawal of all Soviet troops and independence for Austria which was granted its 1937 frontiers. The USSR was also satisfied, as union with Germany was once again forbidden, and the Austrians pledged to remain neutral in any conflicts between East and West. This meant that they could not join with NATO, nor be included in the Warsaw Pact which was set up shortly afterwards.

In addition to this, there were other signs that a relaxation of the Cold War was occuring. In 1955, the Russians agreed to give up all of their military bases in Finland and Cominform was abandoned in April 1956. There were also shifts in American foreign policy. Eisenhower replaced Truman in 1952, and for his eight-year term the US returned to a state which was similar to its isolation under Roosevelt. During Truman’s presidency, fear of Communism had been the most important factor in determining foreign policy, and this had a knock-on effect on domestic policy. Following Stalin’s death and Eisenhower’s election, American priorities changed slightly, as the USSR no longer appeared to be expanding further and as the nations of Western Europe gradually gained in strength and economic independence.

HOW DID THE USSR SURVIVE SO LONG?Brezhnev is in power from 64 to 81, and the USSR appears to be very strong and powerful. This exterior hid the true nature of the economy, and today the GNP of Russia is less than that of Belgium.

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All Soviet investment and money was pumped into the military, meaning that the economy was extremely distorted, with a guns before butter kind of attitude. Although they can build big guns and send men into space, they are still far behind in computing, and completely missed the PC revolution, limiting the flow of information. Living standards were very low. There were many jobs, and healthcare and education was provided for all, but nobody really has it good. The 1973 Yom Kippur wars meant that arab states blocked oil transfers, OPEC was set up to supply oil and push up prices, and this resulted in the USSR having more income. This meant that reforms were delayed, stagnation and corruption grew, it was basically growth without development.Then Andropov, head of the KGB comes in. Launches a massive purge on corruption and is highly professional. In Poland and Hungary, governments try to buy popular support by improving living standards, borrowing heavily from the West and resulting in huge debts by the 80s. Once again, reform is delayed.SOLIDARITY: In Gdansk in August 1980 strikes start out of the blue, workers are discontent with pay, and demand the right to set up free trade unions, this movement grew into Solidarity. Strikes soon spread to transport service and to the mines, and everyone came out in support of a general strike, demanding free trade unions. The Polish communist government was forced to make concessions, and free trade unions were set up. By 1981, Solidarity was increasingly becoming an alternate, legitimate form of government, led by Lech Walenska, who had a big moustache. Russia grew increasingly worried, and by August forces are beginning to mass on the border, threatening an invasion. In december, the polish army intervenes, takes over the country declaring Marshall law, and Jarvelski becomes the new militaristic leader. Bad, but at least he kept the Russians out.

REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSRECONOMIC INBALANCE- Due to the cold war, the USSR had huge military costs and many troops deployed in Europe who were basically occupying.MASSIVE CORRUPTION- In every aspect of Soviet life.OVER CENTRALISED COMMAND- Planned economy, not affected by world slump, but not part of capitalist world. By 60s it was becoming top heavy, and bad decisions were being taken. Market forces were never fully taken into account.CONTROL OF THE EMPIRE- It was after all pretty large, and problems emerged in Poland, Hungary, Poland again, Berlin and Prague. Also ‘Russia’s Vietnam’ in Afghanistan in Christmas 1979. FAILURE TO REFORM- Russia became a Gerantocracy, high oil prices meant that much needed reform could be delayed for some time. POLISH POPE- A figure around which opposition could focus, particularly in Poland. There were long term pressures building up in the system.POSITION AS LEADERS OF WORLD COMMUNISM- Best example, Cuba; whom they supported at enormous cost.

GORBACHEVBecomes leader in 1985, in his early 50s. He basically failed, but had the right sort of idea. He realised that reform was needed in order for the USSR to survive and had two dual aims: ‘Peristroika’- reconstruction and reform and ‘Glasnost’- openness. Basically it meant a democratisation of the Soviet empire. People wanted more, and it soon stopped being communism. Impossible to combine communism and freedom and 68 in Cz showed, people will just want more freedoms. In August 1991 there is an attempted coup, and a group of hardliners attempt to oust Gorbachev, it fails because the people, led by Yeltsin, come out onto the street and literally block the tanks. The putsch was also very badly planned. Gorbachev’s tragedy was that he went too far for the hardliners, but not far enough for the people. A country is always turbulent when it is reforming though.

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August 1991 brings the end of the USSR as Yeltsin comes to power and the USSR breaks up.

EASTERN EUROPEAN COLLAPSEPOLAND By 1988 the economy is in a really bad state, and too much has been borrowed. Had to get the country back on its feet, and the government realised that it would have to start talking to Solidarity to do this. Once this started, they began to lose absolute power.HUNGARY In 1989, the government adopted Peristroika. Nagy’s body was exhumed and given a national hero’s burial. Soviet foreign minister makes it clear that the USSR will not intervene this time. Both of these countries are really loosening up by the summer of 1989. In Cz, E Germany and Romania, the old guard is really trying to hold on.In September 1989 the symbolic ‘iron curtain’ came down, as barbed wire was removed along the border between Austria and Hungaria. 1000s of cars queued up as people tried to cross. People went through and didn’t come back. Inevitably, once people start to find exits, the whole thing begins to fall apart. E GERMANY- In October in Leipzig there is a massive peaceful demonstration. On November 9th, the German authorities unexpectedly gave way, and opened up the wall.KENNEDYCame to power in 1961, talking of the missile gap. He believes that the US is behind the USSR, primarily as a result of the strong image portrayed by the USSR with achievements such as Gagarin’s flight in space in 1961. Kennedy himself was part of a dodgy family, which had risen to prominence and wealth bootlegging in the 20s. They were a respectable, rich, Boston Irish Catholic family. He was also young, and won the election narrowly, with Illinois being the crucial state. His opponent was Nixon, and there was some hint of the result being a little dodgy, particularly since the vote in Chicago was very important, and there could well have been an element of corruption here.

CUBA PRIOR TO 62In the 40s and 50s had been ruled by Batista, a total dictator, who had the tentative backing of the US government. Havana was basically an American playground, run by the Mafia. The rest of Cuba was run by American companies, including the sugar and tobacco plantations. By the late 50s, however, the Batista regime is becoming ever more harsh and corrupt, and increasingly something of an embarrassment for the Americans. A guerrilla movement starts up in the 50s, led by Castro and Guevara, but at this time it is not seen as Communist. The US give them tentative support, viewing them as freedom fighters. New Year’s Eve 1958, Batista flees to Spain, New Years day 59 tanks go into Havana and take over.59-60 Former US businesses are nationalised, land is given to the peasants and Russia moves in as the Daddy following US trade embargos. By 1960 it is basically a communist state which has severed all links with the US. Spring 1961, the Bay of Pigs invasion occurs. Many Cubans leave Cuba and go to the US. These are then trained up by the CIA and sent in to overthrow Castro. It ends up a complete fiasco and a total failure, but JFK does not distance himself from the events. In July 1961 there is a meeting in VIENNA between JFK and Khrushchev. Kh misjudges JFK, thinks he’s crap, and totally underestimates him. The US was in fact ahead in the arms race, as the USSR only had 5 or 6 high tech, long range missiles capable of reaching US soil.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISISIn October 1962, pictures were taken by a U2 spy plane over Cuba which illustrated that missiles sites were being set up in Cuba. EXCOM was set up, and top advisors met in secret. JFK viewed it as a political challenge to the US, as the USSR was saying that if you want them in Turkey, then we want them on Cuba.

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JFK didn’t want the US to be percieved as weak, but knew that Khrushchev must be allowed to withdraw claiming a victory.EXCOM was faced with three main alternatives:i. Full scale invasionii. Bombingiii. BlockadeIn the end they went for option iii., and US navy ships were positioned around the island, ready to stop the advancing Soviet convoy. This avoided immediate violent confrontation, but did not solve the problem of the missiles which were already there. Once the ships arrived at the blockade, and thankfully stopped, messages were exchanged between the two sides. KENNEDY’S HANDLING: Pretty sweet. Communication with Moscow was very good and open, with messages being clearly exchanged. There could be no ambiguity, and good crisis management was essential. The compromise on Turkey allowed Khrushchev to not be embarrassed, and hence diffused some tension. He also kept the military under tight control, they did exactly as they were told and did not do anything without the presidents authorisation.

THE LONG TERM CAUSES OF THE COLD WARBEFORE 1917: Even under Peter the Great Russia wanted to be part of the West but was always something of an outsider. The Crimean War was also indicative of their attempts to gain influence and access to the West. But West pleasing reform was never an easy option for them, since no Tsar ever wanted to compromise his position as absolute autocrat. In 1914 they enter the war, embracing Western values, yet they are an uncomfortable ally, and would not have gained mediterranean access following the conflict, which was what they wanted.1917: Leave the war with Brest Litovsk in 1918, a near disaster for the West, although fortunately the US come in and fill the void. They never really wanted World revolution, but this didn’t stop the West thinking that they did (stopped believing it after the failed Spartakist uprising). THE 30S: Stalin had inherent fear of the West, and thought that the USSR would need a strong economy in order to resist US imperialism. It also seemed that the US was prepared to tolerate rightist regime. So he responded by signing the Nazi-Soviet pact in August 1939. Ideology is forgotton for a while. THE WAR: Stalin gets the distinct impression that the West would like to see Stalin destroyed by Hitler. The wartime alliance is a marriage of convenience between the US and GB. But throughout the war the USSR bares the brunt of the fighting, with 20-25 million casualties, compared to only 340,000 british. TEHRAN: Stalin wants assurances in the conference in November 1943 that all of the powers would be in this to the end, and that Russia would not be left on the outside with few gains. He wants a second front to open up, and believes that the delay could be part of some grand plan to undermine Soviet strength. In June 1944 a second front is finally opened up.YALTA FEB 1945 –no negotiated settlement

-allies agree to have no separate peace-there will be a successor to the LofN-Armies of occupation, GB argue for FR-Berlin to be partitioned-4 powers council for admin of Germany

POTSDAM JULY 1945 –FDR dies, replaced by HST-Atlee replaces Churchill-Stalin still there and occupying E/C Europe-US has the bomb-Respect for Stalin amongst soldiers

US POLICY SHIFT- Truman does not go for isolationism. There is an underlying economic reason for this, which is that involvement in war boosts manufacturing industry, whilst good trade with the West via Marshall aid keeps big business

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happy. Anti-communist rhetoric also satisfies the republicans, and means that the general public get behind the campaign.US THE GLOBAL THREAT- 45-49 US is the only country with the bomb, Stalin fears for future invasion and hence seeks to widen his borders via the sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. The Berlin Blockade played right into Truman’s hands, as it exposed the USSR as evil. As you can see, ideology doesn’t really fit into this picture much. THE ROLE OF THE NUCLEAR DETERRENTKey dates: US atom bomb ’45

-USSR ‘49-US H Bomb ’52-USSR ’53-Sputnik ’57

ICBMs gave a new intensification of the arms race. The US thought that the USSR had more, which they didn’t, as the US had important bases in Turkey, Italy etc. The concept of deterrance was the underlying philosophy, with the MAD (mutally assured destruction) mentality. It was based on the assumption that no-one would attack, considering the consequences. There was no defence against a nuclear strike, so it was a risky game. Until the 80s there was nothing that could be done, except to hope that you would have time to shoot back before you got vaporised. But if retaliation remained possible, the possibility of a first strike was far decreased. So early warning systems were very important, and decisions had to be made very quickly. The hotline after Cuba meant that it was possible to have more of an idea of what the enemy was doing (unless it was engaged…)The early 60s saw the introduction of sub-based missiles, like Polaris, in a way this meant that the situation was safer, as if the prospect of immediate retaliation was always there, the first strike was less likely to come. Satellites also become important, lengthening the period of forewarning. People were also worried about the ‘tripwire’ theory- ie that little things could trigger a nuclear war that could wipe out humanity due to a staged pattern of escalation. In the 70s, there was more thought about defence systems, and the construction of missiles that could knock out other missiles. At SALT 1, missile defence work stopped, and there was some stability in the arms race.In 1983 Reagan announced Star Wars, which was based on LASERS in orbit, but the technology was not up to it.

VIETNAM

DATES

1945 Aug-Vietminh set up provisional NVNM gov’t1945 Oct- French reconquest begins1954- Country divided up along the 17th parallel1946 6th March- Saintenay agreement1946- DRV set up NCO schools1949- French recognise SVNM1950- PAVN mobilised1950 Jan- China and USSR recognise DRV1954 May- Dien Bien Phu Offensive1954- Geneva peace agreements1954- Ngo Dinh Diem appointed by French1955 Oct- Diem makes himself president of South1955- All landlords land seized in the North 1956- SVN refuses to hold elections1957- Guerrilla warfare recommences in the South1958- Full scale collectivisation made voluntary1959- HCM and the N support the guerrillas

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1960- By this date 80% of the peasants are in some kind of collective1960- NLF founded1960- First US advisors are arriving, safe village campaign1961- JFK becomes president pumps in aid to C, L and SV1962- First US troops involved1963 June- Buddhist crisis1963- LBJ becomes president1963- NVNM army gets involved1963 Nov- Nhu and Diem are shot1964 Aug- Gulf of Tonkin incident+resolution1965- Operation rolling thunder1965 March- US embassy in Saigon destroyed1968- Bombing stops briefly1968 Feb- Tet offensive launched1968-Peace talks begin1969- Nixon becomes pres1969 Nov- 250,00 march against the war in DC1970- Kent state uni protests1972 Oct- First cease fire1973 Jan- Cease fire and Paris peace settlement1975 April- Saigon falls1975- N Vietnamese win the war

EVENTS AND POLICIES

BACKGROUND INFORMATIONIn 1954, Vietnam was divided along the 17th parallel. It borders China, Laos and Cambodia, as is also near Burma and India. It is 1200 miles from North to South. The North is seasonal whilst the South is tropical. It is half the size of Texas. ¾ of the country is covered by bush and scrub, and of that, 50% is jungly. In the North and the Midlands there are mountains, also some plains and deltas are distributed randomly around. The dominant ethnic group is the Kinh, who make up 80% of the population. The population is 90% peasant, and primarily Buddhist. Indochina has been 19th century French colony, and the French population there is 45,000 almost entirely urban based.

HISTORYChina ruled Vietnam for about 1000 years, from 111BC to 938AD, and as a result there has been an impact on the culture of Vietnam. From the 16th century onwards, it is the Europeans who are exerting their influence over the region, and you get Dutch, Portugese, French etc all there. From the 19th century onwards it is the French who are in charge. But the two groups have a very different development, admin is crap, the French don’t speak Vietnamese, the government does not have any money to spend on public services, there are only 14 schools in the whole country in 1940. There is also a small elite, which is French speaking and wealthy. They live in the towns and are Roman catholic. Vietnamese nationalism grows in the 20th century, and this is boosted by Japan’s victory in 1905. In 1919 after the post war treaties however, the region is not given its independenceIn 1919, the first Vietnamese nationalist party, the VNQDD is set up.Ho Chi Minh (he who enlightens), born 1890 under the name Nguyen Sinh Cung of an elite family. He lived out the 1920s in Paris, where he joined the French communist party, and then spent time training as a guerilla in the USSR and China. In the late 1930s he returns, and by 1940 goes on to lead the communist party.

WW2 AND VIETNAM

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Vietnam was occupied by the Japanese due to its proximity to Burma and India. The French surrender in 1940, so the country becomes neutral under Vichy France administration, and the Japanese don’t even need to invade. So Indochina is now occupied by the Japanese, but still sort of run by the French. The nationalist movement hence grows in two ways, firstly against the French, and then secondly against the Japanese. In May 1940, the communist party is established- the League for the Independenec of Vietnam- the Vietminh. They are not just communist, it is a cross party group although it is led by communists. During WW2 the Vietminh has US support, and FDR promises HCM support in their bid for independence, because the US is anti-imperialist at this time. By 1945, the Vietminh are strong, they control 3 Northern provinces and Hanoi. In August 1945, they set up a provisional government of free Vietnam in the North, which has no control of the South. But the French are not willing to give up their empire.

ORIGINS OF FRENCH V VIETNAMIn 1945, the Japanese troops in Vietnam were to be disarmed, but communist hater British commander General Douglas Gracey, who was overseeing things South of the 16th parallel rearmed French troops who immediately got into a fight with the Vietminh around Saigon. So the French then sent in reinforcements. In response the GMD sent 150,000 troops to the North, but they don’t really do much, just take resources from the region. There was popular support for the retaking of Vietnam, so on 25/10/45 (by this time the French have no control over the rural areas) they begin their concerted effort to retake it. With 40,000 troops, control over the South is quickly established, primarily in urban areas. The French commander, Leclerc goes for a political solution, leading to the Saintenay agreement of March 1946, at which the French agree to recognise N vietnman, the DRV (democratic republic) and also agree to a referendum in the South to see if they wanted to join the North. However, the French in the South break the agreement for various reasons, primarily due to anti-communist sentiments and fear of the independence issue coming up. Full-scale war then breaks out.

WAR 1946-1954GUERRILLA WARFARE: HCM described it as a war between an elephant and a tiger. Basically all well executed guerrilla warfare should go like this. The tiger never stands still and attacks at night in the jungle, wearing the elephant down in a war of attrition until it bled to death. Despite the technological advances, the pschological effect this type of war had on the French was terrible. Remember also that the Vietminh had been doing this for 5 years against the Japanese, and as a result were pretty experienced in it. You would think, wouldn’t you, that this might deter the US from making exactly the same mistakes.. but no, it didn’t..THE NATURE OF THE FIGHT: The Vietminh saw the war as a joint political and military effort. The people had to be used as an instrument of war, first to be control through propaganda, and then to be participatory. GENERAL GIAP’S IDEA: He saw the war lasting a long time, but knew that it had to be slow to be effective. But this didn’t matter, because unlike the French, nobody was particularly bothered about a quick war. He saw the war as having three distinct phases:i. The enemy controls major centres and communications. Meanwhile the revolutionary movement is built up using small scale guerrilla actionsii. There’s a stalemate, the revolutionary movement has the countryside whilst the enemy is still strong in the cities and towns. iii. When superiority in numbers (and morale) is achieved, the revolution goes on the offensive. GAINING THE SUPPORT OF THE PEOPLE: Was easy, because the French rule really had been pretty inept, and as a result people hated them and were keen to fight against them. In a guerrilla warfare, the support of the masses is what tips the balance. The Vietminh accomplished this at village level, ‘removing’ government officials and then constructing rival administrations which collected tax fairly. Not

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only are they reasonable, but they also do indoctrination. As the gained control, they redistributed land, and treated people with respect, so that they earned the respect of the people.BE NICE!: Giap also made sure that his fighters did not piss off the people, and laid down behavioural rules which were similar to those employed by Mao. These included, ‘be polite, be fair, return stuff you borrow, pay for stuff you damage, don’t bully people, don’t damage crops, don’t rape the women, treat the prisoners well’. In contrast, the French mistreated the villages and took their stuff by force. REAL ARMY: In 1946, the DRV set up officer and NCO training schools, and in 1950, mobilisation of the People’s army of Vietnam PAVN (who had conventional troops) took place. By 1952, the army had 5 infantry divisions and some phat heavy weapons support.DIEN BIEN PHU: May 1954 offesive by the French. It failed, resulting in their withdrawl from Indochina as they cut their losses. Vietnam was divided at the 17th

parallel, with the DRV in the North. Under the Geneva peace accords, unifying elections were to be held in 1956, but neither the US nor the South had signed these, making it completely irrelevant. COSTS: French: 90,000 dead or MIA, Vietnam: 200,00 dead or MIACHINA IN THE WAR: DRV recognised the DRV in Jan 1950 (as did the USSR) and supplied the VM and PAVN with weapons (20 tonnes per month in 1951) up to 40,000 tonnes in 1954.FRENCH: By 1950, 40% of the French population thought that the war was crap. The war was seen as a civil war and a war against communism, but the State of Vietnam, set up in the south in 1949 was a sham, as, not suprisingly it took its orders from the French. Thus the South could not rival the North.

OVERVIEW OF EVENTS 54-75i. The civil war between the North and the South. ii. The US involment which built up towards 68, and then tailed off around 73. In the 60s, the US sends shit loads of advisors, and between 65-68 there is major groundtroop involvment. iii. Between 1973 and 75 it is a civil war again.

WHY DID CIVIL WAR BREAK OUT?In 1954, the Geneva agreement had divided up the country, supposedly to be reunified again in 1956 with elections. But since the US and the SVNM hadn’t signed it, it was meaningless. Meanwhile, shit was being stirred up in the South by 10,000 guerrillas who’d been left there.1956 comes, and elections are not held, because the South refuses to. In addition to this the South Vietnamese government becomes increasingly nepotistic and corrupt, and in addition to this were becoming increasinly unpopular. The leader of the Southern government, Diem, organises a series of anti communist witch hunts beginning in 55, which has the effect of really pissing off the left wingers, as innocent people obviously get caught up in it. So in the South, guerrilla warfare recommencese in 1957. By 1959, the N Vietnamese government is supporting the guerrilla warfare in the South. In 1960, the N are encouraging the establishment of the National liberation front, the NLF. Its cross party, and works with the guerrillas to free South Vietnam, who incidentally are usually communist. It escalates into a full civil war, and by 1960 the US has joined in. This involvment leads to increasing support for the anti-imperialist communists who resist the US so effectively.

THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE GOVERNMENTKnown as the republic of Vietnam- the RVN. (just to reiterate, the North is called the democratic republic of Vietnam, the DRV).Led by a complete twat, Ngo Dinh Diem (Diem to his mates), who is appointed in June 1954 by the French and South Vietnamese elites, who makes himself president in October 1955. A national assembly is established in the South in

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1956. But executive and legislative powers remain with him (so its like the Duma in a way). He’s middle class catholic (the Catholics are a minority in Vietnam) and he makes his brother, Thuc (what a name!!) Archbishop. Another brother, Nhu (obviously crap names run in the family) is made minister of the interior and chief of the secret police. The government is crap, and doesn’t introduce any kind of reform. There remains huge inequality of land holdings, and Diem consistantly supports the elites. Between 1954 and 1963, US aid came to $1.7 billion dollars, which is what keeps this regime going. After the witch hunt of 1955, lots of non-communists change sides, recognising that the communists are better and fairer.He also launches an attack on various religious sects and minority groups, seeing them as a threat to his power. Some of them are crushed, others are forced underground with the guerrillas. In 1963 there is the Buddhist crisis, when they protest because they are not allowed to raise their flag on Buddha’s birthday. When they protest peacefully in Saigon they are fired upon by security forces, and on the 11th June of them burns himself to death. The photo has worldwide impact, and 6 other buddhist monks do the same. It’s a real embarrassment for the SVNM and for the US, who are supporting them. In addition to this, Madam Nhu makes a big PR fuck up by talking about Buddhist BBQs. As a result of this, US aid stops. The SVNM foreign minister resigns, and the S Vietnamese government becomes split. This paves the way for a coup against Diem. In November 1963, Nhu and Diem are shot. Between 1963 and 1965 SVN is a ‘Revolving Door Republic’ with 9 different governments.

DRV- THE NORTH VIETNAMESE NVN is run by HCM who is the president of the republic. The system there is based on the Soviet model, with a politburo and a congress. The decision making occurs via democratic centralism. HCM believes in making a socialist state through evolution not revolution, but in such an economically primitive state there is no other way of doing it.He also rejects the concept of collectivisation, adopting a more gradualist approach which is reminiscent of Mao in the 1950s. In 1955, all land of the landlords is seized and redistributed. But the system is not completely nationalised, and surplus can be sold privately, this encourages an increasing growth of the rice crop, because if you make something from what you grow then you’ll grow more. In 1954, 2.6 million tonnes of rice were grown, which is just about enough. By 1956, this has grown to 4.2 million tonnes. It is easy to see why today Vietnam is one of only 2 major rice exporting far eastern countries (along with Thailand). 50,000 landlords are also killed as people get a bit over excited about confiscating land.In 1958 he opts for collectivisation, but on a voluntary basis. By 1960, 80% of the peasants are in some kind of collective, but its not high tech or mechanised. Only 7% of the land is ploughed by tractor. The communists build the industry up from nothing. The French had limited it to the cities and to the South, and there are no big factories up in the North. Very basic family industries are the key businesses right up through the 60s. The war obviously means that industry cannot be built up. Some supplies do come from the USSR and China however. And yes, this country of peasants still managed to kick the US’s ass.

US AND THE WARJFK IN VIETNAMNo, not literally. In the 60s, the world is changing, and becoming a nasty and scary place for the US. In 59-60, Cuba goes communist, then the Berlin wall goes up in August 1961, then in October 1961 there is the Cuban missile crisis. JFK, who comes to power in 1961, is Mr Containment. He’s also young and inexperienced, and doesn’t want to look soft.

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His aim is to sure up the areas around Vietnam, particularly Laos and Cambodia. Up to 1960, $300,000,000 is poured into Laos. 85% of the country’s income is put into military expenditure, but the communists still win.In Vietnam, the initial involvment is not huge. Advisors and helicopters are sent in, and there is some strategic bombing. There is also a 4X expansion in military advisors, and a new US HQ is set up: the MACV ‘mobile assistance and command of Vietnam’. In general the US personel don’t venture far from the safe areas under JFK.He also oversaw the ‘safe villages policy’, which meant putting up fences around villages to keep the communists out. The problem is that peasants don’t really want to go into these, which starts the build up of anti-US feeling. There is also infiltration. Communists get in, seeing as most villages have a few communists anyway, and then once inside the safe villages they indoctrinate the people who are already turning anti-US thanks to all the upheaval. This growth of communism also really spooks the americans.

LBJ IN VIETNAMLBJ was in power 63-69, and oversaw most of the groundtroop deployment and also the growth of opposition in the US- ‘LBJ, how many kids did you kill today etc..’By 1965 there are 200,000 troops in Vietnam, but the US still isn’t seeing it as a Civil war. HCM has genuine control, and the people really do like him, but the US doesn’t recognise this fact. By the mid 60s, 40% of the Vietnamese villages are controlled by VCs, they don’t need to gain power through force, they can just take it bit by bit. His era is characterised by large scale bombing, which stopped briefly in 1968 as the peace talks began. His overall aim was to isolate the communists and then mop up the guerrillas.

RN IN VIETNAM69-74 involvement sees bombing as the key. The North gets the most, the South gets some, and it also occurs along the HCM trail, annoying the Cambodians and the Laosians. He introduces Vietnamisation, the process by which the South Vietnamese forces will be built up so that they can take over the fight once the US departs. PROTESTS: Really get going after 1968. In 1969 Nov, 200,000 march against the war in DC, and a demonstration at Kent State University in 1970 led to the death of 3 students who are shot by the national guard. By Jan 1973 there is a cease fire, and the US troops withdraw. The war ends in 1975 with a N Vietnamese victory.

THE KEY EVENTS OF THE WAR58-60 it is guerrilla warfare only. 62, US troops become involved, prior to this its just been advisors. 63, you start to get NVNM troops, not just guerrillas. -AUGUST 64 THE GULF OF TONKIN INCIDENT: US destroyers attack and destroy NVNM patrol boats, claiming that they’d been fired upon first. There is also intelligence gathering going on at this time. The Tonkin incident results in the Tonkin resolution, which gives LBJ more control over how the war is run, and also negates the need for a formal declaration of war against Vietnam.-OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER: Begins in 1965. Bombing includes the use of Agent Orange, which is nasty, but doesn’t really hinder the North Vietnamese. As for bombing, industrial and strategic targets receive the most heavy pounding, but this has little effect as the Chinese and USSR continue to supply weapons and equipment. They also bomb Hanoi whilst the USSR ambassador, Kosygin, is there. During the bombing campaign, half the bridges, and 2/3 of the power plants are destroyed. -OPERATION RANCH HAND: In the South, using defoliants and napalm. 20% of South Vietnam is affected by the bombing. 65-68 are the key years of escalation for the US. Increasingly, the South Vietnamese army is not really involved, and although VC and NVNM troop deaths go up, more just come in to replace them.

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-TET OFFENSIVE: Begins in Feb 68, as the VCs and NLF go all out against military targets in the South. There are two key objectives, to bring about revolution, and to put pressure on the US to withdraw. VCs have early success, although the things they take are usually quickly retaken. It showed the US that the war couldn’t really be won, as Walter Cronkike said on TV.-PEACE TALKS: Open in May 68, and last until 73 whilst fighting is still going on. In fact, more US troops die during this time than have during the whole war up to 68. Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho negotiate a cease fire in October 1972, which is then broken by the South Vietnamese leader Thieu, because the SVNM want the US to stay. RN eventually forces him to concede, and states that without a ceasefire the SVNM will not get any aid from the US. BTW HCM dies in 196923rd JAN 1973 PARIS PEACE AGREEMENT: US, DRV and RVN all sign. The terms are

-Vietnam will become one country-US will withdraw-POWs released-Free elections would be held-Council of national reconciliation established an interim gov’t-US would take troops out of Cambodia and Laos

After this, true civil war broke out between North and South, and in April 1975 Saigon falls to the DRV. In the next two years, both Cambodia and Laos go communist.

TROOPSVIETCONG VCs: Communist guerrillas who infiltrated the South by the Ho Chi Minh trail, and a series of tunnels etc. Once they are in the South they are village based (very few are actually the ‘tigers’ in the jungle, and try to win over the people. The political stuff is almost as important as the military strategy, and it is this dual priority which allows for effective conduct of the war. NORTH VIETNAMESE ARMY NVA: Are the other communist force. They are the regular army, who are not guerrillas, but are extremely professional, having fought the French, Japanese and the US. They are equipped with Soviet and Chinese weapons and in the late phase are the key to the war. At the Tet and Easter offensives they also played a major role. SOUTH VIETNAMESE ARMY ARVN: Had a reputation for corruption, nepotism and running away. This reputation was mostly pretty well deserved. They’re responsible for the turnaround in the Tet offensive, but do not really have the means to operate and effective and sustained campaign. They basically crumble post 1973 following the NVNM invasion and without the backing of the US and the air cover. They don’t have a good officer core or decent training, or any means of replacing any of the competent officers who are killed. They have been given aid by both the French and US, but have become used to relying on aid, so when it is withdrawn they’re a bit screwed. US: 3 million serve in total. As time goes by, but primarily after 1968, poor disclipile, morale and drug abuse are taking over. By 72 it really is all beginning to fall apart. Your average NCO does one year tour of duty, is 19, working class, unable to escape the draft, often black and often poorly educated. They’re only there for one year, so they learn nothing about the country, they’re alien to the terrain and the methods and don’t understand the culture or speak a word of the language. They’re mostly not involved in combat. Of the 3 million that went, 75% faced unfriendly fire, even if in support in Saigon as they get sniped at and booby trapped all the time. By 1971, 4X more are being treated for drug abuse than for wounds. Consequently, bombing and air cover was key. 1000 aircraft were shot down.THE COST: 150 bn dollars for the US, the highest KIA estimate is at 56,962 US troops, but some put it at around 47,000 between 60-73. The NVM lost around 1.1 million fighters and 2 million civilians between 45-75. Containment failed, as Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos all went communist. VNM infrastructure was completely wrecked, and the defoliants increased cancer and childbirth mutations.

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WHY DID THE US LOSE?-US troops only did 1 yr, they were inexperienced and not used to terrain-The S.Vietnamese hated them-The Safe villages policy was a complete failure-The VCs gained weapons-N Vietnam was supported by China and the USSR-N Vietnamese would never give up-Guerrillas were supported by the people-Guerrilla warfare could not be beat-Political pressure in US-Détente: 1970s, Nixon, despite being seen as a hardliner was starting the détente. There were more conversations and summits, and the Vietnam war was an obstacle for improving relations with the USSR and China. Hence SVNM could be sacrificed as the world scale was more important.

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